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China–Iran relations

January 31, 2023

China–Iran relations (Chinese: 中国–伊朗关系, Persian: روابط ایران و چین) are the economic, political, and social relations between China and Iran from the 1979 Iranian Revolution to the present. Official relations began in 1937. The two civilizations have had a history of cultural, political, and economic exchanges along the Silk Road since at least 200 BC, and possibly earlier. To this day, China and Iran have developed a friendly economic and strategic partnership.

China-Iranian relations

Iran
China
Chinese embassy in Tehran

In March 2021, Iran and China signed a 25-year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and that will include “political, strategic and economic” components.[1]

History

China-Persian relations (Chinese: 中国–波斯关系, Persian: [same as above]) refer to the historic diplomatic, cultural and economic relations between the cultures of China proper and Greater Iran, dating back to ancient times, since at least 200 B.C. The Parthians and Sassanid empires (occupying much of present Iran and Central Asia) had various contacts with the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties.

Han-Parthian era

 
The 138–126 BCE travels of Zhang Qian to the West, Mogao Caves, 618–712 CE mural.

The Han dynasty diplomat and explorer Zhang Qian, who visited neighboring Bactria and Sogdiana in 126 BCE, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named "Ānxí" (Chinese: 安息), a transliteration of "Arsacid", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, whose development he equates to those of Dayuan (in Ferghana) and Daxia (in Bactria).

"Anxi is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi (in Transoxonia). The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania)." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).[citation needed]

Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, the Han conquered Dayuan in the Han-Dayuan war and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions, thereby opening the Silk Road. Commercial relations between China, Central Asia, and Parthia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BCE:

"The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members… In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).[citation needed]

The Parthians were apparently very intent on maintaining good relations with China and also sent their own embassies, starting around 110 BC: "When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom… When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them… The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Parthians also played a role in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism from Central Asia to China. An Shih Kao, a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist missionary, went to the Chinese capital Luoyang in 148 CE where he established temples and became the first man to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. The Persianized kingdom of Kushan became the crossroads for Sino-Indian Buddhist transmissions, with many Iranians translating Sanskrit sutras into Chinese.[2]

Sasanian era

 
Persian ambassador at the Chinese court of Emperor Yuan of Liang in his capital Jingzhou in 526-539 CE, with explanatory text. Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang, 11th century Song copy.

Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanian Empire maintained active foreign relations with China; ambassadors from Persia frequently traveled to China; Chinese whose documents record the reception of thirteen Sassanian embassies. Commercially, land and sea trade with China was important to both the Sassanian and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanian coins have been found in southern China confirming the existence of bilateral maritime trade.[2]

On various occasions, Sassanian kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court. Both empires benefited from trade along the Silk Road, and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.

During the Liang dynasty in China, in 547 a Persian embassy paid tribute to the Liang, amber was recorded as originating from Persia by the Liang Shu (Book of Liang).[3]

There are records of several joint Sassanian and Chinese efforts against their common Hephtalite enemy. Following encroachments by the nomadic Turkic on states in Central Asia, an apparent collaboration between Chinese and Sassanian forces repelled the Turkic advances. Documents from Mount Mogh also note the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of Sogdiana at the time of the Arab incursion.

The last members of the Sassanian Empire's royal family fled to Tang China. Following the conquest of Iran by Muslim Arabs, Peroz III, the son of Yazdegerd III, escaped, along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court.[4] Both Peroz and his son Narsieh (Chinese neh-shie) were given high titles at the Tang court.[4] At least on two occasions, the last possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Peroz to help him against the Arabs restore him to the Sassanian throne, with mixed results. One possibly ended up in a short rule of Peroz in Sakastan (modern Sistan) from which a little numismatic evidence remains. Narsieh later attained the position of commander of the Chinese imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes.[4]

Tang and Islamic golden age

 
Tang sancai vase displaying Central Asian and Persian influence. 8-9th century. Guimet Museum.

After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia continued to flourish during the Islamic Golden Age, and its relations with China continued. In 751, the Abbasid Caliphate, which ruled Persia, was in dispute with the Tang dynasty of China over the control of the Syr Darya region during the Battle of Talas. The commander of the Abbasid army was Zayid ibn Salih, a Persian, and the commanders of the Tang army were Gao Xianzhi, a Goguryo Korean, alongside Li Siye and Duan Xiushi, both Chinese. After the Abbasids won the battle, relations improved, and there were no more conflicts between China and the Persians.

Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and polo were exported to the Tang.[2]

Mongol Yuan

A large number of Central Asian and Persian soldiers, experts, and artisans were recruited by the Mongol empire Yuan dynasty of China. Some of them, known as semu ("assorted officials") occupied important official posts in the Yuan state administration.[5] One of the most famous settlers from Persia was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who is identified as an ancestor of many Chinese Hui lineages and that of Yunnan's Panthay Hui population. His most famous descendant was Zheng He,[citation needed] who became the Ming dynasty's most famous explorer.

During the Mongol-Yuan period, Persian was the lingua franca of Central Asia, and many Persians and Central Asians migrated to China. There was a large Persian community in China, especially among Chinese Muslims, that Persian was one of the official languages of the Yuan dynasty, alongside Chinese and Mongolian.[6]

The Chinese Yuan and Persian Ilkhanate enjoyed close relations,[6] with nearly annual diplomatic exchanges between the two.[2]

In 1289 Kublai Khan established a Muslim university in Beijing. Persian works were translated en masse into Chinese, some of which are preserved today by the Peking University Library. Many tombstones and archaeological tablets found in China are also probably written in the Perso-Arabic script.[6]

China exported astronomical tools and discoveries, printing, paper money, sancai, porcelain to Persia. Porcelain particularly grew popular among Persians.[2]

Ming dynasty

 
Sassanid-era nobleman Mihransitad selects bride for the Persian king from five daughters of the Chinese emperor, 14th century miniature

The famous Maragheh observatory in Maragheh, Iran, is also known to have had some Chinese astronomers working there alongside Iranian astronomers, and some Iranian astronomical instruments were also being used by astronomers in China.[7] Safavid Iranian art was also partly influenced by Chinese art to an extent. Shah Abbas had hundreds of Chinese artisans in his capital Esfahan. Also, 300 Chinese potters produced glazed tile buildings, and hundreds of others produced metalwork, miniature paintings, calligraphy, glasswork, tile work, and pottery.[8][9] From E. Sykes's "Persia and Its People": "Early in the seventeenth century, Shah Abbas imported Chinese workmen into his country to teach his subjects the art of making porcelain, and the Chinese influence is very strong in the designs on this ware. Chinese marks are also copied, so that to scratch an article is sometimes the only means of proving it to be of Persian manufacture, for the Chinese glaze, hard as iron, will take no mark."[10][11]

Of the Chinese Lin family in Quanzhou, Lin Nu, the son of Lin Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. Lin Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Zhi.[12][13]

Notable Chinese Muslims who undertook the task of translation of Persian into Chinese include Chang Zhimei (medicine) and Liu Zhi. Although Persian was still spoken among some Muslim communities, due to decreased contact with the Middle East, language use declined.[6]

Ming navy general Zheng He came from a Muslim family and sailed through much of the Old World, including India, Persia, Arabia, and Africa. In his wake, he left many relics, including the Chinese-Persian-Tamil Galle Trilingual Inscription, praising the Buddha, Allah, and Vishnu respectively in the three languages.[14]

Qing dynasty

By the Qing, although hardly anyone in the court was fluent in Persian, in madrasas, Persian was still studied. In particular, the works of Sadi, Abd-Allāh Abū Bāker, Ḥosayn b. ʿĀlem Ḥosaynī, etc. were taught in said madrasas.[6]

Modern China

Diplomatic links between China and Iran have been maintained into the 20th and 21st centuries with the formation of both the People's Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Iran, in 1949 and 1979 respectively.

In July 2019, Iran approved visa-free travel for all Chinese citizens, including those in Hong Kong and Macau, with China being one of twelve countries to have direct visa-free access to Iran.[15]

In June 2020, Iran was one of 53 countries that backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations Human Rights Council.[16] The relationship between both countries include also soft-power[17] and digital diplomacy.[18]

In March 2021, the two countries signed a 25-year cooperation agreement.[19]

Economic

In fact after the JCPOA was signed in July 2015, China and Iran agreed to expand trade relations to $600 billion in ten years from January 2016, on the occasion when Chinese leader Xi Jinping paid Hassan Rouhani a state visit.[20] This constitutes an increase of over 1,000%.[21] The agreement was concordant with One Belt, One Road framework. A total of 17 agreements were signed, including one which relates to the Iranian nuclear program. The Chinese will help connect Tehran with Mashhad via their high-speed rail technology.[22]

Oil and gas

See also: Petroleum industry in Iran

One of the main pillars of the relationship is oil and gas. China switched to petroleum primarily to move its energy supply from coal. There was a rapid increase in oil importation from 1974 into the 1990s.[23] In 2011, approximately 10% of China's oil imports were from Iran.[24] Approximately 80% of China's total imports from Iran are oil and the rest is mineral and chemical products. Because of this reliance on Iranian oil and gas, China is now investing in the modernization of Iran's oil and gas sector to secure access to the resource.[25] The China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) was granted an $85 million contract to drill 19 wells in the natural gas fields in Southern Iran and signed another similar $13 million contract.[23] Then again in 2004, an agreement was reached where China would import 270 million tons of natural gas over 30 years from South Par fields which is the richest natural gas fields in the world for $70 billion. Another Chinese company, Sinopec Group, gets half-share in Yardarvaran oil fields worth about 100 billion for the purpose of exploration.[26] Later in 2007, CNPC signed a $3.6 billion deal to develop offshore gas fields in Iran and then signed another $2 billion contract to develop the northern Iranian oil field near Ahvaz.[25] Not only is China helping to develop the oil and gas sector, but China supports Iran's ambitions to bring Caspian Sea oil and gas to Southern Iranian ports through pipelines so the resources can be exported to Europe and Asia.[23] Iran relies upon its oil sales to China to ensure its fiscal well-being.[25] China also sells gasoline to Iran despite international pressures that have halted Iran's ability to get gasoline from other suppliers.[27]

China considers Iran a permanent partner for its exports and a source of its growing energy demand. In March 2004, Zhuhai Zhenrong Corporation, a Chinese state-run company, signed a 25-year contract to import 110 million metric tons of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) from Iran. This was followed by another contract between Sinopec and Iran LNG, signed in October of the same year. The deal, worth $100 billion, adds an extra 250 million tons of LNG to China's energy supply, to be extracted from Iran's Yadavaran field over a 25-year period. In January 2009, Iran and China signed a $1.76bn contract for the initial development of the North Azadegan oil field in western Iran. In March the two countries struck a three-year $3.39 billion deal to produce liquefied natural gas in Iran's mammoth South Pars natural gas field. Because of its limited refining capacity, Iran imports one-third of its refined products such as petrol from China.[28][29]

 
Empress Farah Pahlavi and Prime Minister Amir-Abbas Hoveyda during a state visit to China in 1972

In 2011, the group Green Experts of Iran reported that Beijing and Tehran had signed an extensive deal that would give China exclusive rights to several Iranian oil and natural gas fields through 2024. Under the terms of the deal, Iran will give Chinese oil companies exclusive rights to three large regions of Iranian land as well as the rights to build all necessary infrastructure for these regions, all of which sit atop of large oil and natural gas fields. In return, China promises to treat any foreign attack against these regions as attacks against its own sovereign territory, and will defend them as such. China will have no need for prior permission from the Iranian government to maintain and increase its military presence in Iran, and will control the movement of Iranians in and out of these territories.[30]

China has been Iran's crude oil sink since the JCPOA was signed.[21][31] In 2017, 64% of an export total $16.9 billion with China was crude oil.[32]

Trade

During the Cold War there were unofficial trade relations between Iran and China that have steadily increased over time. Trade reached $1.627 billion in the 1980s and $15 billion in 2007. In 2001, the volume of trade between Iran and China stood at roughly $3.3 billion,[33] and in 2005, the volume of China-Iranian trade hit $9.2 billion.[34] Iran's Deputy Minister of Commerce Mehdi Ghazanfari speculated that trade exchanges between Iran and China would exceed $25 billion in 2008.[35]

In 2005, exports from China represented 8.3% of the total import market in Iran, giving China the second largest share of the market after Germany. China's exports to Iran have experienced particularly rapid growth in the past five years, with China replacing Japan as the world's second largest exporter to Iran. Iran's imports from China rose by 360% between 2000 and 2005.[36] China is now responsible for about 9.5% of all Iranian imports. In 1988, the Iranian market opened up to Chinese industry when the PRC began economic restructuring.[23]

Once profitable trade relations were established, the PRC invested in Tehran's subway systems, dams, fishery, and cement factories while Iran helped supply China with the highly desired minerals coal, zinc, lead, and copper.[23][26] Trade between the two states also included power generation, mining, and transportation equipment along with arms and consumer goods such as electronics, auto parts, and toys.[27] Iran is full of Chinese products and cars.[37]

Iran–China trade value reached $45 billion in 2011 and was expected to increase to $50 billion by 2012.[38]

Ali Akbar Salehi, Iran's former representative to the International Atomic Energy Agency, said that the two countries "mutually complement each other. They have industry and we have energy resources".[39]

In January 2023, The Overseeing Chief of the Chabahar Free Zone Organization Amir Moghaddam reported that the primary holder dispatch leaving from China docked at Iran's key harbor of Chabahar, marking the foundation of the direct coordinate shipping line between China and Iran's southeastern seaport. He said that Chinese ships already emptied in Bandar Abbas, the capital city of the southern area of Hormuzgan, with their cargos at that point being exchanged to Chabahar in Sistan-Baluchistan Territory by means of little ships. With the foundation of the coordinated shipping line between China and Chabahar, cargos are conveyed ten days prior, whereas fetched of stacking and emptying is decreased by 400 dollars per holder, the official clarified.[40]

Infrastructure

Line 5 of the Tehran metro began operating in 1999 and was Iran's first metro system. The line was constructed by the Chinese company NORINCO.[41]

New Silk Road

Main article: Belt and Road Initiative
 
Countries which signed cooperation documents related to the Belt and Road Initiative

As of 2019, Iran has signed onto Chinese leader Xi Jinping's signature One Belt One Road plan,[42] and Iran is considered to be a key part of China's geopolitical ambitions in central Asia and the Middle East, sometimes described in terms of a new Great Game.[43]

While cargoes are usually shipped between China and Iran by ship, it is also possible to travel between the two countries by train, via Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan (see Eurasian Land Bridge). In 2016, a first direct container train between Yiwu (Zhejiang Province) and Teheran made its way across Asia in 14 days. This is supposed to be the beginning of regular container train service along this route.[44]

Iranians and Chinese are currently renovating rails to connect Ürümqi to Tehran as well as connect Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan (also see Five-nations railway, Afghanistan–China relations). In another 2016 test run, it took 12 days to deliver freight from Shanghai to Tehran, whereas it would have taken 30 days by sea.[37]

In May 2018, China planned to build a new freight train line with Iran.[45] In 2020, a leaked document showed that a 25-year strategic partnership would be implemented between the two countries, in which China would invest in Iranian infrastructure, transport and seaports, in exchange, Iran would provide a heavily discounted regular supply of its oil.[46][47][48] Above all the reasons for the timing of this agreement is the rivalry between the US, the main opponent to Iran, and China, the main supporter to Iran, plays the major role in taking the step of signing the agreement.[49]

Political

Now there exists open mutual support as seen in Iran's support of the action at Tiananmen Square and Chinese condemnation of the United States' attack on an Iranian passenger plane, among other things.[23]

 
20 April 2002, Chinese leader Jiang Zemin and Iranian President Mohammad Khatami, an official Visitation.

Military

China is believed to have helped Iran militarily in the following areas: conducting training of high-level officials on advanced systems, providing technical support, supplying specialty steel for missile construction, providing control technology for missile development, and building a missile factory and test range. It is rumored that China is responsible for aiding in the development of advanced conventional weapons including surface-to-air missiles, combat aircraft, radar systems, and fast-attack missile vessels.[25]

It was not until the 1990s that the relationship between China and Iran came under close scrutiny by the United States. From this scrutiny, it became known that China was using North Korea to traffic arms during the Iran-Iraq war to avoid antagonizing the West but later cut out the middle man. In the years of 1984–1986, about $1–2 billion worth of arms sales occurred.[50] And then in 1986, Iran obtained Chinese-made anti-ship surface-to-surface missiles that posed a threat to Persian Gulf shipping.[25] In possessing these missiles, Iran is able to control the Strait of Hormuz and all of the naval trade to and from the Gulf countries.[50]

In later inquiries, it was discovered that China sold Iran precursor and dual-use chemicals and the technology and equipment needed to use them.[25] In 1996, the Washington Post reported that China was supplying chemical weapons plants in Iran that were destined for the Army. Arms exports began to steadily decline in the 1990s yet China engaged in $400 million worth of arms transfer agreements with Iran. Sales increased to $600 million from 1997 to 2000. On average, it is estimated that China made $171 million per year in arms exports to Iran since 1982.[51]

China and Iran held their first joint naval drill in 2017.[52]

Since coming to office, Iran's President Ebrahim Raisi in 2021, has pursued a "look east" policy to deepen ties with China and Russia. Tehran joined the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation in September 2021. In January 2022 Iran, China and Russia held their third joint naval drills in the northern Indian Ocean.[53] The three countries started joint naval drills in 2019 in the Indian Ocean and the Sea of Oman area.[53] The purpose of this drill is to strengthen security and its foundations in the region, and to expand multilateral cooperation between the three countries to jointly support world peace, maritime security and create a maritime community with a common future.[53]

Nuclear technology

Nuclear cooperation began in the 1980s when China helped build a research reactor and supply four other research reactors. Continued aid came in the form of helping Iran construct a uranium hexafluoride enrichment plant near Isfahan and the resumption of construction on a nuclear power plant at Bushehr that was left uncompleted by the French and Germans. In 1991, nuclear exports to Iran were discovered by the International Atomic Energy Association, which contained three types of uranium. A 1990 covert nuclear agreement was also discovered.[51] This discovery was followed by an unprecedented nuclear cooperation agreement in 1992. The agreement was signed despite U.S. protests to have China limit its nuclear cooperation with Iran.[54]

Direct nuclear cooperation has ended but there is speculation over whether there remains indirect nuclear cooperation.[51] For example, in 2005 seven Chinese firms were suspected of selling nuclear weapons technology and all 7 had sanctions placed upon them. Those firms were banned from trading with the United States for two years.[55] There also continues to be Chinese nuclear experts, scientists, and technicians present in Iran.[51]

In 2015 China was part of the Iran nuclear deal framework. Now, China opposes Iran's possible production and possession of nuclear weapons but does not see the urgency to stop it.[25]

16 Nov 2021 United States President Joe Biden and Chinese President Xi Jinping talked about their positions in the resumption of negotiations with Iran on reviving the 2015 nuclear deal. While China favours reviving the agreement, it has tended to place the onus on the United States and blames Washington for having abandoned it.[56]

UN sanctions

At first Iran did not originally support China's bid for United Nations membership but did not veto. It wasn't until 1969 that Iran displayed open support for China's membership.[23] Now, Iran relies on China's membership and especially Chinese veto power on the Security Council to protect it from US-led sanctions.[26]

China is known for its preference of diplomacy over sanctions. This tradition includes China's (along with Russia's) opposition to UN sanctions against Iran.[25] In 1980, China refused to support the UN arms embargo against Iran and further abstained from voting on US sanctions against Iran.[23]

Only in 2010 under US pressure, did China join Russia[25][57] to support the UN sanctions on Iran.[27][58]

In 2018 the US ordered Canada to arrest and detain Meng Wanzhou, CFO of Huawei, for 'illegally dealing with' and allegedly violating sanctions against Iran.[59]

Politics and ideology

 
Chinese leader Hua Guofeng with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi during a state visit in Iran, 1978[60]

On 1 June 1920, a friendship agreement was signed between the Beiyang government and Qajar Persia. Ratifications were exchanged on 6 February 1922, with effect on the same day.[61] Official diplomatic relations were established in 1937 with Li Tieh-tseng served as ambassador representing the Republic of China. Prior to 1971, an unofficial relationship existed out of necessity. From this emerged the current relationship. The first Iranian embassy was formed in December 1973 and Abbas Aram was appointed to the post, becoming the first Iranian diplomat to serve in China though the first embassy opened in 1942.[62] The Shah visited Taiwan to meet the President of China Chiang Kai-shek in 1958. In 1971, Imperial Iran supported Red China's bid for a permanent seat in the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 and it voted in favour to admit Beijing and replace Taipei. China was invited to 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire. Iran recognized the People's Republic of China in 1971 with Chinese Communist Party chairman and Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng was one of the last foreign leaders to visit the Shah of Iran, before he was overthrown in 1979.[39] In the 1980s, the shared ideological themes of anti-imperialism and third world solidarity helped solidify the relationship but they became allies as a way to counterbalance the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War. When the USSR signed the Soviet-Indian friendship treaty, the relationship became a way to counter increasing Russian influence in the Persian Gulf. But there remained some distance between Mao's regime and that of the Shah because of ideology. The Shah was friendly towards the United States and Mao was a communist. The Shah also feared that the relationship could rally his communist opposition. Once the Shah was overthrown during the Islamic Revolution, China quickly recognized the new government on 14 February 1979.[62] China was put into a difficult situation during the Iran–Iraq War in 1980 since China was allied with both nations. China was able to remain outside of the conflict and push for a peaceful resolution to the conflict.[23]

Since Iran no longer recognizes the ROC, now residing in Taiwan, its representation is held by the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Riyadh.

China has been at times careful in its deals with Iran while simultaneously trying not to antagonize China's relationship with the U.S. as well as its growing relations with Israel.[27] The China's approach toward the Israel-Iran conflict is to put economics ahead of political, ideological or humanitarian interests and sympathies, and it seems it is working well, and China found the balace how to work well with the 2 enemies.[63]

The cooperation emerges partly from Chinese and Iranian recognition as fellow heirs to great civilizations and because Iran has emerged as the regional leader in the Middle East. While there is also a shared distrust of the United States' government and its interests, many young Chinese and Iranians at the same time admire certain aspects of American society and culture. There is also Iranian admiration for China's rapid economic growth, and for the most part, their economic contributions to Iran are appreciated and respected.[27]

Some analysts argue that Iran can use its links with China to build more links across Asia while remaining insulated from potential U.S. attack.[26]

Beijing has generally supported the Iran-backed government of Bashar al-Assad in Syria, joining Russia in vetoing several U.N. resolutions condemning Assad's actions in the Syrian civil war, and strongly opposing Western interference in the conflict, arguing that outside intervention would further worsen and complicate the situation. It has also allegedly been increasing military links with Syria in recent years, albeit in a more limited sense than Moscow, partly because of the presence of Uighur militant rebels on the side of the Syrian rebels.[64]

In April 2015, China stated that Iran had been officially accepted as a founding member of its newly founded Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, with the latter owning 15,808 shares.[65] There has also been recent discussion for Iran to eventually join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, of which it is currently an observer state, as a full member.

In 2016, Chinese leader Xi Jinping announced his support for Iran's full membership in SCO during a state visit to Iran.[66]

In July 2019, UN ambassadors from 50 countries, including Iran, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region.[67][68]

In January 2020, China condemned the assassination of Qasem Soleimani, with the Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi alleging that the targeted killing of an Iranian general in Iraqi territory by the United States was in violation of international law.[69]

In June 2020, Iran was one of 53 countries that backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations.[70]

In late 2022, Iranian Foreign Minister Hossein Amir-Abdollahian was reacting to a joint statement issued by China and states of the Gulf Cooperation Council, which called for peaceful resolution of the islands dispute with the United Arab Emirates.[71] Iran conveyed its “strong discontent” with the GCC-China statement, China later expressed respect for Iran's territorial integrity.[72]

Social

There are several historic social connections between the two states. Although the two societies psychologically identify with one another because they both share the national pride and historical identity that comes along with being the descendants of two great empires and modern successor-states to ancient civilizations, there was limited interaction after the Chinese Revolution in 1949, social interactions improved after the 1960s.[23] Anti-Chinese sentiments in Iran increasing due to China's economic activity and social differences between the two countries.[73]

Ali Motahari[74] and Former President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad[75] expresses concern over China's persecution of Uyghur Muslims.[76]

Even Chinese state-ran news agencies upheld the validity of the internationally controversial election[specify] and ultimately attributed any problems that day to terrorists and vandals. They deliberately left out images of Iranian security forces brutalizing the protesters.[25]

About 2,000 Chinese now live in Tehran, and 70 Chinese companies have relocated to Iran.[26]

Intermarriage

See also: Chinese people in Iran and Iranians in China

Iran and China have a long history of intermarriages, since at least the Tang and mostly taking place in China (so names are in Chinese). Immigrant communities of Persian Muslims in China intermarried with local women, forming what is now the modern Hui people. At the same time, Persian women also intermarried with Chinese men: see Lin Nu, Liu Chang (Southern Han), Wang Zongyan (married Li Shunxian). Mixed descendants include Li Zhi (philosopher), Hu Dahai.

Cultural

Recently, Tehran has experienced the introduction of Chinese restaurants into cultural life.[26] In popular culture the Chinese have turned their focus towards Iran in the fields of literature, television and cultural events. These bear witness to China's attempts to create a positive image in order to uphold existing relations and to nurture projected ones. The soft power pipelines,[77] too, that the Iranians have exerted towards China has been received with open arms.,[78] In addition, China opened the Confucius institute at University of Tehran and at the University of Mazandaran.[79]

Literature and arts

Li Shunxian is a Persian-Chinese woman who wrote celebrated Chinese poetry during the Tang dynasty.

Ha Dechen and Wang Jingzhai helped translate Persian literature into Chinese. Sadi's works are particularly well-known and have been broadcast on Chinese media.[6]

Linguistics

Loanwords

Mainly through Silk Road trade, Chinese borrowed Middle Persian words for exotic commodities. Oddly, these loanwords are typically themselves loans from a pre-Iranian substrate, e.g. Elamite or BMAC:[80][81][82]

Chinese loanwords from Persian
Term Chinese Pinyin Persian equivalent Etymologies
lion 獅/狮 shī شیر šīr
alfalfa 苜蓿 mù-xū buksuk MChin mḭuk-sḭuk
grape 葡萄/蒲桃 pú táo باده bāde 'wine, must' < MPers bādag MChin buo-dâu < LHan Chin bɑ-dɑu < Bactrian *bādāwa
pomegranate (安)石榴 (ān) shí líu آرتساخ arsak MChin .ân-źḭäk-lḭəu (< -lḭog) < *anārak; cf. Sogdian n’r’kh (nāraka)
amber 琥珀 hǔpò کهربا kahrobā < MPers kah-rubāy MChin xuoB-pʰɐk, or rather from southwestern Asiatic *χarupah
wolfberry 枸杞 gǒuqǐ گوجه gojeh 'plum, greengage'
suona 嗩吶 suǒnà سورنا sornāy
sweet almond 巴旦木 badanmù بادام baadaam
cup 盞/盏 zhǎn جام jam Though likely related, it is unknown which one was derived from the other.

Huihuihua is a dialect of Chinese with more Persian and Arabic words.[6]

Galle stele

Main article: Galle Trilingual Inscription

The Chinese-Persian-Tamil stele is associated with the voyages of Zheng He.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Iran-China to sign 25-year cooperation pact: Tehran". Arab News. 27 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
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Further reading


  • Cardenal, Juan Pablo; Araújo, Heriberto (2011). La silenciosa conquista china (in Spanish). Barcelona: Crítica. pp. 70–79, 140–144. ISBN 9788498922578.
  • Dillon, Michael (1999), China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3
  • Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1997), Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China, University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-962-209-468-0
  • http://www.iranian.com/main/2010/aug/china-and-iran- Article by Nabil Rastani
  • Garver, John W. China And Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-imperial World. University of Washington Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-295-98631-9
  • "Persian language in Xinjiang" (زبان فارسی در سین کیانگ). Zamir Sa'dollah Zadeh (دکتر ضمیر سعدالله زاد ه). Nameh-i Iran (نامه ایران) V.1. Editor: Hamid Yazdan Parast (حمید یزدان پرست). ISBN 978-964-423-572-6 Perry–Castañeda Library collection under DS 266 N336 2005.
  • John Keefer Douglas, Matthew B. Nelson, and Kevin Schwartz; "Fueling the Dragon's Flame: How China's Energy Demands Affect its Relationships in the Middle East." United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission, October 2006.
  • Yellinek, Roie, ET AL, "China’s Soft Power in China-Iran Relations", The Journal for Interdisciplinary Middle Eastern Studies, DOI: 10.26351/JIMES/4/7.[2]
  • Yellinek, Roie, A Reappraisal of China-Iran Ties After US JCPOA Withdrawal, Publication: China Brief Volume: 18 Issue: 14.
  • Yellinek, Roie, "Soft Power and SPPD in China Iran Relationship", Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, DOI: 10.1080/19448953.2022.2037959.

External links

  • Chinese of Arab and Persian descent

Historical

  • China and Iran | Iranian.com- Article by Nabil Rastani
  • "Iran in Central Asia"
  • The Sassanids in China
  • Chinese-Iranian relations
  • Chinese-Iranian relations i. In Pre-Islamic Times
  • THE LAST SassanianS IN CHINA
  • For more on Iranian-Chinese relations in history see Encyclopædia Iranica p. 424–460.

Modern

  • "Iran's New Alliance With China Could Cost U.S. Leverage". By Robin Wright, Washington Post Staff Writer, Wednesday, 17 November 2004; Page A21
  • Chinese Arms Transfers to Iran
  • Photos of Jiang Zemin at Persepolis

January 31, 2023
china, iran, relations, this, article, tone, style, reflect, encyclopedic, tone, used, wikipedia, wikipedia, guide, writing, better, articles, suggestions, november, 2022, learn, when, remove, this, template, message, chinese, 中国, 伊朗关系, persian, روابط, ایران, . This article s tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia See Wikipedia s guide to writing better articles for suggestions November 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message China Iran relations Chinese 中国 伊朗关系 Persian روابط ایران و چین are the economic political and social relations between China and Iran from the 1979 Iranian Revolution to the present Official relations began in 1937 The two civilizations have had a history of cultural political and economic exchanges along the Silk Road since at least 200 BC and possibly earlier To this day China and Iran have developed a friendly economic and strategic partnership China Iranian relationsIran ChinaChinese embassy in Tehran In March 2021 Iran and China signed a 25 year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and that will include political strategic and economic components 1 Contents 1 History 1 1 Han Parthian era 1 2 Sasanian era 1 3 Tang and Islamic golden age 1 4 Mongol Yuan 1 5 Ming dynasty 1 6 Qing dynasty 1 7 Modern China 2 Economic 2 1 Oil and gas 2 2 Trade 2 3 Infrastructure 2 4 New Silk Road 3 Political 3 1 Military 3 2 Nuclear technology 3 3 UN sanctions 3 4 Politics and ideology 4 Social 4 1 Intermarriage 5 Cultural 5 1 Literature and arts 5 2 Linguistics 5 2 1 Loanwords 5 2 2 Galle stele 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links 9 1 Historical 9 2 ModernHistory EditChina Persian relations Chinese 中国 波斯关系 Persian same as above refer to the historic diplomatic cultural and economic relations between the cultures of China proper and Greater Iran dating back to ancient times since at least 200 B C The Parthians and Sassanid empires occupying much of present Iran and Central Asia had various contacts with the Han Tang Song Yuan and Ming dynasties Han Parthian era Edit The 138 126 BCE travels of Zhang Qian to the West Mogao Caves 618 712 CE mural The Han dynasty diplomat and explorer Zhang Qian who visited neighboring Bactria and Sogdiana in 126 BCE made the first known Chinese report on Parthia In his accounts Parthia is named Anxi Chinese 安息 a transliteration of Arsacid the name of the Parthian dynasty Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization whose development he equates to those of Dayuan in Ferghana and Daxia in Bactria Anxi is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi in Transoxonia The people are settled on the land cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat They also make wine out of grapes They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan Ferghana the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king When the king dies the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather To the west lies Tiaozi Mesopotamia and to the north Yancai and Lixuan Hyrcania Shiji 123 Zhang Qian quote trans Burton Watson citation needed Following Zhang Qian s embassy and report the Han conquered Dayuan in the Han Dayuan war and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions thereby opening the Silk Road Commercial relations between China Central Asia and Parthia flourished as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BCE The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons while even the smaller parties included over 100 members In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out Shiji trans Burton Watson citation needed The Parthians were apparently very intent on maintaining good relations with China and also sent their own embassies starting around 110 BC When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi Parthia the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20 000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom When the Han envoys set out again to return to China the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them The emperor was delighted at this Shiji 123 trans Burton Watson Parthians also played a role in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism from Central Asia to China An Shih Kao a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist missionary went to the Chinese capital Luoyang in 148 CE where he established temples and became the first man to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese The Persianized kingdom of Kushan became the crossroads for Sino Indian Buddhist transmissions with many Iranians translating Sanskrit sutras into Chinese 2 Sasanian era Edit Persian ambassador at the Chinese court of Emperor Yuan of Liang in his capital Jingzhou in 526 539 CE with explanatory text Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang 11th century Song copy Like their predecessors the Parthians the Sassanian Empire maintained active foreign relations with China ambassadors from Persia frequently traveled to China Chinese whose documents record the reception of thirteen Sassanian embassies Commercially land and sea trade with China was important to both the Sassanian and Chinese Empires Large numbers of Sassanian coins have been found in southern China confirming the existence of bilateral maritime trade 2 On various occasions Sassanian kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court Both empires benefited from trade along the Silk Road and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits During the Liang dynasty in China in 547 a Persian embassy paid tribute to the Liang amber was recorded as originating from Persia by the Liang Shu Book of Liang 3 There are records of several joint Sassanian and Chinese efforts against their common Hephtalite enemy Following encroachments by the nomadic Turkic on states in Central Asia an apparent collaboration between Chinese and Sassanian forces repelled the Turkic advances Documents from Mount Mogh also note the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of Sogdiana at the time of the Arab incursion The last members of the Sassanian Empire s royal family fled to Tang China Following the conquest of Iran by Muslim Arabs Peroz III the son of Yazdegerd III escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court 4 Both Peroz and his son Narsieh Chinese neh shie were given high titles at the Tang court 4 At least on two occasions the last possibly in 670 Chinese troops were sent with Peroz to help him against the Arabs restore him to the Sassanian throne with mixed results One possibly ended up in a short rule of Peroz in Sakastan modern Sistan from which a little numismatic evidence remains Narsieh later attained the position of commander of the Chinese imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes 4 Tang and Islamic golden age Edit Tang sancai vase displaying Central Asian and Persian influence 8 9th century Guimet Museum After the Islamic conquest of Persia Persia continued to flourish during the Islamic Golden Age and its relations with China continued In 751 the Abbasid Caliphate which ruled Persia was in dispute with the Tang dynasty of China over the control of the Syr Darya region during the Battle of Talas The commander of the Abbasid army was Zayid ibn Salih a Persian and the commanders of the Tang army were Gao Xianzhi a Goguryo Korean alongside Li Siye and Duan Xiushi both Chinese After the Abbasids won the battle relations improved and there were no more conflicts between China and the Persians Zoroastrianism Manichaeism and polo were exported to the Tang 2 Mongol Yuan Edit A large number of Central Asian and Persian soldiers experts and artisans were recruited by the Mongol empire Yuan dynasty of China Some of them known as semu assorted officials occupied important official posts in the Yuan state administration 5 One of the most famous settlers from Persia was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al Din Omar who is identified as an ancestor of many Chinese Hui lineages and that of Yunnan s Panthay Hui population His most famous descendant was Zheng He citation needed who became the Ming dynasty s most famous explorer During the Mongol Yuan period Persian was the lingua franca of Central Asia and many Persians and Central Asians migrated to China There was a large Persian community in China especially among Chinese Muslims that Persian was one of the official languages of the Yuan dynasty alongside Chinese and Mongolian 6 The Chinese Yuan and Persian Ilkhanate enjoyed close relations 6 with nearly annual diplomatic exchanges between the two 2 In 1289 Kublai Khan established a Muslim university in Beijing Persian works were translated en masse into Chinese some of which are preserved today by the Peking University Library Many tombstones and archaeological tablets found in China are also probably written in the Perso Arabic script 6 China exported astronomical tools and discoveries printing paper money sancai porcelain to Persia Porcelain particularly grew popular among Persians 2 Ming dynasty Edit Sassanid era nobleman Mihransitad selects bride for the Persian king from five daughters of the Chinese emperor 14th century miniature The famous Maragheh observatory in Maragheh Iran is also known to have had some Chinese astronomers working there alongside Iranian astronomers and some Iranian astronomical instruments were also being used by astronomers in China 7 Safavid Iranian art was also partly influenced by Chinese art to an extent Shah Abbas had hundreds of Chinese artisans in his capital Esfahan Also 300 Chinese potters produced glazed tile buildings and hundreds of others produced metalwork miniature paintings calligraphy glasswork tile work and pottery 8 9 From E Sykes s Persia and Its People Early in the seventeenth century Shah Abbas imported Chinese workmen into his country to teach his subjects the art of making porcelain and the Chinese influence is very strong in the designs on this ware Chinese marks are also copied so that to scratch an article is sometimes the only means of proving it to be of Persian manufacture for the Chinese glaze hard as iron will take no mark 10 11 Of the Chinese Lin family in Quanzhou Lin Nu the son of Lin Lu visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376 married a Persian or an Arab girl and brought her back to Quanzhou Lin Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Zhi 12 13 Notable Chinese Muslims who undertook the task of translation of Persian into Chinese include Chang Zhimei medicine and Liu Zhi Although Persian was still spoken among some Muslim communities due to decreased contact with the Middle East language use declined 6 Ming navy general Zheng He came from a Muslim family and sailed through much of the Old World including India Persia Arabia and Africa In his wake he left many relics including the Chinese Persian Tamil Galle Trilingual Inscription praising the Buddha Allah and Vishnu respectively in the three languages 14 Qing dynasty Edit By the Qing although hardly anyone in the court was fluent in Persian in madrasas Persian was still studied In particular the works of Sadi Abd Allah Abu Baker Ḥosayn b ʿAlem Ḥosayni etc were taught in said madrasas 6 Modern China Edit Diplomatic links between China and Iran have been maintained into the 20th and 21st centuries with the formation of both the People s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1949 and 1979 respectively In July 2019 Iran approved visa free travel for all Chinese citizens including those in Hong Kong and Macau with China being one of twelve countries to have direct visa free access to Iran 15 In June 2020 Iran was one of 53 countries that backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations Human Rights Council 16 The relationship between both countries include also soft power 17 and digital diplomacy 18 In March 2021 the two countries signed a 25 year cooperation agreement 19 Economic EditIn fact after the JCPOA was signed in July 2015 China and Iran agreed to expand trade relations to 600 billion in ten years from January 2016 on the occasion when Chinese leader Xi Jinping paid Hassan Rouhani a state visit 20 This constitutes an increase of over 1 000 21 The agreement was concordant with One Belt One Road framework A total of 17 agreements were signed including one which relates to the Iranian nuclear program The Chinese will help connect Tehran with Mashhad via their high speed rail technology 22 Oil and gas Edit See also Petroleum industry in Iran One of the main pillars of the relationship is oil and gas China switched to petroleum primarily to move its energy supply from coal There was a rapid increase in oil importation from 1974 into the 1990s 23 In 2011 approximately 10 of China s oil imports were from Iran 24 Approximately 80 of China s total imports from Iran are oil and the rest is mineral and chemical products Because of this reliance on Iranian oil and gas China is now investing in the modernization of Iran s oil and gas sector to secure access to the resource 25 The China National Petroleum Corporation CNPC was granted an 85 million contract to drill 19 wells in the natural gas fields in Southern Iran and signed another similar 13 million contract 23 Then again in 2004 an agreement was reached where China would import 270 million tons of natural gas over 30 years from South Par fields which is the richest natural gas fields in the world for 70 billion Another Chinese company Sinopec Group gets half share in Yardarvaran oil fields worth about 100 billion for the purpose of exploration 26 Later in 2007 CNPC signed a 3 6 billion deal to develop offshore gas fields in Iran and then signed another 2 billion contract to develop the northern Iranian oil field near Ahvaz 25 Not only is China helping to develop the oil and gas sector but China supports Iran s ambitions to bring Caspian Sea oil and gas to Southern Iranian ports through pipelines so the resources can be exported to Europe and Asia 23 Iran relies upon its oil sales to China to ensure its fiscal well being 25 China also sells gasoline to Iran despite international pressures that have halted Iran s ability to get gasoline from other suppliers 27 China considers Iran a permanent partner for its exports and a source of its growing energy demand In March 2004 Zhuhai Zhenrong Corporation a Chinese state run company signed a 25 year contract to import 110 million metric tons of Liquefied Natural Gas LNG from Iran This was followed by another contract between Sinopec and Iran LNG signed in October of the same year The deal worth 100 billion adds an extra 250 million tons of LNG to China s energy supply to be extracted from Iran s Yadavaran field over a 25 year period In January 2009 Iran and China signed a 1 76bn contract for the initial development of the North Azadegan oil field in western Iran In March the two countries struck a three year 3 39 billion deal to produce liquefied natural gas in Iran s mammoth South Pars natural gas field Because of its limited refining capacity Iran imports one third of its refined products such as petrol from China 28 29 Empress Farah Pahlavi and Prime Minister Amir Abbas Hoveyda during a state visit to China in 1972 In 2011 the group Green Experts of Iran reported that Beijing and Tehran had signed an extensive deal that would give China exclusive rights to several Iranian oil and natural gas fields through 2024 Under the terms of the deal Iran will give Chinese oil companies exclusive rights to three large regions of Iranian land as well as the rights to build all necessary infrastructure for these regions all of which sit atop of large oil and natural gas fields In return China promises to treat any foreign attack against these regions as attacks against its own sovereign territory and will defend them as such China will have no need for prior permission from the Iranian government to maintain and increase its military presence in Iran and will control the movement of Iranians in and out of these territories 30 China has been Iran s crude oil sink since the JCPOA was signed 21 31 In 2017 64 of an export total 16 9 billion with China was crude oil 32 Trade Edit During the Cold War there were unofficial trade relations between Iran and China that have steadily increased over time Trade reached 1 627 billion in the 1980s and 15 billion in 2007 In 2001 the volume of trade between Iran and China stood at roughly 3 3 billion 33 and in 2005 the volume of China Iranian trade hit 9 2 billion 34 Iran s Deputy Minister of Commerce Mehdi Ghazanfari speculated that trade exchanges between Iran and China would exceed 25 billion in 2008 35 In 2005 exports from China represented 8 3 of the total import market in Iran giving China the second largest share of the market after Germany China s exports to Iran have experienced particularly rapid growth in the past five years with China replacing Japan as the world s second largest exporter to Iran Iran s imports from China rose by 360 between 2000 and 2005 36 China is now responsible for about 9 5 of all Iranian imports In 1988 the Iranian market opened up to Chinese industry when the PRC began economic restructuring 23 Once profitable trade relations were established the PRC invested in Tehran s subway systems dams fishery and cement factories while Iran helped supply China with the highly desired minerals coal zinc lead and copper 23 26 Trade between the two states also included power generation mining and transportation equipment along with arms and consumer goods such as electronics auto parts and toys 27 Iran is full of Chinese products and cars 37 Iran China trade value reached 45 billion in 2011 and was expected to increase to 50 billion by 2012 38 Ali Akbar Salehi Iran s former representative to the International Atomic Energy Agency said that the two countries mutually complement each other They have industry and we have energy resources 39 In January 2023 The Overseeing Chief of the Chabahar Free Zone Organization Amir Moghaddam reported that the primary holder dispatch leaving from China docked at Iran s key harbor of Chabahar marking the foundation of the direct coordinate shipping line between China and Iran s southeastern seaport He said that Chinese ships already emptied in Bandar Abbas the capital city of the southern area of Hormuzgan with their cargos at that point being exchanged to Chabahar in Sistan Baluchistan Territory by means of little ships With the foundation of the coordinated shipping line between China and Chabahar cargos are conveyed ten days prior whereas fetched of stacking and emptying is decreased by 400 dollars per holder the official clarified 40 Infrastructure Edit Line 5 of the Tehran metro began operating in 1999 and was Iran s first metro system The line was constructed by the Chinese company NORINCO 41 New Silk Road Edit Main article Belt and Road Initiative Countries which signed cooperation documents related to the Belt and Road Initiative As of 2019 Iran has signed onto Chinese leader Xi Jinping s signature One Belt One Road plan 42 and Iran is considered to be a key part of China s geopolitical ambitions in central Asia and the Middle East sometimes described in terms of a new Great Game 43 While cargoes are usually shipped between China and Iran by ship it is also possible to travel between the two countries by train via Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan see Eurasian Land Bridge In 2016 a first direct container train between Yiwu Zhejiang Province and Teheran made its way across Asia in 14 days This is supposed to be the beginning of regular container train service along this route 44 Iranians and Chinese are currently renovating rails to connect Urumqi to Tehran as well as connect Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan also see Five nations railway Afghanistan China relations In another 2016 test run it took 12 days to deliver freight from Shanghai to Tehran whereas it would have taken 30 days by sea 37 In May 2018 China planned to build a new freight train line with Iran 45 In 2020 a leaked document showed that a 25 year strategic partnership would be implemented between the two countries in which China would invest in Iranian infrastructure transport and seaports in exchange Iran would provide a heavily discounted regular supply of its oil 46 47 48 Above all the reasons for the timing of this agreement is the rivalry between the US the main opponent to Iran and China the main supporter to Iran plays the major role in taking the step of signing the agreement 49 Political EditNow there exists open mutual support as seen in Iran s support of the action at Tiananmen Square and Chinese condemnation of the United States attack on an Iranian passenger plane among other things 23 20 April 2002 Chinese leader Jiang Zemin and Iranian President Mohammad Khatami an official Visitation Chinese Paramount leader Xi Jinping and Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei Military Edit China is believed to have helped Iran militarily in the following areas conducting training of high level officials on advanced systems providing technical support supplying specialty steel for missile construction providing control technology for missile development and building a missile factory and test range It is rumored that China is responsible for aiding in the development of advanced conventional weapons including surface to air missiles combat aircraft radar systems and fast attack missile vessels 25 It was not until the 1990s that the relationship between China and Iran came under close scrutiny by the United States From this scrutiny it became known that China was using North Korea to traffic arms during the Iran Iraq war to avoid antagonizing the West but later cut out the middle man In the years of 1984 1986 about 1 2 billion worth of arms sales occurred 50 And then in 1986 Iran obtained Chinese made anti ship surface to surface missiles that posed a threat to Persian Gulf shipping 25 In possessing these missiles Iran is able to control the Strait of Hormuz and all of the naval trade to and from the Gulf countries 50 In later inquiries it was discovered that China sold Iran precursor and dual use chemicals and the technology and equipment needed to use them 25 In 1996 the Washington Post reported that China was supplying chemical weapons plants in Iran that were destined for the Army Arms exports began to steadily decline in the 1990s yet China engaged in 400 million worth of arms transfer agreements with Iran Sales increased to 600 million from 1997 to 2000 On average it is estimated that China made 171 million per year in arms exports to Iran since 1982 51 China and Iran held their first joint naval drill in 2017 52 Since coming to office Iran s President Ebrahim Raisi in 2021 has pursued a look east policy to deepen ties with China and Russia Tehran joined the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation in September 2021 In January 2022 Iran China and Russia held their third joint naval drills in the northern Indian Ocean 53 The three countries started joint naval drills in 2019 in the Indian Ocean and the Sea of Oman area 53 The purpose of this drill is to strengthen security and its foundations in the region and to expand multilateral cooperation between the three countries to jointly support world peace maritime security and create a maritime community with a common future 53 Nuclear technology Edit Nuclear cooperation began in the 1980s when China helped build a research reactor and supply four other research reactors Continued aid came in the form of helping Iran construct a uranium hexafluoride enrichment plant near Isfahan and the resumption of construction on a nuclear power plant at Bushehr that was left uncompleted by the French and Germans In 1991 nuclear exports to Iran were discovered by the International Atomic Energy Association which contained three types of uranium A 1990 covert nuclear agreement was also discovered 51 This discovery was followed by an unprecedented nuclear cooperation agreement in 1992 The agreement was signed despite U S protests to have China limit its nuclear cooperation with Iran 54 Direct nuclear cooperation has ended but there is speculation over whether there remains indirect nuclear cooperation 51 For example in 2005 seven Chinese firms were suspected of selling nuclear weapons technology and all 7 had sanctions placed upon them Those firms were banned from trading with the United States for two years 55 There also continues to be Chinese nuclear experts scientists and technicians present in Iran 51 In 2015 China was part of the Iran nuclear deal framework Now China opposes Iran s possible production and possession of nuclear weapons but does not see the urgency to stop it 25 16 Nov 2021 United States President Joe Biden and Chinese President Xi Jinping talked about their positions in the resumption of negotiations with Iran on reviving the 2015 nuclear deal While China favours reviving the agreement it has tended to place the onus on the United States and blames Washington for having abandoned it 56 UN sanctions Edit At first Iran did not originally support China s bid for United Nations membership but did not veto It wasn t until 1969 that Iran displayed open support for China s membership 23 Now Iran relies on China s membership and especially Chinese veto power on the Security Council to protect it from US led sanctions 26 China is known for its preference of diplomacy over sanctions This tradition includes China s along with Russia s opposition to UN sanctions against Iran 25 In 1980 China refused to support the UN arms embargo against Iran and further abstained from voting on US sanctions against Iran 23 Only in 2010 under US pressure did China join Russia 25 57 to support the UN sanctions on Iran 27 58 In 2018 the US ordered Canada to arrest and detain Meng Wanzhou CFO of Huawei for illegally dealing with and allegedly violating sanctions against Iran 59 Politics and ideology Edit Chinese leader Hua Guofeng with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi during a state visit in Iran 1978 60 On 1 June 1920 a friendship agreement was signed between the Beiyang government and Qajar Persia Ratifications were exchanged on 6 February 1922 with effect on the same day 61 Official diplomatic relations were established in 1937 with Li Tieh tseng served as ambassador representing the Republic of China Prior to 1971 an unofficial relationship existed out of necessity From this emerged the current relationship The first Iranian embassy was formed in December 1973 and Abbas Aram was appointed to the post becoming the first Iranian diplomat to serve in China though the first embassy opened in 1942 62 The Shah visited Taiwan to meet the President of China Chiang Kai shek in 1958 In 1971 Imperial Iran supported Red China s bid for a permanent seat in the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 and it voted in favour to admit Beijing and replace Taipei China was invited to 2 500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Iran recognized the People s Republic of China in 1971 with Chinese Communist Party chairman and Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng was one of the last foreign leaders to visit the Shah of Iran before he was overthrown in 1979 39 In the 1980s the shared ideological themes of anti imperialism and third world solidarity helped solidify the relationship but they became allies as a way to counterbalance the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War When the USSR signed the Soviet Indian friendship treaty the relationship became a way to counter increasing Russian influence in the Persian Gulf But there remained some distance between Mao s regime and that of the Shah because of ideology The Shah was friendly towards the United States and Mao was a communist The Shah also feared that the relationship could rally his communist opposition Once the Shah was overthrown during the Islamic Revolution China quickly recognized the new government on 14 February 1979 62 China was put into a difficult situation during the Iran Iraq War in 1980 since China was allied with both nations China was able to remain outside of the conflict and push for a peaceful resolution to the conflict 23 Since Iran no longer recognizes the ROC now residing in Taiwan its representation is held by the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Riyadh China has been at times careful in its deals with Iran while simultaneously trying not to antagonize China s relationship with the U S as well as its growing relations with Israel 27 The China s approach toward the Israel Iran conflict is to put economics ahead of political ideological or humanitarian interests and sympathies and it seems it is working well and China found the balace how to work well with the 2 enemies 63 The cooperation emerges partly from Chinese and Iranian recognition as fellow heirs to great civilizations and because Iran has emerged as the regional leader in the Middle East While there is also a shared distrust of the United States government and its interests many young Chinese and Iranians at the same time admire certain aspects of American society and culture There is also Iranian admiration for China s rapid economic growth and for the most part their economic contributions to Iran are appreciated and respected 27 Some analysts argue that Iran can use its links with China to build more links across Asia while remaining insulated from potential U S attack 26 Beijing has generally supported the Iran backed government of Bashar al Assad in Syria joining Russia in vetoing several U N resolutions condemning Assad s actions in the Syrian civil war and strongly opposing Western interference in the conflict arguing that outside intervention would further worsen and complicate the situation It has also allegedly been increasing military links with Syria in recent years albeit in a more limited sense than Moscow partly because of the presence of Uighur militant rebels on the side of the Syrian rebels 64 In April 2015 China stated that Iran had been officially accepted as a founding member of its newly founded Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank with the latter owning 15 808 shares 65 There has also been recent discussion for Iran to eventually join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation of which it is currently an observer state as a full member In 2016 Chinese leader Xi Jinping announced his support for Iran s full membership in SCO during a state visit to Iran 66 In July 2019 UN ambassadors from 50 countries including Iran have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China s treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region 67 68 In January 2020 China condemned the assassination of Qasem Soleimani with the Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi alleging that the targeted killing of an Iranian general in Iraqi territory by the United States was in violation of international law 69 In June 2020 Iran was one of 53 countries that backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations 70 In late 2022 Iranian Foreign Minister Hossein Amir Abdollahian was reacting to a joint statement issued by China and states of the Gulf Cooperation Council which called for peaceful resolution of the islands dispute with the United Arab Emirates 71 Iran conveyed its strong discontent with the GCC China statement China later expressed respect for Iran s territorial integrity 72 Social EditThere are several historic social connections between the two states Although the two societies psychologically identify with one another because they both share the national pride and historical identity that comes along with being the descendants of two great empires and modern successor states to ancient civilizations there was limited interaction after the Chinese Revolution in 1949 social interactions improved after the 1960s 23 Anti Chinese sentiments in Iran increasing due to China s economic activity and social differences between the two countries 73 Ali Motahari 74 and Former President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 75 expresses concern over China s persecution of Uyghur Muslims 76 Even Chinese state ran news agencies upheld the validity of the internationally controversial election specify and ultimately attributed any problems that day to terrorists and vandals They deliberately left out images of Iranian security forces brutalizing the protesters 25 About 2 000 Chinese now live in Tehran and 70 Chinese companies have relocated to Iran 26 Intermarriage Edit See also Chinese people in Iran and Iranians in China Iran and China have a long history of intermarriages since at least the Tang and mostly taking place in China so names are in Chinese Immigrant communities of Persian Muslims in China intermarried with local women forming what is now the modern Hui people At the same time Persian women also intermarried with Chinese men see Lin Nu Liu Chang Southern Han Wang Zongyan married Li Shunxian Mixed descendants include Li Zhi philosopher Hu Dahai Cultural EditRecently Tehran has experienced the introduction of Chinese restaurants into cultural life 26 In popular culture the Chinese have turned their focus towards Iran in the fields of literature television and cultural events These bear witness to China s attempts to create a positive image in order to uphold existing relations and to nurture projected ones The soft power pipelines 77 too that the Iranians have exerted towards China has been received with open arms 78 In addition China opened the Confucius institute at University of Tehran and at the University of Mazandaran 79 Literature and arts Edit Li Shunxian is a Persian Chinese woman who wrote celebrated Chinese poetry during the Tang dynasty Ha Dechen and Wang Jingzhai helped translate Persian literature into Chinese Sadi s works are particularly well known and have been broadcast on Chinese media 6 Linguistics Edit Loanwords Edit Mainly through Silk Road trade Chinese borrowed Middle Persian words for exotic commodities Oddly these loanwords are typically themselves loans from a pre Iranian substrate e g Elamite or BMAC 80 81 82 Chinese loanwords from Persian Term Chinese Pinyin Persian equivalent Etymologieslion 獅 狮 shi شیر siralfalfa 苜蓿 mu xu buksuk MChin mḭuk sḭukgrape 葡萄 蒲桃 pu tao باده bade wine must lt MPers badag MChin buo dau lt LHan Chin bɑ dɑu lt Bactrian badawapomegranate 安 石榴 an shi liu آرتساخ arsak MChin an zḭak lḭeu lt lḭog lt anarak cf Sogdian n r kh naraka amber 琥珀 hǔpo کهربا kahroba lt MPers kah rubay MChin xuoB pʰɐk or rather from southwestern Asiatic xarupahwolfberry 枸杞 gǒuqǐ گوجه gojeh plum greengage suona 嗩吶 suǒna سورنا sornaysweet almond 巴旦木 badanmu بادام baadaamcup 盞 盏 zhǎn جام jam Though likely related it is unknown which one was derived from the other Huihuihua is a dialect of Chinese with more Persian and Arabic words 6 Galle stele Edit Main article Galle Trilingual Inscription The Chinese Persian Tamil stele is associated with the voyages of Zheng He See also Edit Politics portalForeign relations of Imperial China Foreign relations of Iran Sogdia Iranians in China Afghanistan China relations parts of Afghanistan historically were part of Persian empires and Greater Iran Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Sino Roman relations An Shihkao Peroz III NarsiehReferences Edit Iran China to sign 25 year cooperation pact Tehran Arab News 27 March 2021 Retrieved 27 March 2021 a b c d e Garver John W 11 December 2006 Twenty Centuries of Friendly Cooperation The Sino Iranian Relationship The Globalist Retrieved 25 June 2019 Fishberg Maurice 1907 Materials for the physical anthropology of the eastern European Jews Issues 1 6 reprint ed New Era Print Co p 233 Retrieved 12 June 2011 a b c A History of Chinese civilization Jacques Gernet Dillon 1999 pp 19 21 a b c d e f g CHINESE IRANIAN RELATIONS viii Persian Lang Encyclopaedia Iranica www iranicaonline org Retrieved 25 June 2019 van Dalen Benno 2002 Islamic Astronomical Tables in China The Sources for Huihui li in Ansari S M Razaullah ed History of Oriental Astronomy Springer Science Business Media pp 19 32 ISBN 978 1 4020 0657 9 McDougal Littel WORLD HISTORY PATTERNS OF INTERACTION New York edition ISBN 978 0 618 91330 5 ISBN 978 0 618 91330 5 Pages 514 515 Newman Andrew J 2006 Monumental Challenge and Monumental Responses the reign of Abbas I 1587 1629 Safavid Iran rebirth of a Persian empire I B Tauris p 69 ISBN 978 1 86064 667 6 Pearce Francis Barrow 1920 Zanzibar the island metropolis of eastern Africa Great Britain Dutton p 359 Retrieved 12 March 2012 Interest to quote the following extract from E Sykes s Persia and Its People Early in the seventeenth century Shah Abbas imported Chinese workmen into his country to teach his subjects the art of making porcelain and the Chinese influence is very strong in the designs on this ware Chinese marks are also copied so that to scratch an article is sometimes the only means of proving it to be of Persian manufacture for the Chinese glaze hard as iron will take no mark Pearce Francis Barrow 1920 Zanzibar the island metropolis of eastern Africa Great Britain Dutton p 430 Retrieved 12 March 2012 Shah Abbas 202 his name mentioned on bronze guns at Zanzibar 200 imports Chinese artisans to teach the art of pottery making 350 Association for Asian studies Ann Arbor Michigan 1976 A L Volumes 1 2 Columbia University Press p 817 ISBN 978 0 231 03801 0 Retrieved 29 June 2010 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Chen Da Sheng CHINESE IRANIAN RELATIONS vii Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T ang Sung and Yuan Dynasties Encyclopedia Iranica Archived from the original on 8 December 2010 Retrieved 28 June 2010 Xinhua News Agency A Peaceful Mariner and Diplomat 12 July 2005 Iran approves visa free travel for Chinese tourists China Daily 30 June 2019 Retrieved 20 January 2021 Lawler Dave 2 July 2020 The 53 countries supporting China s crackdown on Hong Kong Axios Retrieved 20 January 2021 Yellinek Roie 7 February 2022 Soft Power and SPPD in China Iran Relationship Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 24 5 733 754 doi 10 1080 19448953 2022 2037959 ISSN 1944 8953 S2CID 252222674 Wang Dan Yellinek Roie 9 February 2022 Iranian Digital Diplomacy Towards China 2019 as a Turning Point Asian Affairs 53 68 86 doi 10 1080 03068374 2022 2029054 ISSN 0306 8374 S2CID 246711461 Iran and China sign 25 year cooperation agreement Reuters 27 March 2021 Retrieved 28 March 2021 Motevalli Golnar 23 January 2016 China Iran Agree to Expand Trade to 600 Billion in a Decade Bloomberg a b Mollman Steve 25 January 2016 Iran plans to boost trade with China by about 1 000 over the next 10 years Quartz Fickling David 6 February 2019 Alstom and Siemens Show How Not to Deal With China Bloomberg a b c d e f g h i j Dorraj Manochehr and Currier Carrie L 2008 Lubricated with Oil Iran China Relations in a Changing World Middle East Policy China U S Energy Information Administration a b c d e f g h i j George L Simpson Jr 2010 Russian and Chinese Support for Tehran Middle East Quarterly a b c d e f Vivienne Walt 2005 Iran Looks East Fortune a b c d e Erica Downs amp Suzanne Moloney 2011 Getting China to Sanction Iran Foreign Affairs Economy Iran Daily archived from the original on 22 April 2009 Business Al Jazeera 23 September 2009 In a Treasonous Act Iranian Regime Sells Out Parts of the Country to China CNN Translated from اختصاصی الحاق برخی مناطق کشور به حوزه منافع ملی چین خیانت رسمی حکومت به استقلال ایران Retrieved 23 January 2012 China s Iran oil imports hit two month high in June customs Reuters 21 July 2015 What does Iran export to China 2017 Observatory of Economic Complexity News Iran Vajahan archived from the original on 4 September 2012 retrieved 15 November 2010 News Payvand July 2006 Economy Iran Daily News Payvand May 2006 a b Erdbrink Thomas 25 July 2017 For China s Global Ambitions Iran Is at the Center of Everything The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 25 June 2019 Iran and China to expand trade relations Payvand 4 January 2012 a b Wright Robin 17 November 2004 Iran s New Alliance With China Could Cost U S Leverage The Washington Post Retrieved 4 May 2010 First Direct Shipping Line Launched Between China and Iran s Chabahar kayhan Massive Metroline Deal Inked with Iran China Internet Information Center 17 May 2004 Mohsen Shariatinia amp Hamidreza Azizi 2019 Iran and the Belt and Road Initiative Amid Hope and Fear Journal of Contemporary China 28 128 984 994 doi 10 1080 10670564 2019 1594108 S2CID 159165411 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Alex Vatanka China s Great Game in Iran Foreign Policy 5 September 2019 CNCNEWS Yiwu Tehran cargo train Noack Rick 11 May 2018 China s new train line to Iran sends message to Trump We ll keep trading anyway The Washington Post Retrieved 20 January 2021 Saleh Alam Yazdanshenas Zakiyeh 9 August 2020 Iran s Pact With China Is Bad News for the West Foreign Policy Basit Abdul 6 August 2020 What the new Iran China partnership means for the region Al Jazeera ویرایش نهایی برنامه همکاری های جامع 25 ساله ایران و چین PDF Ministry of Foreign Affairs Iran in Persian 2020 Yellinek Roie 14 September 2020 Opinion The Sino Iran 25 Years Agreement Why and Why Now E International Relations Retrieved 15 September 2020 a b Dennis Van Vranken Hickley 1990 New Directions in China s Arms for Export Policy Of China s Military Ties with Iran Asian Affairs a b c d Therese Delpech 2006 Iran and the Bomb The Abdication of International Responsibility Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 70006 1 Iran and China conduct naval drill in Gulf Reuters 18 June 2017 Retrieved 9 January 2020 a b c Iran China and Russia hold naval drills in north Indian Ocean Reuters 21 January 2022 Alidad Mafinezam and Aria Mehrabi 2008 Iran and Its Place Among Nations Praeger Publishers ISBN 978 0 275 99926 1 Sharif Shuja 2005 China Iran and Central Asia The Dawning of a New Partnership Contemporary Review Biden Xi discuss how to align stances on Iran nuclear issue Archived from the original on 16 November 2021 Fisher Max 18 May 2010 Why Russia and China Joined on Iran Sanctions The Atlantic Retrieved 25 June 2019 Downs Erica Maloney Suzanne 21 February 2011 Getting China to Sanction Iran Foreign Affairs America and the World ISSN 0015 7120 Retrieved 25 June 2019 Horowitz Julia 6 December 2018 Huawei CFO Meng Wanzhou arrested in Canada CNN Retrieved 25 June 2019 华主席抵德黑兰进行正式友好访问 巴列维国王举行盛大宴会热烈欢迎 People s Daily 30 August 1978 p 1 Text inLeague of Nations Treaty Series vol 9 pp 18 21 Worldlii org 1 June 1920 Retrieved 25 April 2013 a b Garver John W 1 July 2006 China and Iran Ancient Partners in a Post Imperial World University of Washington Press p 308 ISBN 978 0 295 80121 6 Retrieved 29 November 2013 Yellinek Roie How can China maintain good relations with both Israel and Iran Middle East Institute Retrieved 12 October 2020 Pauley Logan Marks Jesse 20 August 2018 Is China Increasing Its Military Presence in Syria The Diplomat Retrieved 20 January 2021 Reuters Editorial 8 April 2015 China says Iran joins AIIB as founder member Reuters a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a author has generic name help China supports Iran s application for full membership of SCO Tehran Iran Xinhua News Agency 23 January 2016 Archived from the original on 30 June 2016 Retrieved 11 June 2016 Putz Catherine 15 July 2019 Which Countries Are For or Against China s Xinjiang Policies The Diplomat Sterling Bruce 28 July 2019 The Pro Xinjiang Contingent Wired Fulton Jonathan 6 January 2020 China s response to the Soleimani killing atlanticcouncil org Retrieved 20 January 2021 Lawler Dave 2 July 2020 The 53 countries supporting China s crackdown on Hong Kong Axios Retrieved 3 July 2020 FM Reasserts Iran s Sovereignty over Persian Gulf Trio Islands Tasnim News Agency China voices support for Iran s territorial integrity Tehran times Retrieved 13 December 2022 Khaasteh Reza Bitcoin Mining and Blackouts Add to Anti Chinese Sentiments in Iran DIPLOMAT واکنش مطهری به قرارداد ۲۵ ساله ایران با چین ایمنا in Persian 10 July 2020 Archived from the original on 11 July 2020 Retrieved 17 September 2020 احمدی نژاد ایران چرا در مقابل نسل کشی اویغورها سکوت کرده است خبرگزاری آناتولی Retrieved 16 March 2021 Uyghur woman in China s Xinjiang sentenced to 14 year in prison for teaching Islam and Quran AhlulBayt News Agency ABNA 11 January 2022 Yellinek Roie Mann Yossi Lebel Udi 1 March 2020 Chinese Soft Power Pipelines Diffusion SPPD to the Middle Eastern Arab Countries 2000 2018 A Discursive Institutional Study British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 48 5 941 959 doi 10 1080 13530194 2020 1732870 ISSN 1353 0194 S2CID 213061595 Yellinek Roie Yossi Mann Udi Lebel April 2019 China s Soft Power in China Iran Relations The Journal for Interdisciplinary Middle Eastern Studies in Hebrew 4 7 39 65 doi 10 26351 JIMES 4 7 ISSN 2522 6959 S2CID 230172727 Yellinek Roie Mann Yossi Lebel Udi 1 November 2020 Chinese Soft Power in the Arab world China s Confucius Institutes as a central tool of influence Comparative Strategy 39 6 517 534 doi 10 1080 01495933 2020 1826843 ISSN 0149 5933 S2CID 226263146 Miao Ruiqin December 2005 Loanword Adaptation in Mandarin Chinese Perceptual Phonological and Sociolinguistic Factors PDF Doctoral Dissertation Stony Brook University archived from the original PDF on 18 July 2010 Feng Zhiwei March 2004 The Semantic Loanwords and Phonemic Loanwords in Chinese Language PDF 11th International Symposium of NIJLA Tokyo 200 229 archived from the original PDF on 12 November 2012 Zha Zheng sheng Language Contact Chinese 352 Aspects of Chinese Language archived from the original on 17 July 2009Further reading EditFOR A COMPREHESIVE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CHINA AND IRANIAN POLITICAL ECONOMY OF DEVELOPMENT SEE Mehdi Parvizi Amineh 2022 Why Did China s Rise Succeed and Iran s Fail the Political Economy of Development in China and Iran Asian Affairs 53 1 28 50 DOI 10 1080 03068374 2022 2029038 OPENACCES https www tandfonline com doi citedby 10 1080 03068374 2022 2029038 scroll top amp needAccess true Cardenal Juan Pablo Araujo Heriberto 2011 La silenciosa conquista china in Spanish Barcelona Critica pp 70 79 140 144 ISBN 9788498922578 Dillon Michael 1999 China s Muslim Hui community migration settlement and sects Routledge ISBN 978 0 7007 1026 3 Lipman Jonathan Neaman 1997 Familiar strangers a history of Muslims in Northwest China University of Washington Press ISBN 978 962 209 468 0 http www iranian com main 2010 aug china and iran Article by Nabil Rastani Garver John W China And Iran Ancient Partners in a Post imperial World University of Washington Press 2006 ISBN 978 0 295 98631 9 Persian language in Xinjiang زبان فارسی در سین کیانگ Zamir Sa dollah Zadeh دکتر ضمیر سعدالله زاد ه Nameh i Iran نامه ایران V 1 Editor Hamid Yazdan Parast حمید یزدان پرست ISBN 978 964 423 572 6 Perry Castaneda Library collection under DS 266 N336 2005 John Keefer Douglas Matthew B Nelson and Kevin Schwartz Fueling the Dragon s Flame How China s Energy Demands Affect its Relationships in the Middle East United States China Economic and Security Review Commission October 2006 1 Yellinek Roie ET AL China s Soft Power in China Iran Relations The Journal for Interdisciplinary Middle Eastern Studies DOI 10 26351 JIMES 4 7 2 Yellinek Roie A Reappraisal of China Iran Ties After US JCPOA Withdrawal Publication China Brief Volume 18 Issue 14 Yellinek Roie Soft Power and SPPD in China Iran Relationship Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies DOI 10 1080 19448953 2022 2037959 External links EditChinese of Arab and Persian descentHistorical Edit China and Iran Iranian com Article by Nabil Rastani Iran in Central Asia The Sassanids in China Chinese Iranian relations Chinese Iranian relations i In Pre Islamic Times THE LAST SassanianS IN CHINA For more on Iranian Chinese relations in history see Encyclopaedia Iranica p 424 460 Modern Edit Iran s New Alliance With China Could Cost U S Leverage By Robin Wright Washington Post Staff Writer Wednesday 17 November 2004 Page A21 Chinese Arms Transfers to Iran Photos of Jiang Zemin at Persepolis Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title China Iran relations amp oldid 1136149986, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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