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Wikipedia

Pipe organ

The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air (called wind) through the organ pipes selected from a keyboard. Because each pipe produces a single pitch, the pipes are provided in sets called ranks, each of which has a common timbre and volume throughout the keyboard compass. Most organs have many ranks of pipes of differing timbre, pitch, and volume that the player can employ singly or in combination through the use of controls called stops.

Pipe organ
The pipe organ in Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois, Paris[a]
Other namesOrgan, Church organ (used only for Pipe organs in houses of worship)
Classification Keyboard instrument (Aerophone)
Developed3rd century BC
Playing range
Related instruments
see Organ
Builders
see List of pipe organ builders and Category:Pipe organ builders
Sound sample
Improvisation in E, played on the organ located in the St. George's Minster in the town of Dinkelsbühl.

A pipe organ has one or more keyboards (called manuals) played by the hands, and a pedal clavier played by the feet; each keyboard controls its own division, or group of stops. The keyboard(s), pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organ's console. The organ's continuous supply of wind allows it to sustain notes for as long as the corresponding keys are pressed, unlike the piano and harpsichord whose sound begins to dissipate immediately after a key is depressed. The smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual; the largest may have over 33,000 pipes and seven manuals.[2] A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. A ranking of the largest organs in the world—based on the criterion constructed by Michał Szostak, i.e. 'the number of ranks and additional equipment managed from a single console—can be found in the quarterly magazine The Organ[3] and in the online journal Vox Humana.[4]

The origins of the pipe organ can be traced back to the hydraulis in Ancient Greece, in the 3rd century BC,[5] in which the wind supply was created by the weight of displaced water in an airtight container. By the 6th or 7th century AD, bellows were used to supply Byzantine organs with wind.[5][6] A pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, in 757.[7] Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning the pipe organ's establishment in Western European church music.[8] In England, "The first organ of which any detailed record exists was built in Winchester Cathedral in the 10th century. It was a huge machine with 400 pipes, which needed two men to play it and 70 men to blow it, and its sound could be heard throughout the city."[9] Beginning in the 12th century, the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres. By the 17th century, most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed.[10] From that time, the pipe organ was the most complex man-made device[11]—a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century.[12]

Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools, other public buildings and in private properties. They are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. In the early 20th century, pipe organs were installed in theaters to accompany the screening of films during the silent movie era; in municipal auditoria, where orchestral transcriptions were popular; and in the homes of the wealthy.[13] The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls. The organ boasts a substantial repertoire, which spans over 500 years.[14]

History and development

Antiquity

 
Hydraulis from the 1st century BC, oldest organ found to date, Museum of Dion, Greece[15]
 
4th century AD "Mosaic of the Female Musicians" from a Byzantine villa in Maryamin, Syria.[16]

The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC. The word organ is derived from the Ancient Greek ὄργανον (órganon),[17] a generic term for an instrument or a tool,[18] via the Latin organum, an instrument similar to a portative organ used in ancient Roman circus games.

The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC. He devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes.[19] The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire. The pumps and water regulators of the hydraulis were replaced by an inflated leather bag in the 2nd century AD,[19] and true bellows began to appear in the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th or 7th century AD.[5] Some 400 pieces of a hydraulis from the year 228 AD were revealed during the 1931 archaeological excavations in the former Roman town Aquincum, province of Pannonia (present day Budapest), which was used as a music instrument by the Aquincum fire dormitory; a modern replica produces an enjoyable sound.

The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 913), in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the urghun (organ) as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.[20] It was often used in the Hippodrome in the imperial capital of Constantinople. A Syrian visitor describes a pipe organ powered by two servants pumping "bellows like a blacksmith's" as being played while guests ate at the emperor's Christmas dinner in Constantinople in 911.[6] The first Western European pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent from Constantinople to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning its establishment in Western European church music.[21]

Medieval

 
9th century image of an organ, from the Utrecht Psalter.

From 800 to the 1400s, the use and construction of organs developed in significant ways, from the invention of the portative and positive organs to the installation of larger organs in major churches such as the cathedrals of Winchester[22] and Notre Dame of Paris.[23] In this period, organs began to be used in secular and religious settings. The introduction of organ into religious settings is ambiguous, most likely because the original position of the Church was that instrumental music was not to be allowed.[22] However, by the twelfth century there is evidence for permanently installed organs existing in religious settings such as the Abbey of Fécamp and other locations throughout Europe.[22]

Several innovations occurred to organs in the Middle Ages, such as the creation of the portative and the positive organ. The portative organs were small and created for secular use and made of light weight delicate materials that would have been easy for one individual to transport and play on their own.[24] The portative organ was a "flue-piped keyboard instrument, played with one hand while the other operated the bellows."[25] Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings. The positive organ was larger than the portative organ but was still small enough to be portable and used in a variety of settings like the portative organ. Towards the middle of the 13th century, the portatives represented in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys, as in the Cantigas de Santa Maria.[26]

It is difficult to directly determine when larger organs began to be installed in Europe; however one of the first eyewitness accounts of organs is from Wulfstan of Winchester. This detailed account gives us an idea of what organs were like prior to the thirteenth century, when there are more records of large organs being placed in churches as well as their uses.[27] In his account, he describes the sound of the organ: "among them bells outstanding in tone and size, and an organ [sounding] through bronze pipes prepared according to the musical proportions."[27] This is one of the earliest accounts of organs in Europe and also indicates that the organ was large and more permanent than other evidence would suggest.[28]

The first organ documented to have been permanently installed was one installed in 1361 in Halberstadt, Germany.[29] The first documented permanent organ installation likely prompted Guillaume de Machaut to describe the organ as "the king of instruments", a characterization still frequently applied.[30] The Halberstadt organ was the first instrument to use a chromatic key layout across its three manuals and pedalboard, although the keys were wider than on modern instruments.[31] It had twenty bellows operated by ten men, and the wind pressure was so high that the player had to use the full strength of their arm to hold down a key.[29]

Records of other organs permanently installed and used in worship services in the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are found in large cathedrals such as Notre Dame, where in the 1300s you can find documents of organists being hired to work for the church as well as records documenting the installation of larger and permanent organs.[23] The earliest record is a payment from 1332 from the clergy of Notre Dame to an organist to perform on the feasts St. Louis and St. Michael.[23] The Notre Dame School also shows how organs could have been used within the increased use of polyphony, which would have allowed for the use of more instrumental voices within the music.[32] This shows that by this point in time organs were being fully used within church services and not just in secular settings. There is proof that organs existed earlier in the medieval period, based on the surviving keyboards and casings of some organs, however no pipes from organs survive from this period.[33] Until the mid-15th century, organs had no stop controls. Each manual controlled ranks at many pitches, known as the "Blockwerk."[34] Around 1450, controls were designed that allowed the ranks of the Blockwerk to be played individually. These devices were the forerunners of modern stop actions.[35] The higher-pitched ranks of the Blockwerk remained grouped together under a single stop control; these stops developed into mixtures.[36]

Renaissance and Baroque periods

 
The baroque organ in Roskilde Cathedral, Denmark[37]

During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the organ's tonal colors became more varied. Organ builders fashioned stops that imitated various instruments, such as the krummhorn and the viola da gamba. Builders such as Arp Schnitger, Jasper Johannsen, Zacharias Hildebrandt and Gottfried Silbermann constructed instruments that were in themselves artistic masterpieces, displaying both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound. These organs featured well-balanced mechanical key actions, giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech. Schnitger's organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions.[38]

Different national styles of organ building began to develop, often due to changing political climates.[39] In the Netherlands, the organ became a large instrument with several divisions, doubled ranks, and mounted cornets. The organs of northern Germany also had more divisions, and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common.[39] The divisions of the organ became visibly discernible from the case design. Twentieth-century musicologists have retroactively labelled this the Werkprinzip.[40]

 
Baroque pipe organ of the 18th century at Monastery of Santa Cruz, Coimbra, Portugal

In France, as in Italy, Spain and Portugal, organs were primarily designed to play alternatim verses rather than accompany congregational singing. The French Classical Organ, became remarkably consistent throughout France over the course of the Baroque era, more so than any other style of organ building in history, and standardized registrations developed.[41][42] It was elaborately described by Dom Bédos de Celles in his treatise L'art du facteur d'orgues (The Art of Organ Building).[43] The Italian Baroque organ was often a single-manual instrument, devoid of pedals.[44] It was built on a full diapason chorus of octaves and fifths. The stop-names indicated the pitch relative to the fundamental ("Principale") and typically reached extremely short nominal pipe-lengths (for example, if the Principale were 8', the "Vigesimanona" was ½'). The highest ranks, however, "broke back", their smallest pipes being replaced by pipes an octave lower in pitch, to produce a kind of composite treble mixture.

In England, many pipe organs were destroyed or removed from churches during the English Reformation of the 16th century and the Commonwealth period. Some were relocated to private homes. At the Restoration, organ builders such as Renatus Harris and "Father" Bernard Smith brought new organ-building ideas from continental Europe. English organs evolved from small one- or two-manual instruments into three or more divisions disposed in the French manner with grander reeds and mixtures, though still without pedal keyboards.[45] The Echo division began to be enclosed in the early 18th century, and in 1712, Abraham Jordan claimed his "swelling organ" at St Magnus-the-Martyr to be a new invention.[41] The swell box and the independent pedal division appeared in English organs beginning in the 18th century.[45][46]

Romantic period

During the Romantic period, the organ became more symphonic, capable of creating a gradual crescendo. This was made possible by voicing stops in such a way that families of tone that historically had only been used separately could now be used together, creating an entirely new way of approaching organ registration. New technologies and the work of organ builders such as Eberhard Friedrich Walcker, Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, and Henry Willis made it possible to build larger organs with more stops, more variation in sound and timbre, and more divisions.[45] For instance, as early as in 1808, the first 32' contre-bombarde was installed in the great organ of Nancy Cathedral, France. Enclosed divisions became common, and registration aids were developed to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops. The desire for louder, grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before. As a result, a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys. To solve this problem, Cavaillé-Coll configured the English "Barker lever" to assist in operating the key action. This is, essentially, a servomechanism that uses wind pressure from the air plenum, to augment the force that is exerted by the player's fingers.[47]

Organ builders began to lean towards specifications with fewer mixtures and high-pitched stops. They preferred to use more 8′ and 16′ stops in their specifications and wider pipe scales.[48] These practices created a warmer, richer sound than was common in the 18th century. Organs began to be built in concert halls (such as the organ at the Palais du Trocadéro in Paris), and composers such as Camille Saint-Saëns and Gustav Mahler used the organ in their orchestral works.

Modern development

 
The pipe organ in the chapel of San Carlos Seminary, Makati, Philippines, exhibits a modern façade.

The development of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic key actions in the late 19th century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes, greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design. Electric stop actions were also developed, which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created.[49]

Beginning in the early 20th century in Germany and in the mid-20th century in the United States, organ builders began to build historically inspired instruments modeled on Baroque organs. They returned to building mechanical key actions, voicing with lower wind pressures and thinner pipe scales, and designing specifications with more mixture stops.[50] This became known as the Organ Reform Movement.

In the late 20th century, organ builders began to incorporate digital components into their key, stop, and combination actions. Besides making these mechanisms simpler and more reliable, this also makes it possible to record and play back an organist's performance using the MIDI protocol.[51] In addition, some organ builders have incorporated digital (electronic) stops into their pipe organs.

The electronic organ developed throughout the 20th century. Some pipe organs were replaced by digital organs because of their lower purchase price, smaller physical size, and minimal maintenance requirements. In the early 1970s, Rodgers Instruments pioneered the hybrid organ, an electronic instrument that incorporates real pipes; other builders such as Allen Organs and Johannus Orgelbouw have since built hybrid organs. Allen Organs first introduced the electronic organ in 1937 and in 1971 created the first digital organ using CMOS technology borrowed from NASA which created the digital pipe organ using sound recorded from actual speaking pipes and incorporating the sounds electronically within the memory of the digital organ thus having real pipe organ sound without the actual organ pipes.

Construction

A pipe organ contains one or more sets of pipes, a wind system, and one or more keyboards. The pipes produce sound when pressurized air produced by the wind system passes through them. An action connects the keyboards to the pipes. Stops allow the organist to control which ranks of pipes sound at a given time. The organist operates the stops and the keyboards from the console.

Pipes

Organ pipes are made from either wood or metal and produce sound ("speak") when air under pressure ("wind") is directed through them.[52] As one pipe produces a single pitch, multiple pipes are necessary to accommodate the musical scale. The greater the length of the pipe, the lower its resulting pitch will be.[53] The timbre and volume of the sound produced by a pipe depends on the volume of air delivered to the pipe and the manner in which it is constructed and voiced, the latter adjusted by the builder to produce the desired tone and volume. Hence a pipe's volume cannot be readily changed while playing.[53]

 
Interior of the Seville Cathedral, showing the pipes of the organ.

Organ pipes are divided into flue pipes and reed pipes according to their design and timbre. Flue pipes produce sound by forcing air through a fipple, like that of a recorder, whereas reed pipes produce sound via a beating reed, like that of a clarinet or saxophone.[54]

Pipes are arranged by timbre and pitch into ranks. A rank is a set of pipes of the same timbre but multiple pitches (one for each note on the keyboard), which is mounted (usually vertically) onto a windchest.[55] The stop mechanism admits air to each rank. For a given pipe to sound, the stop governing the pipe's rank must be engaged, and the key corresponding to its pitch must be depressed. Ranks of pipes are organized into groups called divisions. Each division generally is played from its own keyboard and conceptually comprises an individual instrument within the organ.[56]

Action

An organ contains two actions, or systems of moving parts. When a key is depressed, the key action admits wind into a pipe. The stop action allows the organist to control which ranks are engaged. An action may be mechanical, pneumatic, or electrical (or some combination of these, such as electro-pneumatic action).[57] The key action is independent of the stop action, allowing an organ to combine a mechanical key action along with an electric stop action.

A key action which physically connects the keys and the windchests is a mechanical or tracker action. Connection is achieved through a series of rods called trackers. When the organist depresses a key, the corresponding tracker pulls open its pallet, allowing wind to enter the pipe.[58]

 
Pipes of the organ of the Comayagua Cathedral in Honduras.

In a mechanical stop action, each stop control operates a valve for a whole rank of pipes. When the organist selects a stop, the valve allows wind to reach the selected rank.[55] This control was at first a draw stop knob, which the organist selects by pulling (or drawing) toward himself/herself. This is the origin of the idiom "to pull out all the stops".[59] More modern stop selectors, utilized in electric actions, are tilting tablets or rocker tabs.

Tracker action has been used from antiquity to modern times. Before the pallet opens, wind pressure augments tension of the pallet spring, but once the pallet opens, only the spring tension is felt at the key. This provides a "breakaway" feel.[60]

A later development was the tubular-pneumatic action, which uses changes of pressure within lead tubing to operate pneumatic valves throughout the instrument. This allowed a lighter touch, and more flexibility in the location of the console, within a roughly 50-foot (15-m) limit. This type of construction was used in the late 19th century to early 20th century, and has had only rare application since the 1920s.[61]

A more recent development is the electric action which uses low voltage DC to control the key and/or stop mechanisms. Electricity may control the action indirectly through air pressure valves (pneumatics), in which case the action is electro-pneumatic. In such actions, an electromagnet attracts a small pilot valve which lets wind go to a bellows ("pneumatic") which opens the pallet. When electricity operates the action directly without the assistance of pneumatics, it is commonly referred to as direct electric action.[61] In this type, the electromagnet's armature carries a disc pallet.

When electrical wiring alone is used to connect the console to the windchest, electric actions allow the console to be separated at any practical distance from the rest of the organ, and to be movable.[62] Electric stop actions can be controlled at the console by stop knobs, by pivoted tilting tablets, or rocker tabs. These are simple switches, like wall switches for room lights. Some may include electromagnets for setting or resetting when combinations are selected.

The most innovations in organ control systems connect the console and windchests via narrow data cables instead of the larger bundles of cables. Embedded computers in the console and near the windchests communicate with each other via various complex multiplexing syntaxes, comparable to MIDI.

Wind system

 
Bellows of a pipe organ at Museu de la Música de Barcelona

The wind system consists of the parts that produce, store, and deliver wind to the pipes. Pipe organ wind pressures are on the order of 0.10 psi (0.69 kPa). Organ builders traditionally measure organ wind using a water U-tube manometer, which gives the pressure as the difference in water levels in the two legs of the manometer. The difference in water level is proportional to the difference in pressure between the wind being measured and the atmosphere.[63] The 0.10 psi above would register as 2.75 inches of water (70 mmAq). An Italian organ from the Renaissance period may be on only 2.2 inches (56 mm),[64] while (in the extreme) solo stops in some large 20th-century organs may require up to 50 inches (1,300 mm). In isolated, extreme cases, some stops have been voiced on 100 inches (2,500 mm).[b]

With the exception of water organs, playing the organ before the invention of motors required at least one person to operate the bellows. When signaled by the organist, a calcant would operate a set of bellows, supplying the organ with wind.[65] Because calcants were expensive, organists would usually practise on other instruments such as the clavichord or harpsichord.[66] By the mid-19th-century bellows were also being operated by water engines,[67] steam engines or gasoline engines.[68][69][70] Starting in the 1860s bellows were gradually replaced by rotating turbines which were later directly connected to electrical motors.[71] This made it possible for organists to practice regularly on the organ. Most organs, both new and historic, have electric blowers, although some can still be operated manually.[72] The wind supplied is stored in one or more regulators to maintain a constant pressure in the windchests until the action allows it to flow into the pipes.[73]

Stops

Each stop usually controls one rank of pipes, although mixtures and undulating stops (such as the Voix céleste) control multiple ranks.[74] The name of the stop reflects not only the stop's timbre and construction, but also the style of the organ in which it resides. For example, the names on an organ built in the north German Baroque style generally will be derived from the German language, while the names of similar stops on an organ in the French Romantic style will usually be French. Most countries tend to use only their own languages for stop nomenclature. English-speaking nations as well as Japan are more receptive to foreign nomenclature.[citation needed] Stop names are not standardized: two otherwise identical stops from different organs may have different names.[75]

To facilitate a large range of timbres, organ stops exist at different pitch levels. A stop that sounds at unison pitch when a key is depressed is referred to as being at 8′ (pronounced "eight-foot") pitch. This refers to the speaking length of the lowest-sounding pipe in that rank, which is approximately eight feet (2.4 m). For the same reason, a stop that sounds an octave higher is at 4′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves higher is at 2′ pitch. Likewise, a stop that sounds an octave lower than unison pitch is at 16′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves lower is at 32′ pitch.[74] Stops of different pitch levels are designed to be played simultaneously.

The label on a stop knob or rocker tab indicates the stop's name and its pitch in feet. Stops that control multiple ranks display a Roman numeral indicating the number of ranks present, instead of pitch.[76] Thus, a stop labelled "Open Diapason 8′ " is a single-rank diapason stop sounding at 8′ pitch. A stop labelled "Mixture V" is a five-rank mixture.

Sometimes, a single rank of pipes may be able to be controlled by several stops, allowing the rank to be played at multiple pitches or on multiple manuals. Such a rank is said to be unified or borrowed. For example, an 8′ Diapason rank may also be made available as a 4′ Octave. When both of these stops are selected and a key (for example, c′)[c] is pressed, two pipes of the same rank will sound: the pipe normally corresponding to the key played (c′), and the pipe one octave above that (c′′). Because the 8′ rank does not have enough pipes to sound the top octave of the keyboard at 4′ pitch, it is common for an extra octave of pipes used only for the borrowed 4′ stop to be added. In this case, the full rank of pipes (now an extended rank) is one octave longer than the keyboard.[d]

Special unpitched stops also appear in some organs. Among these are the Zimbelstern (a wheel of rotating bells), the nightingale (a pipe submerged in a small pool of water, creating the sound of a bird warbling when wind is admitted),[77] and the effet d'orage ("thunder effect", a device that sounds the lowest bass pipes simultaneously). Standard orchestral percussion instruments such as the drum, chimes, celesta, and harp have also been imitated in organ building.[78]

Console

 
The five-manual, 522-stop detached console at the United States Naval Academy Chapel crafted by R. A. Colby, Inc.[e]

The controls available to the organist, including the keyboards, couplers, expression pedals, stops, and registration aids are accessed from the console.[80] The console is either built into the organ case or detached from it.

Keyboards

Keyboards played by the hands are known as manuals (from the Latin manus, meaning "hand"). The keyboard played by the feet is a pedalboard. Every organ has at least one manual (most have two or more), and most have a pedalboard. Each keyboard is named for a particular division of the organ (a group of ranks) and generally controls only the stops from that division. The range of the keyboards has varied widely across time and between countries. Most current specifications call for two or more manuals with sixty-one notes (five octaves, from C to c″″) and a pedalboard with thirty or thirty-two notes (two and a half octaves, from C to f′ or g′).[c][81]

Couplers

A coupler allows the stops of one division to be played from the keyboard of another division. For example, a coupler labelled "Swell to Great" allows the stops drawn in the Swell division to be played on the Great manual. This coupler is a unison coupler, because it causes the pipes of the Swell division to sound at the same pitch as the keys played on the Great manual. Coupling allows stops from different divisions to be combined to create various tonal effects. It also allows every stop of the organ to be played simultaneously from one manual.[82]

Octave couplers, which add the pipes an octave above (super-octave) or below (sub-octave) each note that is played, may operate on one division only (for example, the Swell super octave, which adds the octave above what is being played on the Swell to itself), or act as a coupler to another keyboard (for example, the Swell super-octave to Great, which adds to the Great manual the ranks of the Swell division an octave above what is being played).[82]

In addition, larger organs may use unison off couplers, which prevent the stops pulled in a particular division from sounding at their normal pitch. These can be used in combination with octave couplers to create innovative aural effects, and can also be used to rearrange the order of the manuals to make specific pieces easier to play.[82]

Enclosure and expression pedals

 
The console of the organ in Salem Minster in Salem, Germany.[f] The expression pedal is visible directly above the pedalboard.

Enclosure refers to a system that allows for the control of volume without requiring the addition or subtraction of stops. In a two-manual organ with Great and Swell divisions, the Swell will be enclosed. In larger organs, parts or all of the Choir and Solo divisions may also be enclosed.[83] The pipes of an enclosed division are placed in a chamber generally called the swell box. At least one side of the box is constructed from horizontal or vertical palettes known as swell shades, which operate in a similar way to Venetian blinds; their position can be adjusted from the console. When the swell shades are open, more sound is heard than when they are closed.[83] Sometimes the shades are exposed, but they are often concealed behind a row of facade-pipes or a grill.

The most common method of controlling the louvers is the balanced swell pedal. This device is usually placed above the centre of the pedalboard and is configured to rotate away from the organist from a near-vertical position (in which the shades are closed) to a near-horizontal position (in which the shades are open).[84] An organ may also have a similar-looking crescendo pedal, found alongside any expression pedals. Pressing the crescendo pedal forward cumulatively activates the stops of the organ, starting with the softest and ending with the loudest; pressing it backwards reverses this process.[85]

Combination action

Organ stops can be combined in many permutations, resulting in a great variety of sounds. A combination action can be used to switch instantly from one combination of stops (called a registration) to another. Combination actions feature small buttons called pistons that can be pressed by the organist, generally located beneath the keys of each manual (thumb pistons) or above the pedalboard (toe pistons).[86] The pistons may be divisional (affecting only a single division) or general (affecting all the divisions), and are either preset by the organ builder or can be altered by the organist. Modern combination actions operate via computer memory, and can store several channels of registrations.[87]

Casing

 
The organ of the Severikirche in Erfurt, Thuringia, Germany has a highly decorative case with ornate carvings and cherubs.

The pipes, action, and wind system are almost always contained in a case, the design of which also may incorporate the console. The case blends the organ's sound and aids in projecting it into the room.[88] The case is often designed to complement the building's architectural style and it may contain ornamental carvings and other decorations. The visible portion of the case, called the façade, will most often contain pipes, which may be either sounding pipes or dummy pipes solely for decoration. The façade pipes may be plain, burnished, gilded, or painted[89] and are usually referred to as (en) montre within the context of the French organ school.[90][91]

Organ cases occasionally feature a few ranks of pipes protruding horizontally from the case in the manner of a row of trumpets. These are referred to as pipes en chamade and are particularly common in organs of the Iberian peninsula and large 20th-century instruments.[92]

Many organs, particularly those built in the early 20th century, are contained in one or more rooms called organ chambers. Because sound does not project from a chamber into the room as clearly as from a freestanding organ case, enchambered organs may sound muffled and distant.[93] For this reason, some modern builders, particularly those building instruments specializing in polyphony rather than Romantic compositions, avoid this unless the architecture of the room makes it necessary.

Tuning and regulation

 
Tracker action showing adjusters on tracker ends which engage with the keys of the great organ

The goal of tuning a pipe organ is to adjust the pitch of each pipe so that they all sound in tune with each other. How the pitch of each pipe is adjusted depends on the type and construction of that pipe.

Regulation adjusts the action so that all pipes sound correctly. If the regulation is wrongly set, the keys may be at different heights, some pipes may sound when the keys are not pressed (a "cipher"), or pipes may not sound when a key is pressed. Tracker action, for example in the organ of Cradley Heath Baptist Church, includes adjustment nuts on the wire ends of the wooden trackers, which have the effect of changing the effective length of each tracker.

Repertoire

The main development of organ repertoire has progressed along with that of the organ itself, leading to distinctive national styles of composition. Because organs are commonly found in churches and synagogues, the organ repertoire includes a large amount of sacred music, which is accompanimental (choral anthems, congregational hymns, liturgical elements, etc.) as well as solo in nature (chorale preludes, hymn versets designed for alternatim use, etc.).[13] The organ's secular repertoire includes preludes, fugues, sonatas, organ symphonies, suites, and transcriptions of orchestral works.

Although most countries whose music falls into the Western tradition have contributed to the organ repertoire, France and Germany in particular have produced exceptionally large amounts of organ music. There is also an extensive repertoire from the Netherlands, England, and the United States.

Early music

Before the Baroque era, keyboard music generally was not written for one instrument or another, but rather was written to be played on any keyboard instrument. For this reason, much of the organ's repertoire through the Renaissance period is the same as that of the harpsichord. Pre-Renaissance keyboard music is found in compiled manuscripts that may include compositions from a variety of regions. The oldest of these sources is the Robertsbridge Codex, dating from about 1360.[94] The Buxheimer Orgelbuch, which dates from about 1470 and was compiled in Germany, includes intabulations of vocal music by the English composer John Dunstaple.[95] The earliest Italian organ music is found in the Faenza Codex, dating from 1420.[96]

In the Renaissance period, Dutch composers such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck composed both fantasias and psalm settings. Sweelinck in particular developed a rich collection of keyboard figuration that influenced subsequent composers.[97] The Italian composer Claudio Merulo wrote in the typical Italian genres of the toccata, the canzona, and the ricercar.[98] In Spain, the works of Antonio de Cabezón began the most prolific period of Spanish organ composition,[99] which culminated with Juan Cabanilles.

Common practice period

Early Baroque organ music in Germany was highly contrapuntal. Sacred organ music was based on chorales: composers such as Samuel Scheidt and Heinrich Scheidemann wrote chorale preludes, chorale fantasias, and chorale motets.[99] Towards the end of the Baroque era, the chorale prelude and the partita became mixed, forming the chorale partita.[100] This genre was developed by Georg Böhm, Johann Pachelbel, and Dieterich Buxtehude. The primary type of free-form piece in this period was the praeludium, as exemplified in the works of Matthias Weckmann, Nicolaus Bruhns, Böhm, and Buxtehude.[101] The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach fused characteristics of every national tradition and historical style in his large-scale preludes and fugues and chorale-based works.[102] Towards the end of the Baroque era, George Frideric Handel composed the first organ concertos.[103]

In France, organ music developed during the Baroque era through the music of Jean Titelouze, François Couperin, and Nicolas de Grigny.[104] Because the French organ of the 17th and early 18th centuries was very standardized, a conventional set of registrations developed for its repertoire. The music of French composers (and Italian composers such as Girolamo Frescobaldi) was written for use during the Mass. Very little secular organ music was composed in France and Italy during the Baroque period; the written repertoire is almost exclusively intended for liturgical use.[105] In England, composers such as John Blow and John Stanley wrote multi-sectional free works for liturgical use called voluntaries through the 19th century.[106][107]

Organ music was seldom written in the Classical era, as composers preferred the piano with its ability to create dynamics.[108] In Germany, the six sonatas op. 65 of Felix Mendelssohn (published 1845) marked the beginning of a renewed interest in composing for the organ. Inspired by the newly built Cavaillé-Coll organs, the French organist-composers César Franck, Alexandre Guilmant and Charles-Marie Widor led organ music into the symphonic realm.[108] The development of symphonic organ music continued with Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire. Widor and Vierne wrote large-scale, multi-movement works called organ symphonies that exploited the full possibilities of the symphonic organ,[109] such as Widor's Symphony for Organ No. 6 and Vierne's Organ Symphony No. 3. Max Reger and Sigfrid Karg-Elert's symphonic works made use of the abilities of the large Romantic organs being built in Germany at the time.[108]

In the 19th and 20th centuries, organ builders began to build instruments in concert halls and other large secular venues, allowing the organ to be used as part of an orchestra, as in Saint-Saëns' Symphony No. 3 (sometimes known as the Organ Symphony).[108] Frequently the organ is given a soloistic part, such as in Joseph Jongen's Symphonie Concertante for Organ & Orchestra, Francis Poulenc's Concerto for Organ, Strings and Tympani, and Frigyes Hidas' Organ Concerto.

Modern and contemporary

Other composers who have used the organ prominently in orchestral music include Gustav Holst, Richard Strauss, Ottorino Respighi, Gustav Mahler, Anton Bruckner, and Ralph Vaughan Williams.[110] Because these concert hall instruments could approximate the sounds of symphony orchestras, transcriptions of orchestral works found a place in the organ repertoire.[111] As silent films became popular, theatre organs were installed in theatres to provide accompaniment for the films.[108]

In the 20th-century symphonic repertoire, both sacred and secular,[112] continued to progress through the music of Marcel Dupré, Maurice Duruflé, and Herbert Howells.[108] Other composers, such as Olivier Messiaen, György Ligeti, Jehan Alain, Jean Langlais, Gerd Zacher, and Petr Eben, wrote post-tonal organ music.[108] Messiaen's music in particular redefined many of the traditional notions of organ registration and technique.[113]

Albert Schweitzer was an organist who studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement.

Music director Hans Zimmer used pipe organ in the movie Interstellar for the leading background score. The final recording took place in London's Temple Church on 1926 four-manual Harrison and Harrison organ.[114]

References

Notes

  1. ^ Organ built by François-Henri Clicquot, 1771 and Joseph Merklin, 1864. Poliquin, Robert (1997).[1]
  2. ^ The Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ in Atlantic City has four stops on 100 inches and ten stops on 50. Atlantic City Convention Hall Organ. Oddmusic.com. Retrieved on 4 July 2007.
  3. ^ a b This article uses the Helmholtz pitch notation to indicate specific pitches.
  4. ^ The purpose of extended ranks and of their being borrowed is to save on the number of pipes. For example, without unification, three stops may use 183 pipes. With unification three stops may borrow one extended rank of 85 pipes. That's 98 fewer pipes used for those three stops.
  5. ^ Organ built by M. P. Moller, 1940.[79]
  6. ^ Organ built by Wilhelm Schwarz, 1901

Citations

  1. ^ Organs in France: Église Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois, Paris 16 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 3 March 2008.
  2. ^ Willey, David (2001). "". Retrieved on 3 March 2008.
  3. ^ Szostak, Michał (November 2017 – January 2018). "The World's Largest Organs". The Organ. The Musical Opinion Ltd. 382: 12–28. ISSN 0030-4883. from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2019.
  4. ^ Szostak, Michał (30 September 2018). "The Largest Pipe Organs in the World". Vox Humana. from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2019.
  5. ^ a b c Randel "Organ", 583.
  6. ^ a b Dalby, Andrew Taste of Byzantium. IB Tauris, 2010, ISBN 9781848851658, p. 118. "the narrative of the Syrian hostage Harun Ibn Yahya...'This is what happens at Christmas...they bring what is called an organon. It is a remarkable wooden object like an oil-press, and covered with solid leather. Sixty copper pipes are placed in it, so that they project above the leather, and where they are visible above the leather they are gilded. You can only see a small part of some of them, as they are of different lengths. On one side of this structure there is a hole in which they place a bellows like a blacksmith's. three crosses are placed at the two extremities and in the middle of the organon. Two men come in to work the bellows, and the master stands and bidding to press on the pipes, and each pipe, according to its tuning and the master's playing, sounds the parsed of the Emperor. The guests are meanwhile seated at their tables, and twenty men enter with cymbals in their hands. The miscue continues while the guests continue their meal.' "
  7. ^ Willis, Henry. "The Organ, Its History and Development." Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association. Vol. 73. No. 1. Taylor & Francis Group, 1946. p. 60
  8. ^ Douglas Bush and Richard Kassel eds., "The Organ, an Encyclopedia." Routledge. 2006. p. 327.
  9. ^ Winchester Cathedral http://www.winchester-cathedral.org.uk/worship-and-music/music-choir/the-cathedral-organ/ 29 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
  10. ^ Randel "Organ", 584–585.
  11. ^ Michael Woods, "Strange ills afflict pipe organs of Europe". Post-Gazette, 26 April 2005. 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ N. Pippenger, "Complexity Theory", Scientific American, 239:90–100 (1978).
  13. ^ a b Smith, Rollin (1998). The Aeolian pipe organ and its music. Richmond VA USA: The Organ Historical Society. ISBN 0-913499-16-1.
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  20. ^ Kartomi, Margaret J. (1990), On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments, University of Chicago Press, p. 124, ISBN 0-226-42548-7
  21. ^ Douglas Bush and Richard Kassel eds., "The Organ, an Encyclopedia." Routledge. 2006. p. 327. Extract of page 327
  22. ^ a b c Perrot, Jean (1971). The Organ from its invention in the Hellenistic period to the end of the thirteenth century. University Press.
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  24. ^ Bridges, Geoffrey (1992). "Medieval Portatives". The Galpin Society Journal. 45: 107–108. doi:10.2307/842265. JSTOR 842265.
  25. ^ Bridges, Geoffrey (1991). "Medieval Portatives: Some Technical Comments". The Galpin Society Journal. 44: 103–116. doi:10.2307/842212. JSTOR 842212.
  26. ^ Riaño, J. F. (1887). Critical and Bibliographical Notes on Early Spanish Music (PDF). London: Quaritch, 119–127. ISBN 0-306-70193-6.
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  28. ^ Caldwell, John (1966). "The Organ in the Medieval Latin Liturgy, 800–1500". Proceedings of the Musical Association. 93: 11–24. doi:10.1093/jrma/93.1.11.
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  30. ^ Sumner "The Organ", 39.
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  32. ^ Williams, Peter (1997). "Further on The Organ in Western Culture 750–1250". The Organ Yearbook. 27: 133–141.
  33. ^ Gwynn, Dominic (2015). "The Mediaeval Tradition in English Organ Building". Organists' Review. 101: 41–45.
  34. ^ Douglass, 10–12.
  35. ^ Thistlethwaite, 5.
  36. ^ Phelps, Lawrence (1973). "A brief look at the French Classical organ, its origins and German counterpart 7 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine". Steve Thomas. Retrieved on 7 May 2007.
  37. ^ Organ by Hermean Raphaelis, 1554. Copenhagen Portal: Roskilde Cathedral 5 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine. GBM MARKETING ApS. Retrieved on 13 May 2008.
  38. ^ Webber, 222.
  39. ^ a b Randel "Organ", 585.
  40. ^ Bicknell "The organ case", 66–71.
  41. ^ a b Thistlethwaite, 12.
  42. ^ Douglass, 3.
  43. ^ (in French) Bédos de Celles, Dom François (1766). Extraits de l'Art du facteur d'orgues 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Ferguson (Tr.) (1977). Retrieved on 7 May 2007.
  44. ^ Williams, Peter (1980). A New History of the Organ. Faber and Faber. pp. 126–130. ISBN 0-571-11459-8.
  45. ^ a b c Randel "Organ", 586–587.
  46. ^ McCrea, 279–280.
  47. ^ Randel "Organ", 586.
  48. ^ "The decline of mixtures," in George Laing Miller (1913), The Recent Revolution in Organ Building 17 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 7 July 2009.
  49. ^ Thistlethwaite, 14–15.
  50. ^ Bicknell "Organ building today", 82ff.
  51. ^ Retrieved on 7 July 2009.
  52. ^ Randel "Organ", 578.
  53. ^ a b Randel "Organ", 579.
  54. ^ Bicknell "Organ construction", 27.
  55. ^ a b Bicknell "Organ construction", 20.
  56. ^ Gleason, 3–4.
  57. ^ William H. Barnes "The Contemporary American Organ"
  58. ^ Bicknell "Organ construction", 22–23.
  59. ^ "Answers.com: Pull out all the stops 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine". Draw knobs were the only type of stop control in past centuries, and are still used.American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms. Houghton Mifflin Company (1992). Retrieved on 6 May 2007.
  60. ^ . Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  61. ^ a b William H. Barnes, "The Contemporary American Organ"
  62. ^ Bicknell "Organ construction", 23–24.
  63. ^ Douglas M. Considine, ed. (1974). Process Instruments and Controls Handbook (Second ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0-07-012428-0.
  64. ^ Dalton, 168.
  65. ^ Bicknell "Organ construction", 18.
  66. ^ Koopman, Ton (1991). "Dietrich Buxtehude's organ works: A practical help 3 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine". The Musical Times 123 (1777) (subscription required, though relevant reference is viewable in preview). Retrieved on 22 May 2007.
  67. ^ "Water Engines: Page 6". Douglas-self.com. 10 June 2011. from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
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  71. ^ Sefl, 70–71
  72. ^ About Opus 72 5 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine. C. B. Fisk, Inc. Retrieved on 13 May 2008.
  73. ^ Bicknell "Organ construction", 18–20.
  74. ^ a b Bicknell "Organ construction", 26–27.
  75. ^ Bicknell "Organ construction", 27–28.
  76. ^ Johnson, David N. (1973). Instruction Book for Beginning Organists. Revised edition. Augsburg Fortress. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8066-0423-7. Google Book search. Retrieved on 15 August 2008.
  77. ^ Randel "Rossignol", 718.
  78. ^ Ahrens, 339; Kassel, 526–527
  79. ^ USNA Music Department 6 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. United States Naval Academy. Retrieved on 4 March 2008.
  80. ^ Pipe Organ Guide 1 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine. American Guild of Organists 6 July 2000 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 13 August 2008.
  81. ^ Pipe Organ Guide 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. American Guild of Organists. Retrieved on 25 June 2007.
  82. ^ a b c . Crumhorn Labs. Archived from the original on 10 April 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2008.
  83. ^ a b Wicks "Swell division", "Swell shades".
  84. ^ Wicks "Expression pedals".
  85. ^ Wicks "Crescendo pedal".
  86. ^ Pipe Organ Guide 7 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine. American Guild of Organists 6 July 2000 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 13 August 2008.
  87. ^ Electronic setter 11 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine. The Cinema Organ Society. Retrieved on 7 July 2009.
  88. ^ Randel "Organ", 580.
  89. ^ Kassel, 146.
  90. ^ PETER WILLIAMS, BARBARA OWEN, New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ORGAN STOP: Montre (Fr.). The case pipes of the French organ, corresponding to the English Open Diapason, the German Prestant, the Italian Principale, etc. Early alternative names were ‘le principal de devant’, ‘devanture en monstre’ (Reims Cathedral, 1570). The tone of the classical French Montre was somewhat more fluty than the various English Open Diapason types or German Principals.
  91. ^ G.A. AUDSLEY Art of Organ-Building, Vol. I, p.544 ISBN 0-486-21314-5: MONTRE, Fr. -The name commonly applied by the French organ builders to such foundations and organ-toned metal stops as may be mounted or displayed in the buffet or case of an organ; accordingly, the MONTRES, which are usually of burnished tin, may be of 32 ft., 16 ft., and 8 ft. speaking lengths, as in the Organ in the Royal Church at Saint Denis near Paris. Sometimes the name is applied to the PRESTANT 4 ft., when its pipes are mounted. All the MONTRES are most carefully fashioned and finished, producing, when of tin brightly burnished, a beautiful effect in combination with the dark wood-work of the case.
  92. ^ Bicknell "The organ case", 66–67.
  93. ^ Wicks "Organ Chamber".
  94. ^ Caldwell, John (2007). "Sources of keyboard music to 1660, §2: Individual sources". In L. Macy (Ed.), Grove Music Online 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine (subscription required). Retrieved on 7 May 2008.
  95. ^ Cox, 190.
  96. ^ Stembridge, 148.
  97. ^ Webber, 224.
  98. ^ Stembridge, 160.
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  102. ^ Yearsley, David (1999). "The organ music of J. S. Bach". In Nicholas Thistlethwaite & Geoffrey Webber (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, p. 236. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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  104. ^ Higginbottom, 177, 189.
  105. ^ Higginbottom, 178–181.
  106. ^ Cox, 198.
  107. ^ McCrea, 279.
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  110. ^ Barone, Michael (2004). "". Symphony magazine, Nov–Dec 2004. Retrieved on 7 May 2007.
  111. ^ Lozenz, James Edward (2006). "Organ Transcriptions and the Late Romantic Period". In An Organ Transcription of the Messe in C, op. 169 by Josef Gabriel Rheinberger 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Florida State University College of Music. Retrieved on 19 June 2007.
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  114. ^ "Church organ playing Hans Zimmer's epic 'Interstellar' theme makes our world feel tiny". Classic FM. from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 6 September 2022.

Sources

  • Ahrens, Christian (2006). In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 399–499. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
  • Audsley, G.A. Art of Organ-Building New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21314-5:
  • Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "Organ building today". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 82–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "Organ construction". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 18–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "The organ case". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 55–81. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Cox, Geoffrey (1999). "English organ music to c1700". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 109–203. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Dalton, James (1999). "Iberian organ music before 1700". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 165–175. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Douglass, Fenner (1995). The Language of the Classical French Organ. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06426-1
  • Gleason, Harold (1988). Method of Organ Playing (7th ed.). Edited by Catherine Crozier Gleason. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-579459-5
  • Higginbottom, Edward (1999). "The French classical organ school". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 176–189. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Kassel, Richard (2006). Display pipes. In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 145–146. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
  • Kassel, Richard (2006). Sound effects. In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 526–527. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
  • McCrea, Andrew (1999). "British organ music after 1800". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 279–298. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Randel, Don Michael (Ed.) (1986). The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-61525-5
  • Sefl, Alfred (2006). Blower. In Bush, Douglas & Kassel, Richard (Eds.), The Organ: an Encyclopedia, pp. 70–71. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94174-1
  • Stembridge, Christopher (1999). Italian organ music to Frescobaldi. In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 148–163. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Sumner, William Leslie (1973). The Organ: Its Evolution, Principles of Construction and Use. London: Macdonald. ISBN 0-356-04162-X
  • Thistlethwaite, Nicholas (1999). "Origins and development of the organ". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 1–17. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
  • Webber, Geoffrey (1999). "The north German organ school". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 219–235. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2

Further reading

  • Adlung, Jacob (1768). Musica mechanica organoedi. English translation 18 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Q. Faulkner, trans (2011). Lincoln, NE: Zea E-Books.
  • Bédos de Celles, Dom François (1768). L'art du facteur d'orgues. Charles Ferguson (Trans.) (1977). The Organ-Builder. Raleigh, NC: Sunbury Press.
  • Bush, Douglas and Kassel, Richard (Ed.) (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7
  • Klotz, Hans (1969). The Organ Handbook. St. Louis: Concordia. ISBN 978-0-570-01306-8
  • Ochse, Orpha (1975). The History of the Organ in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Praetorius, Michael (1619). De Organographia, Parts III – V with Index (English translation) 26 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  • Soderlund, Sandra (1994). A Guide to the Pipe Organ for Composers and Others. Colfax, North Carolina: Wayne Leupold Editions. No ISBN.
  • Sumner, William L. (1973). The Organ: Its evolution, principles of construction and use (4th ed.). London: MacDonald. No ISBN.
  • Williams, Peter (1966). The European Organ, 1458–1850. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-32083-6
  • Williams, Peter (1980). A New History of the Organ from the Greeks to the Present Day. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-15704-1

External links

  • The Pipe Organ, a basic overview of the organ
  • The Organ, quarterly UK publication about pipe organs
  • ellykooiman.com, pipe organ website with information and detailed photos of various organs
  • Sonderlund, Sandra. . Archived from the original on 20 December 2013.
  • Flue Pipe Acoustics, a scholarly description of flue pipe physics
  • , a repository of information on significant organs and organ builders
  • , a gallery of over 2000 pipe organ pictures from many different countries
  • Encyclopedia of Organ Stops, a comprehensive database of over 2500 stops with descriptions, pictures, and sound clips
  • An introductory site to the organ 20 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine particularly this Glossary 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine of Organ Terms

Databases

  • International Organ Foundation 17 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine, an online pipe organ database with specifications of more than 10,000 organs in 95 countries
  • Organ Historical Society Pipe Organ Database
  • The Top 20 – The World's Largest Pipe Organs
  • National Pipe Organ Register, featuring history and specifications of 28,000 pipe organs in the United Kingdom
  • Die Orgelseite, photos and specifications of some of the world's most interesting organs (subscription required for some content)
  • Organ Database, stoplists, pictures and information about some 33,500 pipe organs around the world
  • The New York City Organ Project documents organs present and past in the five boroughs of New York City
  • Musiconis Database, an online database of medieval musical iconography (featuring images of medieval organs)

Resources for pipe organ video recordings

  • "TourBus to the King of Instruments" – video series with Carol Williams (organist) about the large & small, famous & unique pipe organs of the world. American Video & Audio Production Company
  • "The Joy of Music" – television series with Diane Bish about large pipe organs in USA and in Europe.

pipe, organ, this, article, about, organs, that, produce, sound, driving, wind, through, various, pipes, overview, related, instruments, organ, music, overview, pipe, organ, musical, instrument, that, produces, sound, driving, pressurized, called, wind, throug. This article is about organs that produce sound by driving wind through various pipes For an overview of related instruments see Organ music Overview The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air called wind through the organ pipes selected from a keyboard Because each pipe produces a single pitch the pipes are provided in sets called ranks each of which has a common timbre and volume throughout the keyboard compass Most organs have many ranks of pipes of differing timbre pitch and volume that the player can employ singly or in combination through the use of controls called stops Pipe organThe pipe organ in Saint Germain l Auxerrois Paris a Other namesOrgan Church organ used only for Pipe organs in houses of worship ClassificationKeyboard instrument Aerophone Developed3rd century BCPlaying rangeRelated instrumentssee OrganBuilderssee List of pipe organ builders and Category Pipe organ buildersSound sample source source Improvisation in E played on the organ located in the St George s Minster in the town of Dinkelsbuhl A pipe organ has one or more keyboards called manuals played by the hands and a pedal clavier played by the feet each keyboard controls its own division or group of stops The keyboard s pedalboard and stops are housed in the organ s console The organ s continuous supply of wind allows it to sustain notes for as long as the corresponding keys are pressed unlike the piano and harpsichord whose sound begins to dissipate immediately after a key is depressed The smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual the largest may have over 33 000 pipes and seven manuals 2 A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs A ranking of the largest organs in the world based on the criterion constructed by Michal Szostak i e the number of ranks and additional equipment managed from a single console can be found in the quarterly magazine The Organ 3 and in the online journal Vox Humana 4 The origins of the pipe organ can be traced back to the hydraulis in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC 5 in which the wind supply was created by the weight of displaced water in an airtight container By the 6th or 7th century AD bellows were used to supply Byzantine organs with wind 5 6 A pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757 7 Pepin s son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 beginning the pipe organ s establishment in Western European church music 8 In England The first organ of which any detailed record exists was built in Winchester Cathedral in the 10th century It was a huge machine with 400 pipes which needed two men to play it and 70 men to blow it and its sound could be heard throughout the city 9 Beginning in the 12th century the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres By the 17th century most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed 10 From that time the pipe organ was the most complex man made device 11 a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century 12 Pipe organs are installed in churches synagogues concert halls schools other public buildings and in private properties They are used in the performance of classical music sacred music secular music and popular music In the early 20th century pipe organs were installed in theaters to accompany the screening of films during the silent movie era in municipal auditoria where orchestral transcriptions were popular and in the homes of the wealthy 13 The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls The organ boasts a substantial repertoire which spans over 500 years 14 Contents 1 History and development 1 1 Antiquity 1 2 Medieval 1 3 Renaissance and Baroque periods 1 4 Romantic period 1 5 Modern development 2 Construction 2 1 Pipes 2 2 Action 2 3 Wind system 2 4 Stops 2 5 Console 2 5 1 Keyboards 2 5 2 Couplers 2 5 3 Enclosure and expression pedals 2 5 4 Combination action 2 6 Casing 2 7 Tuning and regulation 3 Repertoire 3 1 Early music 3 2 Common practice period 3 3 Modern and contemporary 4 References 4 1 Notes 4 2 Citations 4 3 Sources 5 Further reading 6 External links 6 1 Databases 6 2 Resources for pipe organ video recordingsHistory and development EditAntiquity Edit Hydraulis from the 1st century BC oldest organ found to date Museum of Dion Greece 15 4th century AD Mosaic of the Female Musicians from a Byzantine villa in Maryamin Syria 16 The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece Its earliest predecessors were built in ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC The word organ is derived from the Ancient Greek ὄrganon organon 17 a generic term for an instrument or a tool 18 via the Latin organum an instrument similar to a portative organ used in ancient Roman circus games The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC He devised an instrument called the hydraulis which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes 19 The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire The pumps and water regulators of the hydraulis were replaced by an inflated leather bag in the 2nd century AD 19 and true bellows began to appear in the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th or 7th century AD 5 Some 400 pieces of a hydraulis from the year 228 AD were revealed during the 1931 archaeological excavations in the former Roman town Aquincum province of Pannonia present day Budapest which was used as a music instrument by the Aquincum fire dormitory a modern replica produces an enjoyable sound The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih d 913 in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the urghun organ as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman Byzantine Empire 20 It was often used in the Hippodrome in the imperial capital of Constantinople A Syrian visitor describes a pipe organ powered by two servants pumping bellows like a blacksmith s as being played while guests ate at the emperor s Christmas dinner in Constantinople in 911 6 The first Western European pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent from Constantinople to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757 Pepin s son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 beginning its establishment in Western European church music 21 Medieval Edit 9th century image of an organ from the Utrecht Psalter From 800 to the 1400s the use and construction of organs developed in significant ways from the invention of the portative and positive organs to the installation of larger organs in major churches such as the cathedrals of Winchester 22 and Notre Dame of Paris 23 In this period organs began to be used in secular and religious settings The introduction of organ into religious settings is ambiguous most likely because the original position of the Church was that instrumental music was not to be allowed 22 However by the twelfth century there is evidence for permanently installed organs existing in religious settings such as the Abbey of Fecamp and other locations throughout Europe 22 Positive organ Several innovations occurred to organs in the Middle Ages such as the creation of the portative and the positive organ The portative organs were small and created for secular use and made of light weight delicate materials that would have been easy for one individual to transport and play on their own 24 The portative organ was a flue piped keyboard instrument played with one hand while the other operated the bellows 25 Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings The positive organ was larger than the portative organ but was still small enough to be portable and used in a variety of settings like the portative organ Towards the middle of the 13th century the portatives represented in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys as in the Cantigas de Santa Maria 26 It is difficult to directly determine when larger organs began to be installed in Europe however one of the first eyewitness accounts of organs is from Wulfstan of Winchester This detailed account gives us an idea of what organs were like prior to the thirteenth century when there are more records of large organs being placed in churches as well as their uses 27 In his account he describes the sound of the organ among them bells outstanding in tone and size and an organ sounding through bronze pipes prepared according to the musical proportions 27 This is one of the earliest accounts of organs in Europe and also indicates that the organ was large and more permanent than other evidence would suggest 28 The first organ documented to have been permanently installed was one installed in 1361 in Halberstadt Germany 29 The first documented permanent organ installation likely prompted Guillaume de Machaut to describe the organ as the king of instruments a characterization still frequently applied 30 The Halberstadt organ was the first instrument to use a chromatic key layout across its three manuals and pedalboard although the keys were wider than on modern instruments 31 It had twenty bellows operated by ten men and the wind pressure was so high that the player had to use the full strength of their arm to hold down a key 29 Records of other organs permanently installed and used in worship services in the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are found in large cathedrals such as Notre Dame where in the 1300s you can find documents of organists being hired to work for the church as well as records documenting the installation of larger and permanent organs 23 The earliest record is a payment from 1332 from the clergy of Notre Dame to an organist to perform on the feasts St Louis and St Michael 23 The Notre Dame School also shows how organs could have been used within the increased use of polyphony which would have allowed for the use of more instrumental voices within the music 32 This shows that by this point in time organs were being fully used within church services and not just in secular settings There is proof that organs existed earlier in the medieval period based on the surviving keyboards and casings of some organs however no pipes from organs survive from this period 33 Until the mid 15th century organs had no stop controls Each manual controlled ranks at many pitches known as the Blockwerk 34 Around 1450 controls were designed that allowed the ranks of the Blockwerk to be played individually These devices were the forerunners of modern stop actions 35 The higher pitched ranks of the Blockwerk remained grouped together under a single stop control these stops developed into mixtures 36 Renaissance and Baroque periods Edit The baroque organ in Roskilde Cathedral Denmark 37 During the Renaissance and Baroque periods the organ s tonal colors became more varied Organ builders fashioned stops that imitated various instruments such as the krummhorn and the viola da gamba Builders such as Arp Schnitger Jasper Johannsen Zacharias Hildebrandt and Gottfried Silbermann constructed instruments that were in themselves artistic masterpieces displaying both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound These organs featured well balanced mechanical key actions giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech Schnitger s organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Ruckpositiv divisions 38 Different national styles of organ building began to develop often due to changing political climates 39 In the Netherlands the organ became a large instrument with several divisions doubled ranks and mounted cornets The organs of northern Germany also had more divisions and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common 39 The divisions of the organ became visibly discernible from the case design Twentieth century musicologists have retroactively labelled this the Werkprinzip 40 Baroque pipe organ of the 18th century at Monastery of Santa Cruz Coimbra Portugal In France as in Italy Spain and Portugal organs were primarily designed to play alternatim verses rather than accompany congregational singing The French Classical Organ became remarkably consistent throughout France over the course of the Baroque era more so than any other style of organ building in history and standardized registrations developed 41 42 It was elaborately described by Dom Bedos de Celles in his treatise L art du facteur d orgues The Art of Organ Building 43 The Italian Baroque organ was often a single manual instrument devoid of pedals 44 It was built on a full diapason chorus of octaves and fifths The stop names indicated the pitch relative to the fundamental Principale and typically reached extremely short nominal pipe lengths for example if the Principale were 8 the Vigesimanona was The highest ranks however broke back their smallest pipes being replaced by pipes an octave lower in pitch to produce a kind of composite treble mixture In England many pipe organs were destroyed or removed from churches during the English Reformation of the 16th century and the Commonwealth period Some were relocated to private homes At the Restoration organ builders such as Renatus Harris and Father Bernard Smith brought new organ building ideas from continental Europe English organs evolved from small one or two manual instruments into three or more divisions disposed in the French manner with grander reeds and mixtures though still without pedal keyboards 45 The Echo division began to be enclosed in the early 18th century and in 1712 Abraham Jordan claimed his swelling organ at St Magnus the Martyr to be a new invention 41 The swell box and the independent pedal division appeared in English organs beginning in the 18th century 45 46 Romantic period Edit During the Romantic period the organ became more symphonic capable of creating a gradual crescendo This was made possible by voicing stops in such a way that families of tone that historically had only been used separately could now be used together creating an entirely new way of approaching organ registration New technologies and the work of organ builders such as Eberhard Friedrich Walcker Aristide Cavaille Coll and Henry Willis made it possible to build larger organs with more stops more variation in sound and timbre and more divisions 45 For instance as early as in 1808 the first 32 contre bombarde was installed in the great organ of Nancy Cathedral France Enclosed divisions became common and registration aids were developed to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops The desire for louder grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before As a result a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys To solve this problem Cavaille Coll configured the English Barker lever to assist in operating the key action This is essentially a servomechanism that uses wind pressure from the air plenum to augment the force that is exerted by the player s fingers 47 Organ builders began to lean towards specifications with fewer mixtures and high pitched stops They preferred to use more 8 and 16 stops in their specifications and wider pipe scales 48 These practices created a warmer richer sound than was common in the 18th century Organs began to be built in concert halls such as the organ at the Palais du Trocadero in Paris and composers such as Camille Saint Saens and Gustav Mahler used the organ in their orchestral works A typical modern 20th century console located in St Patrick s Cathedral Dublin The organ of the Cathedral Basilica of Saint Denis France first organ of Aristide Cavaille Coll containing numerous innovations and especially the first Barker lever The Cavaille Coll organ of the cathedral of Nancy featured the first 32 Bombarde in France France Modern development Edit The pipe organ in the chapel of San Carlos Seminary Makati Philippines exhibits a modern facade The development of pneumatic and electro pneumatic key actions in the late 19th century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design Electric stop actions were also developed which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created 49 Beginning in the early 20th century in Germany and in the mid 20th century in the United States organ builders began to build historically inspired instruments modeled on Baroque organs They returned to building mechanical key actions voicing with lower wind pressures and thinner pipe scales and designing specifications with more mixture stops 50 This became known as the Organ Reform Movement In the late 20th century organ builders began to incorporate digital components into their key stop and combination actions Besides making these mechanisms simpler and more reliable this also makes it possible to record and play back an organist s performance using the MIDI protocol 51 In addition some organ builders have incorporated digital electronic stops into their pipe organs The electronic organ developed throughout the 20th century Some pipe organs were replaced by digital organs because of their lower purchase price smaller physical size and minimal maintenance requirements In the early 1970s Rodgers Instruments pioneered the hybrid organ an electronic instrument that incorporates real pipes other builders such as Allen Organs and Johannus Orgelbouw have since built hybrid organs Allen Organs first introduced the electronic organ in 1937 and in 1971 created the first digital organ using CMOS technology borrowed from NASA which created the digital pipe organ using sound recorded from actual speaking pipes and incorporating the sounds electronically within the memory of the digital organ thus having real pipe organ sound without the actual organ pipes Construction EditA pipe organ contains one or more sets of pipes a wind system and one or more keyboards The pipes produce sound when pressurized air produced by the wind system passes through them An action connects the keyboards to the pipes Stops allow the organist to control which ranks of pipes sound at a given time The organist operates the stops and the keyboards from the console Pipes Edit Main article Organ pipe The Salt Lake Tabernacle organ found at the Salt Lake Tabernacle in Salt Lake City Utah has 11 623 pipes and accompanies The Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square and Orchestra at Temple Square Organ pipes are made from either wood or metal and produce sound speak when air under pressure wind is directed through them 52 As one pipe produces a single pitch multiple pipes are necessary to accommodate the musical scale The greater the length of the pipe the lower its resulting pitch will be 53 The timbre and volume of the sound produced by a pipe depends on the volume of air delivered to the pipe and the manner in which it is constructed and voiced the latter adjusted by the builder to produce the desired tone and volume Hence a pipe s volume cannot be readily changed while playing 53 Interior of the Seville Cathedral showing the pipes of the organ Organ pipes are divided into flue pipes and reed pipes according to their design and timbre Flue pipes produce sound by forcing air through a fipple like that of a recorder whereas reed pipes produce sound via a beating reed like that of a clarinet or saxophone 54 Pipes are arranged by timbre and pitch into ranks A rank is a set of pipes of the same timbre but multiple pitches one for each note on the keyboard which is mounted usually vertically onto a windchest 55 The stop mechanism admits air to each rank For a given pipe to sound the stop governing the pipe s rank must be engaged and the key corresponding to its pitch must be depressed Ranks of pipes are organized into groups called divisions Each division generally is played from its own keyboard and conceptually comprises an individual instrument within the organ 56 Action Edit An organ contains two actions or systems of moving parts When a key is depressed the key action admits wind into a pipe The stop action allows the organist to control which ranks are engaged An action may be mechanical pneumatic or electrical or some combination of these such as electro pneumatic action 57 The key action is independent of the stop action allowing an organ to combine a mechanical key action along with an electric stop action A key action which physically connects the keys and the windchests is a mechanical or tracker action Connection is achieved through a series of rods called trackers When the organist depresses a key the corresponding tracker pulls open its pallet allowing wind to enter the pipe 58 Pipes of the organ of the Comayagua Cathedral in Honduras In a mechanical stop action each stop control operates a valve for a whole rank of pipes When the organist selects a stop the valve allows wind to reach the selected rank 55 This control was at first a draw stop knob which the organist selects by pulling or drawing toward himself herself This is the origin of the idiom to pull out all the stops 59 More modern stop selectors utilized in electric actions are tilting tablets or rocker tabs Tracker action has been used from antiquity to modern times Before the pallet opens wind pressure augments tension of the pallet spring but once the pallet opens only the spring tension is felt at the key This provides a breakaway feel 60 A later development was the tubular pneumatic action which uses changes of pressure within lead tubing to operate pneumatic valves throughout the instrument This allowed a lighter touch and more flexibility in the location of the console within a roughly 50 foot 15 m limit This type of construction was used in the late 19th century to early 20th century and has had only rare application since the 1920s 61 A more recent development is the electric action which uses low voltage DC to control the key and or stop mechanisms Electricity may control the action indirectly through air pressure valves pneumatics in which case the action is electro pneumatic In such actions an electromagnet attracts a small pilot valve which lets wind go to a bellows pneumatic which opens the pallet When electricity operates the action directly without the assistance of pneumatics it is commonly referred to as direct electric action 61 In this type the electromagnet s armature carries a disc pallet When electrical wiring alone is used to connect the console to the windchest electric actions allow the console to be separated at any practical distance from the rest of the organ and to be movable 62 Electric stop actions can be controlled at the console by stop knobs by pivoted tilting tablets or rocker tabs These are simple switches like wall switches for room lights Some may include electromagnets for setting or resetting when combinations are selected The most innovations in organ control systems connect the console and windchests via narrow data cables instead of the larger bundles of cables Embedded computers in the console and near the windchests communicate with each other via various complex multiplexing syntaxes comparable to MIDI Cross section of one note of a mechanical action windchest Trackers attach to the wires hanging through the bottom board at the left A wire pulls down on the pallet valve against the tension of the V shaped spring Wind under pressure surrounds the pallet and when it is pulled down the wide rectangular chamber above the pallet feeds wind to all pipes of this note and stop note the cutaway passages at the top Interior of the organ at Cradley Heath Baptist Church showing the tracker action The black rods called rollers rotate to transmit movement sideways to line up with the pipes Schematic animation of a mechanical action windchest with three ranks of pipes Saint Cecilia patron saint of music depicted playing the pipe organWind system Edit Bellows of a pipe organ at Museu de la Musica de Barcelona The wind system consists of the parts that produce store and deliver wind to the pipes Pipe organ wind pressures are on the order of 0 10 psi 0 69 kPa Organ builders traditionally measure organ wind using a water U tube manometer which gives the pressure as the difference in water levels in the two legs of the manometer The difference in water level is proportional to the difference in pressure between the wind being measured and the atmosphere 63 The 0 10 psi above would register as 2 75 inches of water 70 mmAq An Italian organ from the Renaissance period may be on only 2 2 inches 56 mm 64 while in the extreme solo stops in some large 20th century organs may require up to 50 inches 1 300 mm In isolated extreme cases some stops have been voiced on 100 inches 2 500 mm b With the exception of water organs playing the organ before the invention of motors required at least one person to operate the bellows When signaled by the organist a calcant would operate a set of bellows supplying the organ with wind 65 Because calcants were expensive organists would usually practise on other instruments such as the clavichord or harpsichord 66 By the mid 19th century bellows were also being operated by water engines 67 steam engines or gasoline engines 68 69 70 Starting in the 1860s bellows were gradually replaced by rotating turbines which were later directly connected to electrical motors 71 This made it possible for organists to practice regularly on the organ Most organs both new and historic have electric blowers although some can still be operated manually 72 The wind supplied is stored in one or more regulators to maintain a constant pressure in the windchests until the action allows it to flow into the pipes 73 Stops Edit Main article Organ stop Each stop usually controls one rank of pipes although mixtures and undulating stops such as the Voix celeste control multiple ranks 74 The name of the stop reflects not only the stop s timbre and construction but also the style of the organ in which it resides For example the names on an organ built in the north German Baroque style generally will be derived from the German language while the names of similar stops on an organ in the French Romantic style will usually be French Most countries tend to use only their own languages for stop nomenclature English speaking nations as well as Japan are more receptive to foreign nomenclature citation needed Stop names are not standardized two otherwise identical stops from different organs may have different names 75 To facilitate a large range of timbres organ stops exist at different pitch levels A stop that sounds at unison pitch when a key is depressed is referred to as being at 8 pronounced eight foot pitch This refers to the speaking length of the lowest sounding pipe in that rank which is approximately eight feet 2 4 m For the same reason a stop that sounds an octave higher is at 4 pitch and one that sounds two octaves higher is at 2 pitch Likewise a stop that sounds an octave lower than unison pitch is at 16 pitch and one that sounds two octaves lower is at 32 pitch 74 Stops of different pitch levels are designed to be played simultaneously The label on a stop knob or rocker tab indicates the stop s name and its pitch in feet Stops that control multiple ranks display a Roman numeral indicating the number of ranks present instead of pitch 76 Thus a stop labelled Open Diapason 8 is a single rank diapason stop sounding at 8 pitch A stop labelled Mixture V is a five rank mixture Sometimes a single rank of pipes may be able to be controlled by several stops allowing the rank to be played at multiple pitches or on multiple manuals Such a rank is said to be unified or borrowed For example an 8 Diapason rank may also be made available as a 4 Octave When both of these stops are selected and a key for example c c is pressed two pipes of the same rank will sound the pipe normally corresponding to the key played c and the pipe one octave above that c Because the 8 rank does not have enough pipes to sound the top octave of the keyboard at 4 pitch it is common for an extra octave of pipes used only for the borrowed 4 stop to be added In this case the full rank of pipes now an extended rank is one octave longer than the keyboard d Special unpitched stops also appear in some organs Among these are the Zimbelstern a wheel of rotating bells the nightingale a pipe submerged in a small pool of water creating the sound of a bird warbling when wind is admitted 77 and the effet d orage thunder effect a device that sounds the lowest bass pipes simultaneously Standard orchestral percussion instruments such as the drum chimes celesta and harp have also been imitated in organ building 78 Stop knobs of the Baroque organ in Weingarten Germany M P Moller three rank chapel organ 1936 Console Edit Main article Organ console The five manual 522 stop detached console at the United States Naval Academy Chapel crafted by R A Colby Inc e The controls available to the organist including the keyboards couplers expression pedals stops and registration aids are accessed from the console 80 The console is either built into the organ case or detached from it Keyboards Edit Keyboards played by the hands are known as manuals from the Latin manus meaning hand The keyboard played by the feet is a pedalboard Every organ has at least one manual most have two or more and most have a pedalboard Each keyboard is named for a particular division of the organ a group of ranks and generally controls only the stops from that division The range of the keyboards has varied widely across time and between countries Most current specifications call for two or more manuals with sixty one notes five octaves from C to c and a pedalboard with thirty or thirty two notes two and a half octaves from C to f or g c 81 Couplers Edit A coupler allows the stops of one division to be played from the keyboard of another division For example a coupler labelled Swell to Great allows the stops drawn in the Swell division to be played on the Great manual This coupler is a unison coupler because it causes the pipes of the Swell division to sound at the same pitch as the keys played on the Great manual Coupling allows stops from different divisions to be combined to create various tonal effects It also allows every stop of the organ to be played simultaneously from one manual 82 Octave couplers which add the pipes an octave above super octave or below sub octave each note that is played may operate on one division only for example the Swell super octave which adds the octave above what is being played on the Swell to itself or act as a coupler to another keyboard for example the Swell super octave to Great which adds to the Great manual the ranks of the Swell division an octave above what is being played 82 In addition larger organs may use unison off couplers which prevent the stops pulled in a particular division from sounding at their normal pitch These can be used in combination with octave couplers to create innovative aural effects and can also be used to rearrange the order of the manuals to make specific pieces easier to play 82 Enclosure and expression pedals Edit Main article Expression pedal The console of the organ in Salem Minster in Salem Germany f The expression pedal is visible directly above the pedalboard Enclosure refers to a system that allows for the control of volume without requiring the addition or subtraction of stops In a two manual organ with Great and Swell divisions the Swell will be enclosed In larger organs parts or all of the Choir and Solo divisions may also be enclosed 83 The pipes of an enclosed division are placed in a chamber generally called the swell box At least one side of the box is constructed from horizontal or vertical palettes known as swell shades which operate in a similar way to Venetian blinds their position can be adjusted from the console When the swell shades are open more sound is heard than when they are closed 83 Sometimes the shades are exposed but they are often concealed behind a row of facade pipes or a grill The most common method of controlling the louvers is the balanced swell pedal This device is usually placed above the centre of the pedalboard and is configured to rotate away from the organist from a near vertical position in which the shades are closed to a near horizontal position in which the shades are open 84 An organ may also have a similar looking crescendo pedal found alongside any expression pedals Pressing the crescendo pedal forward cumulatively activates the stops of the organ starting with the softest and ending with the loudest pressing it backwards reverses this process 85 Combination action Edit Main article Combination action Organ stops can be combined in many permutations resulting in a great variety of sounds A combination action can be used to switch instantly from one combination of stops called a registration to another Combination actions feature small buttons called pistons that can be pressed by the organist generally located beneath the keys of each manual thumb pistons or above the pedalboard toe pistons 86 The pistons may be divisional affecting only a single division or general affecting all the divisions and are either preset by the organ builder or can be altered by the organist Modern combination actions operate via computer memory and can store several channels of registrations 87 Casing Edit The organ of the Severikirche in Erfurt Thuringia Germany has a highly decorative case with ornate carvings and cherubs The pipes action and wind system are almost always contained in a case the design of which also may incorporate the console The case blends the organ s sound and aids in projecting it into the room 88 The case is often designed to complement the building s architectural style and it may contain ornamental carvings and other decorations The visible portion of the case called the facade will most often contain pipes which may be either sounding pipes or dummy pipes solely for decoration The facade pipes may be plain burnished gilded or painted 89 and are usually referred to as en montre within the context of the French organ school 90 91 Organ cases occasionally feature a few ranks of pipes protruding horizontally from the case in the manner of a row of trumpets These are referred to as pipes en chamade and are particularly common in organs of the Iberian peninsula and large 20th century instruments 92 Many organs particularly those built in the early 20th century are contained in one or more rooms called organ chambers Because sound does not project from a chamber into the room as clearly as from a freestanding organ case enchambered organs may sound muffled and distant 93 For this reason some modern builders particularly those building instruments specializing in polyphony rather than Romantic compositions avoid this unless the architecture of the room makes it necessary Tuning and regulation Edit Main article Pipe organ tuning Tracker action showing adjusters on tracker ends which engage with the keys of the great organ The goal of tuning a pipe organ is to adjust the pitch of each pipe so that they all sound in tune with each other How the pitch of each pipe is adjusted depends on the type and construction of that pipe Regulation adjusts the action so that all pipes sound correctly If the regulation is wrongly set the keys may be at different heights some pipes may sound when the keys are not pressed a cipher or pipes may not sound when a key is pressed Tracker action for example in the organ of Cradley Heath Baptist Church includes adjustment nuts on the wire ends of the wooden trackers which have the effect of changing the effective length of each tracker Repertoire EditMain articles Organ repertoire and List of organ composers The main development of organ repertoire has progressed along with that of the organ itself leading to distinctive national styles of composition Because organs are commonly found in churches and synagogues the organ repertoire includes a large amount of sacred music which is accompanimental choral anthems congregational hymns liturgical elements etc as well as solo in nature chorale preludes hymn versets designed for alternatim use etc 13 The organ s secular repertoire includes preludes fugues sonatas organ symphonies suites and transcriptions of orchestral works Although most countries whose music falls into the Western tradition have contributed to the organ repertoire France and Germany in particular have produced exceptionally large amounts of organ music There is also an extensive repertoire from the Netherlands England and the United States The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach by Haussmann c 1748 forms an important part of the instrument s repertoire Cesar Franck by Rongier 1888 at the console of the organ at Saint Clotilde Paris Camille Saint Saens by Nadar famously included a prominent organ part in his Symphony No 3 which is thus sometimes known as the Organ Symphony The composer Olivier Messiaen 1986 championed an innovative and unprecedented approach to organ musicEarly music Edit Before the Baroque era keyboard music generally was not written for one instrument or another but rather was written to be played on any keyboard instrument For this reason much of the organ s repertoire through the Renaissance period is the same as that of the harpsichord Pre Renaissance keyboard music is found in compiled manuscripts that may include compositions from a variety of regions The oldest of these sources is the Robertsbridge Codex dating from about 1360 94 The Buxheimer Orgelbuch which dates from about 1470 and was compiled in Germany includes intabulations of vocal music by the English composer John Dunstaple 95 The earliest Italian organ music is found in the Faenza Codex dating from 1420 96 In the Renaissance period Dutch composers such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck composed both fantasias and psalm settings Sweelinck in particular developed a rich collection of keyboard figuration that influenced subsequent composers 97 The Italian composer Claudio Merulo wrote in the typical Italian genres of the toccata the canzona and the ricercar 98 In Spain the works of Antonio de Cabezon began the most prolific period of Spanish organ composition 99 which culminated with Juan Cabanilles Common practice period Edit source source source Robert Huw Morgan plays Bach s Fantasia and Fugue in G minor on the Fisk Nanney organ at the Stanford Memorial Church in Stanford California Early Baroque organ music in Germany was highly contrapuntal Sacred organ music was based on chorales composers such as Samuel Scheidt and Heinrich Scheidemann wrote chorale preludes chorale fantasias and chorale motets 99 Towards the end of the Baroque era the chorale prelude and the partita became mixed forming the chorale partita 100 This genre was developed by Georg Bohm Johann Pachelbel and Dieterich Buxtehude The primary type of free form piece in this period was the praeludium as exemplified in the works of Matthias Weckmann Nicolaus Bruhns Bohm and Buxtehude 101 The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach fused characteristics of every national tradition and historical style in his large scale preludes and fugues and chorale based works 102 Towards the end of the Baroque era George Frideric Handel composed the first organ concertos 103 In France organ music developed during the Baroque era through the music of Jean Titelouze Francois Couperin and Nicolas de Grigny 104 Because the French organ of the 17th and early 18th centuries was very standardized a conventional set of registrations developed for its repertoire The music of French composers and Italian composers such as Girolamo Frescobaldi was written for use during the Mass Very little secular organ music was composed in France and Italy during the Baroque period the written repertoire is almost exclusively intended for liturgical use 105 In England composers such as John Blow and John Stanley wrote multi sectional free works for liturgical use called voluntaries through the 19th century 106 107 Organ music was seldom written in the Classical era as composers preferred the piano with its ability to create dynamics 108 In Germany the six sonatas op 65 of Felix Mendelssohn published 1845 marked the beginning of a renewed interest in composing for the organ Inspired by the newly built Cavaille Coll organs the French organist composers Cesar Franck Alexandre Guilmant and Charles Marie Widor led organ music into the symphonic realm 108 The development of symphonic organ music continued with Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire Widor and Vierne wrote large scale multi movement works called organ symphonies that exploited the full possibilities of the symphonic organ 109 such as Widor s Symphony for Organ No 6 and Vierne s Organ Symphony No 3 Max Reger and Sigfrid Karg Elert s symphonic works made use of the abilities of the large Romantic organs being built in Germany at the time 108 source source source source source source Carol Williams performs Flight of the Bumblebee by Nikolai Rimsky Korsakov at the United States Military Academy West Point Cadet Chapel In the 19th and 20th centuries organ builders began to build instruments in concert halls and other large secular venues allowing the organ to be used as part of an orchestra as in Saint Saens Symphony No 3 sometimes known as the Organ Symphony 108 Frequently the organ is given a soloistic part such as in Joseph Jongen s Symphonie Concertante for Organ amp Orchestra Francis Poulenc s Concerto for Organ Strings and Tympani and Frigyes Hidas Organ Concerto Modern and contemporary Edit Other composers who have used the organ prominently in orchestral music include Gustav Holst Richard Strauss Ottorino Respighi Gustav Mahler Anton Bruckner and Ralph Vaughan Williams 110 Because these concert hall instruments could approximate the sounds of symphony orchestras transcriptions of orchestral works found a place in the organ repertoire 111 As silent films became popular theatre organs were installed in theatres to provide accompaniment for the films 108 In the 20th century symphonic repertoire both sacred and secular 112 continued to progress through the music of Marcel Dupre Maurice Durufle and Herbert Howells 108 Other composers such as Olivier Messiaen Gyorgy Ligeti Jehan Alain Jean Langlais Gerd Zacher and Petr Eben wrote post tonal organ music 108 Messiaen s music in particular redefined many of the traditional notions of organ registration and technique 113 Albert Schweitzer was an organist who studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement Music director Hans Zimmer used pipe organ in the movie Interstellar for the leading background score The final recording took place in London s Temple Church on 1926 four manual Harrison and Harrison organ 114 References EditNotes Edit Organ built by Francois Henri Clicquot 1771 and Joseph Merklin 1864 Poliquin Robert 1997 1 The Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ in Atlantic City has four stops on 100 inches and ten stops on 50 Atlantic City Convention Hall Organ Oddmusic com Retrieved on 4 July 2007 a b This article uses the Helmholtz pitch notation to indicate specific pitches The purpose of extended ranks and of their being borrowed is to save on the number of pipes For example without unification three stops may use 183 pipes With unification three stops may borrow one extended rank of 85 pipes That s 98 fewer pipes used for those three stops Organ built by M P Moller 1940 79 Organ built by Wilhelm Schwarz 1901 Citations Edit Organs in France Eglise Saint Germain l Auxerrois Paris Archived 16 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 3 March 2008 Willey David 2001 The World s Largest Organs Retrieved on 3 March 2008 Szostak Michal November 2017 January 2018 The World s Largest Organs The Organ The Musical Opinion Ltd 382 12 28 ISSN 0030 4883 Archived from the original on 25 January 2019 Retrieved 24 January 2019 Szostak Michal 30 September 2018 The Largest Pipe Organs in the World Vox Humana Archived from the original on 7 November 2020 Retrieved 15 November 2019 a b c Randel Organ 583 a b Dalby Andrew Taste of Byzantium IB Tauris 2010 ISBN 9781848851658 p 118 the narrative of the Syrian hostage Harun Ibn Yahya This is what happens at Christmas they bring what is called an organon It is a remarkable wooden object like an oil press and covered with solid leather Sixty copper pipes are placed in it so that they project above the leather and where they are visible above the leather they are gilded You can only see a small part of some of them as they are of different lengths On one side of this structure there is a hole in which they place a bellows like a blacksmith s three crosses are placed at the two extremities and in the middle of the organon Two men come in to work the bellows and the master stands and bidding to press on the pipes and each pipe according to its tuning and the master s playing sounds the parsed of the Emperor The guests are meanwhile seated at their tables and twenty men enter with cymbals in their hands The miscue continues while the guests continue their meal Willis Henry The Organ Its History and Development Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association Vol 73 No 1 Taylor amp Francis Group 1946 p 60 Douglas Bush and Richard Kassel eds The Organ an Encyclopedia Routledge 2006 p 327 Winchester Cathedral http www winchester cathedral org uk worship and music music choir the cathedral organ Archived 29 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Randel Organ 584 585 Michael Woods Strange ills afflict pipe organs of Europe Post Gazette 26 April 2005 Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine N Pippenger Complexity Theory Scientific American 239 90 100 1978 a b Smith Rollin 1998 The Aeolian pipe organ and its music Richmond VA USA The Organ Historical Society ISBN 0 913499 16 1 Thomas Steve 2003 Pipe organs 101 an introduction to pipe organ basics Archived 26 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 6 May 2007 The Museums of Macedonia Archaeological Museum of Dion Macedonian Heritage Archived from the original on 18 April 2018 Retrieved 28 August 2009 Ring Trudy 1994 International Dictionary of Historic Places Middle East and Africa vol 4 Taylor amp Francis ISBN 1884964036 archived from the original on 21 February 2023 retrieved 19 November 2020 Harper Douglas 2001 Organ Archived 7 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved on 10 February 2008 Liddell Henry George amp Scott Robert 1940 Organon Archived 21 February 2023 at the Wayback Machine A Greek English Lexicon Oxford Clarendon Press ISBN 0 19 864226 1 Perseus Retrieved on 9 February 2008 a b Randel Hydraulis 385 Kartomi Margaret J 1990 On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments University of Chicago Press p 124 ISBN 0 226 42548 7 Douglas Bush and Richard Kassel eds The Organ an Encyclopedia Routledge 2006 p 327 Extract of page 327 a b c Perrot Jean 1971 The Organ from its invention in the Hellenistic period to the end of the thirteenth century University Press a b c Wright Craig 1989 Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris Cambridge Cambridge University Press Bridges Geoffrey 1992 Medieval Portatives The Galpin Society Journal 45 107 108 doi 10 2307 842265 JSTOR 842265 Bridges Geoffrey 1991 Medieval Portatives Some Technical Comments The Galpin Society Journal 44 103 116 doi 10 2307 842212 JSTOR 842212 Riano J F 1887 Critical and Bibliographical Notes on Early Spanish Music PDF London Quaritch 119 127 ISBN 0 306 70193 6 a b Williams Peter 1994 Difficulties in Understanding the Earliest Organs Festschrift Series 167 195 Caldwell John 1966 The Organ in the Medieval Latin Liturgy 800 1500 Proceedings of the Musical Association 93 11 24 doi 10 1093 jrma 93 1 11 a b Kennedy Michael Ed 2002 Organ In The Oxford Dictionary of Music p 644 Oxford Oxford University Press Sumner The Organ 39 Keyboard instrument Archived 2 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine 2008 In Encyclopaedia Britannica Online subscription required though relevant reference is viewable in concise article Retrieved on 26 January 2008 Williams Peter 1997 Further on The Organ in Western Culture 750 1250 The Organ Yearbook 27 133 141 Gwynn Dominic 2015 The Mediaeval Tradition in English Organ Building Organists Review 101 41 45 Douglass 10 12 Thistlethwaite 5 Phelps Lawrence 1973 A brief look at the French Classical organ its origins and German counterpart Archived 7 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine Steve Thomas Retrieved on 7 May 2007 Organ by Hermean Raphaelis 1554 Copenhagen Portal Roskilde Cathedral Archived 5 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine GBM MARKETING ApS Retrieved on 13 May 2008 Webber 222 a b Randel Organ 585 Bicknell The organ case 66 71 a b Thistlethwaite 12 Douglass 3 in French Bedos de Celles Dom Francois 1766 Extraits de l Art du facteur d orgues Archived 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine Ferguson Tr 1977 Retrieved on 7 May 2007 Williams Peter 1980 A New History of the Organ Faber and Faber pp 126 130 ISBN 0 571 11459 8 a b c Randel Organ 586 587 McCrea 279 280 Randel Organ 586 The decline of mixtures in George Laing Miller 1913 The Recent Revolution in Organ Building Archived 17 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 7 July 2009 Thistlethwaite 14 15 Bicknell Organ building today 82ff Retrieved on 7 July 2009 Randel Organ 578 a b Randel Organ 579 Bicknell Organ construction 27 a b Bicknell Organ construction 20 Gleason 3 4 William H Barnes The Contemporary American Organ Bicknell Organ construction 22 23 Answers com Pull out all the stops Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine Draw knobs were the only type of stop control in past centuries and are still used American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms Houghton Mifflin Company 1992 Retrieved on 6 May 2007 The Physics of Organ Actions Part 1 Mechanical Actions Fore touch weight Archived from the original on 16 December 2019 Retrieved 4 May 2019 a b William H Barnes The Contemporary American Organ Bicknell Organ construction 23 24 Douglas M Considine ed 1974 Process Instruments and Controls Handbook Second ed McGraw Hill pp 3 4 ISBN 0 07 012428 0 Dalton 168 Bicknell Organ construction 18 Koopman Ton 1991 Dietrich Buxtehude s organ works A practical help Archived 3 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine The Musical Times 123 1777 subscription required though relevant reference is viewable in preview Retrieved on 22 May 2007 Water Engines Page 6 Douglas self com 10 June 2011 Archived from the original on 20 January 2012 Retrieved 22 October 2011 St Jude s History Pipe Organ Bowralanglican org au Archived from the original on 13 October 2009 Retrieved 22 October 2011 Antwerpse Kathedraalconcerten vzw Akc orgel be Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 Retrieved 22 October 2011 organ blowers 3 Nzorgan com 26 July 1997 Archived from the original on 27 September 2011 Retrieved 22 October 2011 Sefl 70 71 About Opus 72 Archived 5 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine C B Fisk Inc Retrieved on 13 May 2008 Bicknell Organ construction 18 20 a b Bicknell Organ construction 26 27 Bicknell Organ construction 27 28 Johnson David N 1973 Instruction Book for Beginning Organists Revised edition Augsburg Fortress p 9 ISBN 978 0 8066 0423 7 Google Book search Retrieved on 15 August 2008 Randel Rossignol 718 Ahrens 339 Kassel 526 527 USNA Music Department Archived 6 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine United States Naval Academy Retrieved on 4 March 2008 Pipe Organ Guide Archived 1 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine American Guild of Organists Archived 6 July 2000 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 13 August 2008 Pipe Organ Guide Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine American Guild of Organists Retrieved on 25 June 2007 a b c A brief tour of a pipe organ Crumhorn Labs Archived from the original on 10 April 2008 Retrieved 19 April 2008 a b Wicks Swell division Swell shades Wicks Expression pedals Wicks Crescendo pedal Pipe Organ Guide Archived 7 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine American Guild of Organists Archived 6 July 2000 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 13 August 2008 Electronic setter Archived 11 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine The Cinema Organ Society Retrieved on 7 July 2009 Randel Organ 580 Kassel 146 PETER WILLIAMS BARBARA OWEN New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians ORGAN STOP Montre Fr The case pipes of the French organ corresponding to the English Open Diapason the German Prestant the Italian Principale etc Early alternative names were le principal de devant devanture en monstre Reims Cathedral 1570 The tone of the classical French Montre was somewhat more fluty than the various English Open Diapason types or German Principals G A AUDSLEY Art of Organ Building Vol I p 544 ISBN 0 486 21314 5 MONTRE Fr The name commonly applied by the French organ builders to such foundations and organ toned metal stops as may be mounted or displayed in the buffet or case of an organ accordingly the MONTRES which are usually of burnished tin may be of 32 ft 16 ft and 8 ft speaking lengths as in the Organ in the Royal Church at Saint Denis near Paris Sometimes the name is applied to the PRESTANT 4 ft when its pipes are mounted All the MONTRES are most carefully fashioned and finished producing when of tin brightly burnished a beautiful effect in combination with the dark wood work of the case Bicknell The organ case 66 67 Wicks Organ Chamber Caldwell John 2007 Sources of keyboard music to 1660 2 Individual sources In L Macy Ed Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine subscription required Retrieved on 7 May 2008 Cox 190 Stembridge 148 Webber 224 Stembridge 160 a b Caldwell John 2007 Keyboard music I Keyboard music to c1750 In L Macy Ed Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine subscription required Retrieved on 8 May 2008 McLean Hugh J 2007 Bohm Georg In L Macy Ed Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine subscription required Retrieved on 8 May 2008 Ledbetter David 2007 Prelude In L Macy Ed Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine subscription required Retrieved on 8 May 2008 Yearsley David 1999 The organ music of J S Bach In Nicholas Thistlethwaite amp Geoffrey Webber Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ p 236 Cambridge Cambridge University Press Lang Paul Henry 1971 Michael Haydn Duo Concertante for viola and organ Joseph Haydn Organ Concerto in C major Archived 22 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Musical Quarterly 57 1 Retrieved on 10 July 2007 Higginbottom 177 189 Higginbottom 178 181 Cox 198 McCrea 279 a b c d e f g Owen Barbara 2007 Keyboard music II Organ music from c1750 In L Macy Ed Grove Music Online Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine subscription required Retrieved on 8 May 2008 Brooks Gerard 1999 French and Belgian organ music after 1800 In Nicholas Thistlethwaite amp Geoffrey Webber Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 274 275 Cambridge Cambridge University Press Barone Michael 2004 Pipe organs are popping up in concert halls nationwide Now what to play on them Symphony magazine Nov Dec 2004 Retrieved on 7 May 2007 Lozenz James Edward 2006 Organ Transcriptions and the Late Romantic Period In An Organ Transcription of the Messe in C op 169 by Josef Gabriel Rheinberger Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine PDF Florida State University College of Music Retrieved on 19 June 2007 Gluck Sebastian Matthaus 2003 Literature based reed assignment in organ design Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine PIPORG L Retrieved on 19 June 2007 Galuska Andrew R 2001 Messiaen s organ registration Archived 3 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Moore s School of Music University of Houston Retrieved on 19 June 2007 Church organ playing Hans Zimmer s epic Interstellar theme makes our world feel tiny Classic FM Archived from the original on 8 June 2022 Retrieved 6 September 2022 Sources Edit Ahrens Christian 2006 In Bush Douglas amp Kassel Richard Eds The Organ an Encyclopedia pp 399 499 New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 94174 1 Audsley G A Art of Organ Building New York Dover Publications ISBN 0 486 21314 5 Bicknell Stephen 1999 Organ building today In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 82 92 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Bicknell Stephen 1999 Organ construction In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 18 30 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Bicknell Stephen 1999 The organ case In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 55 81 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Cox Geoffrey 1999 English organ music to c1700 In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 109 203 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Dalton James 1999 Iberian organ music before 1700 In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 165 175 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Douglass Fenner 1995 The Language of the Classical French Organ New Haven Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 06426 1 Gleason Harold 1988 Method of Organ Playing 7th ed Edited by Catherine Crozier Gleason Englewood Cliffs New Jersey Prentice Hall ISBN 0 13 579459 5 Higginbottom Edward 1999 The French classical organ school In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 176 189 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Kassel Richard 2006 Display pipes In Bush Douglas amp Kassel Richard Eds The Organ an Encyclopedia pp 145 146 New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 94174 1 Kassel Richard 2006 Sound effects In Bush Douglas amp Kassel Richard Eds The Organ an Encyclopedia pp 526 527 New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 94174 1 McCrea Andrew 1999 British organ music after 1800 In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 279 298 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Randel Don Michael Ed 1986 The New Harvard Dictionary of Music Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 0 674 61525 5 Sefl Alfred 2006 Blower In Bush Douglas amp Kassel Richard Eds The Organ an Encyclopedia pp 70 71 New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 94174 1 Stembridge Christopher 1999 Italian organ music to Frescobaldi In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 148 163 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Sumner William Leslie 1973 The Organ Its Evolution Principles of Construction and Use London Macdonald ISBN 0 356 04162 X Thistlethwaite Nicholas 1999 Origins and development of the organ In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 1 17 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2 Webber Geoffrey 1999 The north German organ school In Thistlethwaite Nicholas amp Webber Geoffrey Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ pp 219 235 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 57584 2Further reading EditAdlung Jacob 1768 Musica mechanica organoedi English translation Archived 18 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine Q Faulkner trans 2011 Lincoln NE Zea E Books Bedos de Celles Dom Francois 1768 L art du facteur d orgues Charles Ferguson Trans 1977 The Organ Builder Raleigh NC Sunbury Press Bush Douglas and Kassel Richard Ed 2006 The Organ An Encyclopedia New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 94174 7 Klotz Hans 1969 The Organ Handbook St Louis Concordia ISBN 978 0 570 01306 8 Ochse Orpha 1975 The History of the Organ in the United States Bloomington Indiana University Press Praetorius Michael 1619 De Organographia Parts III V with Index English translation Archived 26 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine Soderlund Sandra 1994 A Guide to the Pipe Organ for Composers and Others Colfax North Carolina Wayne Leupold Editions No ISBN Sumner William L 1973 The Organ Its evolution principles of construction and use 4th ed London MacDonald No ISBN Williams Peter 1966 The European Organ 1458 1850 Bloomington Indiana University Press ISBN 0 253 32083 6 Williams Peter 1980 A New History of the Organ from the Greeks to the Present Day Bloomington Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 15704 1External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pipe organ Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Organ The Pipe Organ a basic overview of the organ The Organ quarterly UK publication about pipe organs ellykooiman com pipe organ website with information and detailed photos of various organs Sonderlund Sandra A Young Person s Guide to the Pipe Organ Archived from the original on 20 December 2013 Flue Pipe Acoustics a scholarly description of flue pipe physics Organ transcriptions and the Late Romantic Period Organs and Organists a repository of information on significant organs and organ builders Orgelgalerie a gallery of over 2000 pipe organ pictures from many different countries Encyclopedia of Organ Stops a comprehensive database of over 2500 stops with descriptions pictures and sound clips An introductory site to the organ Archived 20 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine particularly this Glossary Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine of Organ TermsDatabases Edit International Organ Foundation Archived 17 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine an online pipe organ database with specifications of more than 10 000 organs in 95 countries Organ Historical Society Pipe Organ Database The Top 20 The World s Largest Pipe Organs National Pipe Organ Register featuring history and specifications of 28 000 pipe organs in the United Kingdom Die Orgelseite photos and specifications of some of the world s most interesting organs subscription required for some content Organ Database stoplists pictures and information about some 33 500 pipe organs around the world The New York City Organ Project documents organs present and past in the five boroughs of New York City Musiconis Database an online database of medieval musical iconography featuring images of medieval organs Resources for pipe organ video recordings Edit TourBus to the King of Instruments video series with Carol Williams organist about the large amp small famous amp unique pipe organs of the world American Video amp Audio Production Company The Joy of Music television series with Diane Bish about large pipe organs in USA and in Europe Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pipe organ amp oldid 1143001173, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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