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Aram (Kural book)

January 06, 2023

The Book of Aṟam, in full Aṟattuppāl (Tamil: அறத்துப்பால், literally, "division of virtue"), also known as the Book of Virtue, the First Book or Book One in translated versions, is the first of the three books or parts of the Kural literature, a didactic work authored by the ancient Indian philosopher Valluvar. Written in High Tamil distich form, it has 38 chapters each containing 10 kurals or couplets, making a total of 380 couplets, all dealing with the fundamental virtues of an individual. Aṟam, the Tamil term that loosely corresponds to the English term 'virtue', correlates with the first of the four ancient Indian values of dharma, artha, kama and moksha. The Book of Aṟam exclusively deals with virtues independent of the surroundings, including the vital principles of non-violence, moral vegetarianism,[a] veracity, and righteousness.[1][2]

The Book of Aṟam is the most important and the most fundamental book of the Kural.[3] This is revealed in the very order of the book within the Kural literature. The public life of a person as described by the Book of Poruḷ and the love life of a person as described by the Book of Inbam are presented to him or her only after the person secures his or her inner, moral growth described by the Book of Aṟam. In other words, only a morally and spiritually ripe person, who is considered cultured and civilized as dictated by the Book of Aṟam, is fit to enter public or political life, and the subsequent life of love.[4]

Etymology and meanings

Aṟam is the Tamil word for what is known in Sanskrit as 'Dharma', and pāl means 'division'.[5][6] The concept of aṟam or dharma is of pivotal importance in Indian philosophy and religion.[7] It has multiple meanings and is a term common to Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism.[8] In Hinduism, the word signifies duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living."[9][10] In Buddhism, the word refers to "cosmic law and order," but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha.[11] In Jainism, the word refers to the teachings of tirthankara (Jina)[11] and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings. In Sikhism, the word means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice.[12] With a long and varied history, the word straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations, rendering it impossible to provide a single concise definition.[13] Thus, there is no equivalent single-word translation for aṟam or dharma in western languages.[14][15] Conversely, the term dharma is common to all languages within the Indian subcontinent.

The book and its chapters

The Book of Aṟam is the most important of all the books of the Tirukkural and is considered the most fundamental.[3] The book exclusively deals with dharma, which is common to the entire work of the Tirukkural, thus providing the essence of the work as a whole.[16][17][18] An exemplification for this is found in verse 34 of Purananuru,[19][20] where its author Alathur Kilar refers to the entire work of the Tirukkural by simply calling it as 'Aṟam'.[20][21][22][23] In a practical sense, the Book of Aṟam deals with the essentials of the Yoga philosophy by expounding the household life that begins with compassion and ahimsa,[24][25] ultimately leading to the path to renunciation.[2][26]

The Book of Aṟam contains the first 38 chapters of the Kural text, all dealing with fundamental virtue. The first four chapters, known as the introductory chapters, include 40 couplets on God, rain, characteristics of a righteous person, and assertion of virtue. The remaining chapters with 340 couplets are addressed to the common man or a householder, which includes 200 couplets on domestic virtue and 140 couplets on higher yet most fundamental virtue based on grace, benevolence and compassion.[2][27] All the couplets in the book essentially mandate the ethics of ahimsa (non-violence), meatless diet, casteless human brotherhood, absence of desires, path of righteousness and truth, and so forth.[2]

Outline of the Book of Aṟam
Book One—Virtue (அறத்துப்பால் Aṟattuppāl)
  • Chapter 1. The Praise of God (கடவுள் வாழ்த்து kaṭavuḷ vāḻttu): Couplets 1–10
  • Chapter 2. The Excellence of Rain (வான் சிறப்பு vāṉ ciṟappu): 11–20
  • Chapter 3. The Greatness of Ascetics (நீத்தார் பெருமை nīttār perumai): 21–30
  • Chapter 4. Assertion of the Strength of Virtue (அறன் வலியுறுத்தல் aṟaṉ valiyuṟuttal): 31–40
  • Chapter 5. Domestic Life (இல்வாழ்க்கை ilvāḻkkai): 41–50
  • Chapter 6. Domestic Health (வாழ்க்கைத்துணை நலம் vāḻkkaittuṇai nalam): 51–60
  • Chapter 7. Biological Productivity (புதல்வரைப் பெறுதல் putalvaraip peṟutal): 61–70
  • Chapter 8. The Possession of Love (அன்புடைமை aṉpuṭaimai): 71–80
  • Chapter 9. Cherishing Guests (விருந்தோம்பல் viruntōmpal): 81–90
  • Chapter 10. Charming Utterance (இனியவை கூறல் iṉiyavai kūṟal): 91–100
  • Chapter 11. Gratitude Recognition (செய்ந்நன்றி அறிதல் ceynnaṉṟi aṟital): 101–110
  • Chapter 12. Impartiality (நடுவு நிலைமை naṭuvu nilaimai): 111–120
  • Chapter 13. The Possession of Self-restraint (அடக்கமுடைமை aṭakkamuṭaimai): 121–130
  • Chapter 14. The Possession of Decorum (ஒழுக்கமுடைமை oḻukkamuṭaimai): 131–140
  • Chapter 15. Not Coveting Another's Wife (பிறனில் விழையாமை piṟaṉil viḻaiyāmai): 141–150
  • Chapter 16. The Possession of Patience, Forbearance (பொறையுடைமை poṟaiyuṭaimai): 151–160
  • Chapter 17. Anti-envy (அழுக்காறாமை aḻukkāṟāmai): 161–170
  • Chapter 18. Anti-covet action (வெஃகாமை veḵkāmai): 171–180
  • Chapter 19. Slander Avoidance (புறங்கூறாமை puṟaṅkūṟāmai): 181–190
  • Chapter 20. The Not Speaking Profitless Words (பயனில சொல்லாமை payaṉila collāmai): 191–200
  • Chapter 21. Dread of Evil Deeds (தீவினையச்சம் tīviṉaiyaccam): 201–210
  • Chapter 22. The Knowledge of What Is Befitting a Man's Position (ஒப்புரவறிதல் oppuravaṟital): 211–220
  • Chapter 23. Philanthropy (ஈகை īkai): 221–230
  • Chapter 24. Renown (புகழ் pukaḻ): 231–240
  • Chapter 25. Benevolence (அருளுடைமை aruḷuṭaimai): 241–250
  • Chapter 26. Flesh Renunciation (புலான் மறுத்தல் pulāṉmaṟuttal): 251–260
  • Chapter 27. Penance (தவம் tavam): 261–270
  • Chapter 28. Inconsistent Conduct (கூடாவொழுக்கம் kūṭāvoḻukkam): 271–280
  • Chapter 29. The Absence of Fraud (கள்ளாமை kaḷḷāmai): 281–290
  • Chapter 30. Veracity (வாய்மை vāymai): 291–300
  • Chapter 31. The Not Being Angry (வெகுளாமை vekuḷāmai): 301–310
  • Chapter 32. Not Doing Evil (இன்னா செய்யாமை iṉṉāceyyāmai): 311–320
  • Chapter 33. Not Killing (கொல்லாமை kollāmai): 321–330
  • Chapter 34. Impermanence (நிலையாமை nilaiyāmai): 331–340
  • Chapter 35. Renunciation (துறவு tuṟavu): 341–350
  • Chapter 36. Knowledge of the True (மெய்யுணர்தல் meyyuṇartal): 351–360
  • Chapter 37. The Extirpation of Desire (அவாவறுத்தல் avāvaṟuttal): 361–370
  • Chapter 38. Fate (ஊழ் ūḻ): 371–380

Grouping of chapters

See also: Ten Medieval Commentators § Chapter order variations

The Book of Aṟam has historically been subdivided variously by different scholars.[28] In fact, the chapters in this book have been categorized in more varied order than the two other books of the Kural text.[28] Although the author did not group the chapters under any subdivisions as with the other two books of the Kural text,[29][30] the Sangam poet Sirumedhaviyar first suggested grouping of the chapters under subdivisions in verse 20 of the Tiruvalluva Maalai.[31] Accordingly, he divided the Book of Aṟam into three Iyals, or divisions, namely, pāyiram (the first 4 chapters), aṟam (the next 33 chapters), and ūḻ (the final chapter).[32] Following this, the ten medieval commentators, who were the first to write commentaries about the Tirukkural, divided the Book of Aṟam variously between two and four portions, grouping the original chapters diversely under these divisions and thus changing the order of the chapters widely.[18][33][34] For example, while Parimelalhagar divided the Book of Aṟam into two parts, namely, domestic virtue and ascetic virtue, besides keeping the first four chapters under "Introduction," other medieval commentators have divided the Book of Aṟam into four portions, namely, introduction, domestic virtue, ascetic virtue, and fate.[30] Modern commentators such as V. O. Chidambaram Pillai have even gone up to six divisions.[18]

The original grouping and numbering of the chapters, too, were changed considerably by the medieval commentators.[18] For instance, chapters 10, 13, 17, 18, and 19 in the present-day ordering (which follows Parimelalhagar's ordering) under subsection "domestic virtue" are originally chapters 26, 27, 30, 31, and 32, respectively, under subsection "ascetic virtue" in Manakkudavar's ordering. Similarly, the modern chapters 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33, appearing under subsection "ascetic virtue" originally appear as chapters 19, 20, 10, 16, 17, and 18, respectively, under subsection "domestic virtue" in Manakkudavar's ordering. However, being the earliest of all the available commentaries on the Tirukkural, Manakkudavar's commentary is believed to be the closest to the original Kural text as written by Valluvar.[35][36] Nevertheless, given these subdivisions of domestic and ascetic virtues are later addition,[37][38] both the domestic and ascetic virtues in the Book of Aṟam are addressed to the householder or commoner.[39] Ascetic virtues in the Kural, according to A. Gopalakrishnann, does not mean renunciation of household life or pursuing of the conventional ascetic life, but only refers to giving up greedy desires and maintaining self-control that is expected of every individual.[39]

Valluvar's position on aṟam or virtue

While religious scriptures generally consider aṟam as a divine virtue, Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness.[40] Contrary to what other contemporary works say, Valluvar holds that aṟam is common for all, irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of palanquin or the rider in it.[41][42] For this reason, Valluvar keeps aṟam as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature.[21]

Valluvar considered justice as a facet of aṟam. While ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and their descendants opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar positively suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice. In the words of V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud."[40]

The greatest of virtues or aṟam according to Valluvar is non-killing,[43] followed by veracity,[44] both of which are indicated in the same couplet (Kural 323),[45] and the greatest sins that Valluvar feels very strongly are ingratitude and meat-eating.[44][46] In the words of P. S. Sundaram, while "all other sins may be redeemed, but never ingratitude," Valluvar couldn't understand "how anyone could wish to fatten himself by feeding on the fat of others."[46]

Influence

Of the three books of the Kural text, the Book of Aṟam remains the most translated one by scholars and writers and also the most widely interpreted one.[47] Serving as a manual of precepts to exclusively teach dharma for millennia,[2] the Book of Aṟam has influenced many of its readers to pursue the path of non-violence. This became more evident after the translation of the Kural into several European languages beginning in the early 18th century. For instance, Russian pacifist Leo Tolstoy was inspired by the concept of ahimsa and non-killing found in the Book of Aṟam after reading a German translation of the Kural, which bolstered his thoughts on pacifism.[48] Tolstoy, in turn, instilled the virtue of non-violence in Mohandas Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi sought his advice on the struggle for Indian Independence.[49] Referring to the Kural literature as 'the Hindu Kural' in his correspondence, Tolstoy cited six couplets from the chapter on non-violence.[50] Taking this advice, Gandhi then took to studying the Kural while in prison,[2] later employing various non-violent movements to liberate the nation.[48][51] The South Indian philosopher Ramalinga Swamigal was inspired by the Kural at a young age and spent his whole life promoting compassion and non-violence, emphasizing on a meatless way of life.[52][53]

See also

Notes

a. ^ The Kural insists strictly on "moral vegetarianism",[54][55] the doctrine that humans are morally obligated to refrain from eating meat or harming sentient beings.[56][57] The concept of ahimsa or இன்னா செய்யாமை, which remains the moral foundation of vegetarianism and veganism,[58] is described in the chapter on non-violence (Chapter 32).[59]

Citations

  1. ^ Natarajan 2008, pp. 1–6.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Lal 1992, pp. 4333–4334.
  3. ^ a b Desikar 1969, p. 47.
  4. ^ Zvelebil 1973, p. 165.
  5. ^ Lal 1992, pp. 4333–4334, 4341–4342.
  6. ^ Kandasamy 2017, pp. 9–10.
  7. ^ Dhand 2002, p. 351.
  8. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica n.d.
  9. ^ Columbia University Press 2013.
  10. ^ Rosen 2006.
  11. ^ a b The Oxford University n.d.
  12. ^ Rinehart 2014, pp. 138–139.
  13. ^ Van Buitenen 1957, p. 36.
  14. ^ Widgery 1930, pp. 232–245.
  15. ^ Rocher 2003.
  16. ^ Desikar 1969, p. 42.
  17. ^ Kandasamy 2017, pp. 10–12.
  18. ^ a b c d Kumaravelan 2008, pp. 4–17.
  19. ^ Alathur Kilar, Verse 34.
  20. ^ a b Kandasamy 2017, p. 12.
  21. ^ a b Velusamy & Faraday 2017, p. 55.
  22. ^ Kowmareeshwari 2012, pp. 46–47.
  23. ^ Sundaramoorthi 2000, pp. 146–147.
  24. ^ Bharti 2001, pp. 672–691.
  25. ^ Varenne & Derek 1977, pp. 197–202.
  26. ^ Mukherjee 1999, pp. 392–393.
  27. ^ Vanmeegar 2012, pp. vii–xvi.
  28. ^ a b Pillai 1972, p. 12–16.
  29. ^ Pillai 1972, p. 12.
  30. ^ a b Zvelebil 1973, p. 158.
  31. ^ Sirumedhaviyar, pp. Verse 20.
  32. ^ Jagannathan 1963, pp. 32–33.
  33. ^ Aravindan 2018, p. 105.
  34. ^ Desikar 1969, p. 73.
  35. ^ Aravindan 2018, pp. 346–347.
  36. ^ Ramasubramania Raja 2017, pp. 5–10.
  37. ^ Zvelebil 1973, pp. 158–160.
  38. ^ Aravindan 2018, pp. 346–348.
  39. ^ a b Gopalakrishnan 2012, p. 144.
  40. ^ a b Sanjeevi 1973, pp. xxiii–xxvii.
  41. ^ Valluvar, pp. Verse 37.
  42. ^ Visveswaran 2016, pp. ix–xi.
  43. ^ Lal 1992, pp. 4341–4342.
  44. ^ a b Sethupillai 1956, pp. 34–36.
  45. ^ Valluvar, pp. Verse 323.
  46. ^ a b Sundaram 1990, pp. 7–16.
  47. ^ Sanjeevi 1973.
  48. ^ a b Rajaram 2009, pp. xviii–xxi.
  49. ^ Parel 2002, pp. 96–112.
  50. ^ Tolstoy 1908.
  51. ^ Velusamy & Faraday 2017, p. 61.
  52. ^ Subbaraman 2015, pp. 39–42.
  53. ^ Sivagnanam 1974, p. 96.
  54. ^ Zvelebil 1973, pp. 156–171.
  55. ^ Sundaram 1990, p. 13.
  56. ^ Parimelalhagar 2009, pp. 256–266, 314–336.
  57. ^ Engel 2000, pp. 856–889.
  58. ^ Dinshah 2010.
  59. ^ Parimelalhagar 2009, pp. 314–324.

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  • Visveswaran, H. V. (2016). தமிழனின் தத்துவம் திருக்குறள் அறம் [Tamilan's Philosophy is Tirukkural Virtue] (1 ed.). Chennai: Notion Press. ISBN 978-93-86073-74-7.
  • Widgery, Alban G. (January 1930). "The Principles of Hindu Ethics". International Journal of Ethics. 40 (2): 232–245. doi:10.1086/intejethi.40.2.2377977. S2CID 170183611.
  • Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-03591-1. Retrieved 7 March 2018.

External links

  • Tirukkural: Work by Tiruvalluvar from Encyclopaedia Britannica

January 06, 2023
aram, kural, book, book, aṟam, full, aṟattuppāl, tamil, அறத, literally, division, virtue, also, known, book, virtue, first, book, book, translated, versions, first, three, books, parts, kural, literature, didactic, work, authored, ancient, indian, philosopher,. The Book of Aṟam in full Aṟattuppal Tamil அறத த ப ப ல literally division of virtue also known as the Book of Virtue the First Book or Book One in translated versions is the first of the three books or parts of the Kural literature a didactic work authored by the ancient Indian philosopher Valluvar Written in High Tamil distich form it has 38 chapters each containing 10 kurals or couplets making a total of 380 couplets all dealing with the fundamental virtues of an individual Aṟam the Tamil term that loosely corresponds to the English term virtue correlates with the first of the four ancient Indian values of dharma artha kama and moksha The Book of Aṟam exclusively deals with virtues independent of the surroundings including the vital principles of non violence moral vegetarianism a veracity and righteousness 1 2 The Book of Aṟam is the most important and the most fundamental book of the Kural 3 This is revealed in the very order of the book within the Kural literature The public life of a person as described by the Book of Poruḷ and the love life of a person as described by the Book of Inbam are presented to him or her only after the person secures his or her inner moral growth described by the Book of Aṟam In other words only a morally and spiritually ripe person who is considered cultured and civilized as dictated by the Book of Aṟam is fit to enter public or political life and the subsequent life of love 4 Contents 1 Etymology and meanings 2 The book and its chapters 3 Grouping of chapters 4 Valluvar s position on aṟam or virtue 5 Influence 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations 9 References 9 1 Primary sources Tamil 9 2 Secondary sources 10 External linksEtymology and meanings EditAṟam is the Tamil word for what is known in Sanskrit as Dharma and pal means division 5 6 The concept of aṟam or dharma is of pivotal importance in Indian philosophy and religion 7 It has multiple meanings and is a term common to Hinduism Jainism Buddhism and Sikhism 8 In Hinduism the word signifies duties rights laws conduct virtues and right way of living 9 10 In Buddhism the word refers to cosmic law and order but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha 11 In Jainism the word refers to the teachings of tirthankara Jina 11 and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings In Sikhism the word means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice 12 With a long and varied history the word straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations rendering it impossible to provide a single concise definition 13 Thus there is no equivalent single word translation for aṟam or dharma in western languages 14 15 Conversely the term dharma is common to all languages within the Indian subcontinent The book and its chapters EditThe Book of Aṟam is the most important of all the books of the Tirukkural and is considered the most fundamental 3 The book exclusively deals with dharma which is common to the entire work of the Tirukkural thus providing the essence of the work as a whole 16 17 18 An exemplification for this is found in verse 34 of Purananuru 19 20 where its author Alathur Kilar refers to the entire work of the Tirukkural by simply calling it as Aṟam 20 21 22 23 In a practical sense the Book of Aṟam deals with the essentials of the Yoga philosophy by expounding the household life that begins with compassion and ahimsa 24 25 ultimately leading to the path to renunciation 2 26 The Book of Aṟam contains the first 38 chapters of the Kural text all dealing with fundamental virtue The first four chapters known as the introductory chapters include 40 couplets on God rain characteristics of a righteous person and assertion of virtue The remaining chapters with 340 couplets are addressed to the common man or a householder which includes 200 couplets on domestic virtue and 140 couplets on higher yet most fundamental virtue based on grace benevolence and compassion 2 27 All the couplets in the book essentially mandate the ethics of ahimsa non violence meatless diet casteless human brotherhood absence of desires path of righteousness and truth and so forth 2 Outline of the Book of AṟamBook One Virtue அறத த ப ப ல Aṟattuppal Chapter 1 The Praise of God கடவ ள வ ழ த த kaṭavuḷ vaḻttu Couplets 1 10 Chapter 2 The Excellence of Rain வ ன ச றப ப vaṉ ciṟappu 11 20 Chapter 3 The Greatness of Ascetics ந த த ர ப ர ம nittar perumai 21 30 Chapter 4 Assertion of the Strength of Virtue அறன வல ய ற த தல aṟaṉ valiyuṟuttal 31 40 Chapter 5 Domestic Life இல வ ழ க க ilvaḻkkai 41 50 Chapter 6 Domestic Health வ ழ க க த த ண நலம vaḻkkaittuṇai nalam 51 60 Chapter 7 Biological Productivity ப தல வர ப ப ற தல putalvaraip peṟutal 61 70 Chapter 8 The Possession of Love அன ப ட ம aṉpuṭaimai 71 80 Chapter 9 Cherishing Guests வ ர ந த ம பல viruntōmpal 81 90 Chapter 10 Charming Utterance இன யவ க றல iṉiyavai kuṟal 91 100 Chapter 11 Gratitude Recognition ச ய ந நன ற அற தல ceynnaṉṟi aṟital 101 110 Chapter 12 Impartiality நட வ ந ல ம naṭuvu nilaimai 111 120 Chapter 13 The Possession of Self restraint அடக கம ட ம aṭakkamuṭaimai 121 130 Chapter 14 The Possession of Decorum ஒழ க கம ட ம oḻukkamuṭaimai 131 140 Chapter 15 Not Coveting Another s Wife ப றன ல வ ழ ய ம piṟaṉil viḻaiyamai 141 150 Chapter 16 The Possession of Patience Forbearance ப ற ய ட ம poṟaiyuṭaimai 151 160 Chapter 17 Anti envy அழ க க ற ம aḻukkaṟamai 161 170 Chapter 18 Anti covet action வ ஃக ம veḵkamai 171 180 Chapter 19 Slander Avoidance ப றங க ற ம puṟaṅkuṟamai 181 190 Chapter 20 The Not Speaking Profitless Words பயன ல ச ல ல ம payaṉila collamai 191 200 Chapter 21 Dread of Evil Deeds த வ ன யச சம tiviṉaiyaccam 201 210 Chapter 22 The Knowledge of What Is Befitting a Man s Position ஒப ப ரவற தல oppuravaṟital 211 220 Chapter 23 Philanthropy ஈக ikai 221 230 Chapter 24 Renown ப கழ pukaḻ 231 240 Chapter 25 Benevolence அர ள ட ம aruḷuṭaimai 241 250 Chapter 26 Flesh Renunciation ப ல ன மற த தல pulaṉmaṟuttal 251 260 Chapter 27 Penance தவம tavam 261 270 Chapter 28 Inconsistent Conduct க ட வ ழ க கம kuṭavoḻukkam 271 280 Chapter 29 The Absence of Fraud கள ள ம kaḷḷamai 281 290 Chapter 30 Veracity வ ய ம vaymai 291 300 Chapter 31 The Not Being Angry வ க ள ம vekuḷamai 301 310 Chapter 32 Not Doing Evil இன ன ச ய ய ம iṉṉaceyyamai 311 320 Chapter 33 Not Killing க ல ல ம kollamai 321 330 Chapter 34 Impermanence ந ல ய ம nilaiyamai 331 340 Chapter 35 Renunciation த றவ tuṟavu 341 350 Chapter 36 Knowledge of the True ம ய ய ணர தல meyyuṇartal 351 360 Chapter 37 The Extirpation of Desire அவ வற த தல avavaṟuttal 361 370 Chapter 38 Fate ஊழ uḻ 371 380Grouping of chapters EditSee also Ten Medieval Commentators Chapter order variations The Book of Aṟam has historically been subdivided variously by different scholars 28 In fact the chapters in this book have been categorized in more varied order than the two other books of the Kural text 28 Although the author did not group the chapters under any subdivisions as with the other two books of the Kural text 29 30 the Sangam poet Sirumedhaviyar first suggested grouping of the chapters under subdivisions in verse 20 of the Tiruvalluva Maalai 31 Accordingly he divided the Book of Aṟam into three Iyals or divisions namely payiram the first 4 chapters aṟam the next 33 chapters and uḻ the final chapter 32 Following this the ten medieval commentators who were the first to write commentaries about the Tirukkural divided the Book of Aṟam variously between two and four portions grouping the original chapters diversely under these divisions and thus changing the order of the chapters widely 18 33 34 For example while Parimelalhagar divided the Book of Aṟam into two parts namely domestic virtue and ascetic virtue besides keeping the first four chapters under Introduction other medieval commentators have divided the Book of Aṟam into four portions namely introduction domestic virtue ascetic virtue and fate 30 Modern commentators such as V O Chidambaram Pillai have even gone up to six divisions 18 The original grouping and numbering of the chapters too were changed considerably by the medieval commentators 18 For instance chapters 10 13 17 18 and 19 in the present day ordering which follows Parimelalhagar s ordering under subsection domestic virtue are originally chapters 26 27 30 31 and 32 respectively under subsection ascetic virtue in Manakkudavar s ordering Similarly the modern chapters 26 29 30 31 32 and 33 appearing under subsection ascetic virtue originally appear as chapters 19 20 10 16 17 and 18 respectively under subsection domestic virtue in Manakkudavar s ordering However being the earliest of all the available commentaries on the Tirukkural Manakkudavar s commentary is believed to be the closest to the original Kural text as written by Valluvar 35 36 Nevertheless given these subdivisions of domestic and ascetic virtues are later addition 37 38 both the domestic and ascetic virtues in the Book of Aṟam are addressed to the householder or commoner 39 Ascetic virtues in the Kural according to A Gopalakrishnann does not mean renunciation of household life or pursuing of the conventional ascetic life but only refers to giving up greedy desires and maintaining self control that is expected of every individual 39 Valluvar s position on aṟam or virtue EditWhile religious scriptures generally consider aṟam as a divine virtue Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness 40 Contrary to what other contemporary works say Valluvar holds that aṟam is common for all irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of palanquin or the rider in it 41 42 For this reason Valluvar keeps aṟam as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature 21 Valluvar considered justice as a facet of aṟam While ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato Aristotle and their descendants opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery Valluvar positively suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice In the words of V R Nedunchezhiyan justice according to Valluvar dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud 40 The greatest of virtues or aṟam according to Valluvar is non killing 43 followed by veracity 44 both of which are indicated in the same couplet Kural 323 45 and the greatest sins that Valluvar feels very strongly are ingratitude and meat eating 44 46 In the words of P S Sundaram while all other sins may be redeemed but never ingratitude Valluvar couldn t understand how anyone could wish to fatten himself by feeding on the fat of others 46 Influence EditOf the three books of the Kural text the Book of Aṟam remains the most translated one by scholars and writers and also the most widely interpreted one 47 Serving as a manual of precepts to exclusively teach dharma for millennia 2 the Book of Aṟam has influenced many of its readers to pursue the path of non violence This became more evident after the translation of the Kural into several European languages beginning in the early 18th century For instance Russian pacifist Leo Tolstoy was inspired by the concept of ahimsa and non killing found in the Book of Aṟam after reading a German translation of the Kural which bolstered his thoughts on pacifism 48 Tolstoy in turn instilled the virtue of non violence in Mohandas Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi sought his advice on the struggle for Indian Independence 49 Referring to the Kural literature as the Hindu Kural in his correspondence Tolstoy cited six couplets from the chapter on non violence 50 Taking this advice Gandhi then took to studying the Kural while in prison 2 later employing various non violent movements to liberate the nation 48 51 The South Indian philosopher Ramalinga Swamigal was inspired by the Kural at a young age and spent his whole life promoting compassion and non violence emphasizing on a meatless way of life 52 53 See also Edit India portal Literature portal Poetry portalInbam Kural book Porul Kural book Tao Te ChingNotes Edita The Kural insists strictly on moral vegetarianism 54 55 the doctrine that humans are morally obligated to refrain from eating meat or harming sentient beings 56 57 The concept of ahimsa or இன ன ச ய ய ம which remains the moral foundation of vegetarianism and veganism 58 is described in the chapter on non violence Chapter 32 59 Citations Edit Natarajan 2008 pp 1 6 a b c d e f Lal 1992 pp 4333 4334 a b Desikar 1969 p 47 Zvelebil 1973 p 165 Lal 1992 pp 4333 4334 4341 4342 Kandasamy 2017 pp 9 10 Dhand 2002 p 351 Encyclopaedia Britannica n d Columbia University Press 2013 Rosen 2006 a b The Oxford University n d Rinehart 2014 pp 138 139 Van Buitenen 1957 p 36 Widgery 1930 pp 232 245 Rocher 2003 Desikar 1969 p 42 Kandasamy 2017 pp 10 12 a b c d Kumaravelan 2008 pp 4 17 Alathur Kilar Verse 34 a b Kandasamy 2017 p 12 a b Velusamy amp Faraday 2017 p 55 Kowmareeshwari 2012 pp 46 47 Sundaramoorthi 2000 pp 146 147 Bharti 2001 pp 672 691 Varenne amp Derek 1977 pp 197 202 Mukherjee 1999 pp 392 393 Vanmeegar 2012 pp vii xvi a b Pillai 1972 p 12 16 Pillai 1972 p 12 a b Zvelebil 1973 p 158 Sirumedhaviyar pp Verse 20 Jagannathan 1963 pp 32 33 Aravindan 2018 p 105 Desikar 1969 p 73 Aravindan 2018 pp 346 347 Ramasubramania Raja 2017 pp 5 10 Zvelebil 1973 pp 158 160 Aravindan 2018 pp 346 348 a b Gopalakrishnan 2012 p 144 a b Sanjeevi 1973 pp xxiii xxvii Valluvar pp Verse 37 Visveswaran 2016 pp ix xi Lal 1992 pp 4341 4342 a b Sethupillai 1956 pp 34 36 Valluvar pp Verse 323 a b Sundaram 1990 pp 7 16 Sanjeevi 1973 a b Rajaram 2009 pp xviii xxi Parel 2002 pp 96 112 Tolstoy 1908 Velusamy amp Faraday 2017 p 61 Subbaraman 2015 pp 39 42 Sivagnanam 1974 p 96 Zvelebil 1973 pp 156 171 Sundaram 1990 p 13 Parimelalhagar 2009 pp 256 266 314 336 Engel 2000 pp 856 889 Dinshah 2010 Parimelalhagar 2009 pp 314 324 References EditPrimary sources Tamil Edit Alathur Kilar Kḻuvai Illai Verse 34 ப றந ன ற Purananuru Tamil Virtual University Avvaiyar s த ர வள ள வம ல Tirutthanigai Saravanaperumal Aiyar commentator via Wikisource Ilango Adigal ச லப பத க ரம Silappathigaram See original text in Tamil Virtual University Kambar கம பர ம யணம Kambaramayanam See original text in Tamil Virtual University Manakkudavar 2003 Meiyyappan C ed த ர க க றள மணக க டவர உர Chennai Manivasagar Padhippagam 370 pp Parimelalhagar 2009 த ர க க றள ம லம ம பர ம லழகர உர ய ம V M Gopalakrishnamachariyar compiler Chennai Uma Padhippagam 1456 pp Seethalai Sathanar மண ம கல Manimekalai See original text in Tamil Virtual University Sekkiḻar ப ர ய ப ர ண ம Periya Puranam See original text in Tamil Virtual University Sirumedhaviyar ta த ர வள ள வம ல Tirutthanigai Saravana Perumal Iyer commentator via Wikisource Verse 20 Valluvar s த ர க க றள Translated by George Uglow Pope via Wikisource See original text in Project Madurai Secondary sources Edit Aravindan M V 2018 உர ய ச ர யர கள Commentators Chennai Manivasagar Padhippagam Dinshah Freya 2010 American Vegan Society 50 Years PDF American Vegan 2 Vol 10 no 1 Summer 2010 Vineland NJ American Vegan Society p 31 ISSN 1536 3767 Archived from the original PDF on 22 July 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2018 Engel Mylan Jr 2000 The Immorality of Eating Meat In Pojman Louis P ed The Moral Life An Introductory Reader in Ethics and Literature New York Oxford University Press pp 856 889 Bharti S V 2001 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali With the Exposition of Vyasa New Delhi Motilal Banarsidas ISBN 978 81 20818 25 5 Columbia University Press 2013 Dharma The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th ed Gale ISBN 978 07 87650 15 5 Dhand Arti 17 December 2002 The Dharma of Ethics the Ethics of Dharma Quizzing the Ideals of Hinduism Journal of Religious Ethics 30 3 347 372 doi 10 1111 1467 9795 00113 ISSN 1467 9795 Desikar C Dhandapani 1969 த ர க க றள அழக ம அம ப ப ம Tirukkural Beauty and Structure in Tamil Chennai Tamil Valarcchi Iyakkam Gopalakrishnan A 2012 Tirukkural Tiruvalluvar Karutthurai Chidambaram Meiyappan Padhippagam Dharma Encyclopaedia Britannica n d Retrieved 18 August 2016 Rocher Ludo 2003 4 The Dharmasastra In Flood Gavin ed The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Blackwell ISBN 978 06 31215 35 6 Jagannathan Ki Vaa 1963 த ர க க றள ஆர ய ச ச ப பத ப ப Tirukkural Research Edition 3rd ed Coimbatore Ramakrishna Mission Vidhyalayam Kandasamy S N 2017 த ர க க றள ஆய வ த த ள வ ர அறத த ப ப ல Tirukkural Research commentary Book of Aram Chennai Manivasagar Padhippagam Kowmareeshwari ed 2012 Aganaanooru Puranaanooru Sanga Ilakkiyam in Tamil Vol 3 1st ed Chennai Saradha Pathippagam Sundaramoorthi I 2000 க றளம தம Kuralamudham Chennai Tamil Valarcchi Iyakkagam Kumaravelan R ed 2008 த ர க க றள வ உ ச தம பரன ர உர Tirukkural V O Chidhambaram Commentary in Tamil 1st ed Chennai Pari Nilayam Lal Mohan 1992 Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature Sasay to Zorgot New Delhi Sahitya Akademi ISBN 978 81 260 1221 3 Retrieved 7 March 2018 Mukherjee Sujit 1999 A Dictionary of Indian Literature One Beginnings 1850 Vol 1 1st ed Hyderabad Orient Longman ISBN 978 81 250 1453 9 Retrieved 7 March 2018 Natarajan P R 2008 Thirukkural Aratthuppaal in Tamil 1st ed Chennai Uma Padhippagam The Oxford University n d The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions Dharma Oxford Oxford University Press Retrieved 7 March 2018 Parel Anthony J 2002 Gandhi and Tolstoy in M P Mathai M S John Siby K Joseph eds Meditations on Gandhi a Ravindra Varma festschrift New Delhi Concept pp 96 112 retrieved 8 September 2012 Rinehart Robin 2014 Singh Pashaura Fenech Louis E eds The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 01 99699 30 8 Rajaram M 2009 Thirukkural Pearls of Inspiration New Delhi Rupa Publications pp xviii xxi Ramasubramania Raja M N ed 2017 த ர க க றள உர க களஞ ச யம Compendium of Thirukkural Commentaries in Tamil 1st ed Chennai Kottravai Sanjeevi N 1973 First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers 2nd ed Chennai University of Madras Sethupillai R P 1956 த ர வள ள வர ந ல நயம Beauty of Thiruvalluvar s work in Tamil 10th ed Chennai Kazhaga Veliyeedu Pillai M Shanmukham 1972 த ர க க றள அம ப ப ம ம ற ய ம The structure and method of Tirukkural 1 ed Chennai University of Madras Vanmeegar 2012 Thirukkural Couplets with English Transliteration and Meaning 1 ed Chennai Shree Shenbaga Pathippagam pp vii xvi Rosen Steven 2006 Essential Hinduism Chapter 3 Praeger ISBN 978 0 275 99006 0 Subbaraman N V 2015 வள ள வம வ ழ ந த வள ளல ர Vallalar Living the Valluvam Way Chennai Unique Media Integrators ISBN 978 93 83051 95 3 Sivagnanam M P 1974 த ர க க றள ல கல பற ற க க ற தத ன Why the Kural did not mention art Chennai Poonkodi Padhippagam Sundaram P S 1990 Tiruvalluvar Kural 1st ed Gurgaon Penguin Books ISBN 978 01 44000 09 8 Tolstoy Leo 14 December 1908 A Letter to A Hindu The Subjection of India Its Cause and Cure The Literature Network The Literature Network Retrieved 12 February 2012 THE HINDU KURAL Van Buitenen J A B April July 1957 Dharma and Moksa Philosophy East and West 7 1 2 36 Varenne Jean Derek Coltman 1977 Yoga and the Hindu Tradition Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 85116 7 Velusamy N Faraday Moses Michael eds February 2017 Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India Unique Media Integrators p 152 ISBN 978 93 85471 70 4 Visveswaran H V 2016 தம ழன ன தத த வம த ர க க றள அறம Tamilan s Philosophy is Tirukkural Virtue 1 ed Chennai Notion Press ISBN 978 93 86073 74 7 Widgery Alban G January 1930 The Principles of Hindu Ethics International Journal of Ethics 40 2 232 245 doi 10 1086 intejethi 40 2 2377977 S2CID 170183611 Zvelebil Kamil 1973 The Smile of Murugan On Tamil Literature of South India Leiden E J Brill ISBN 978 90 04 03591 1 Retrieved 7 March 2018 External links EditTirukkural Work by Tiruvalluvar from Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Aram Kural book amp oldid 1114158752, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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