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Wikipedia

Stereotypes of African Americans

January 01, 1970

For stereotypes about the inhabitants of Africa, see Stereotypes of Africans.

Stereotypes of African Americans are misleading beliefs about the culture of people with partial or total ancestry from any black racial groups of Africa whose ancestors resided in the United States since before 1865, largely connected to the racism and the discrimination to which African Americans are subjected. These beliefs date back to the slavery of black people during the colonial era and they have evolved within American society.

The cover of an 1832 edition of the sheet music of Jump Jim Crow, which depicts a stereotyped African-American who is named Jim Crow

The first major displays of stereotypes of African Americans were minstrel shows. Beginning in the nineteenth century, they used White actors who were dressed in blackface and attire which was supposedly worn by African-Americans in order to lampoon and disparage blacks. Some nineteenth century stereotypes, such as the sambo, are now considered to be derogatory and racist. The "Mandingo" and "Jezebel" stereotypes portray African-Americans as hypersexual, contributing to their sexualization. The Mammy archetype depicts a motherly black woman who is dedicated to her role working for a white family, a stereotype which dates back to the origin of Southern plantations. African-Americans are frequently stereotyped as having an unusual appetite for fried chicken, watermelon, and grape drinks.

In the 1980s as well as in the following decades, emerging stereotypes of black men depicted them as being criminals and social degenerates, particularly as drug dealers, crack addicts, hobos, and subway muggers.[1] Jesse Jackson said the media portrays black people as less intelligent.[2] The magical Negro is a stock character who is depicted as having special insight or powers, and has been depicted (and criticized) in American cinema.[3] In recent history, black men are stereotyped as being deadbeat fathers.[4] African American men are also stereotyped as being dangerous criminals.[5] African Americans are frequently stereotyped as being hypersexual, athletic, uncivilized, uneducated and violent. Young urban African American men are frequently labelled "gangstas" or "players."[6][7]

Stereotypes of black females include depictions which portray them as welfare queens or depictions which portray them as angry black women who are loud, aggressive, demanding, and rude.[8]

Laziness, submissiveness, backwardness, lewdness, treachery, and dishonesty are stereotypes historically assigned to African Americans.[9]

Historical stereotypes

 
Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843

Minstrel shows became a popular form of theater during the nineteenth century, which portrayed African Americans in stereotypical and often disparaging ways, some of the most common being that they are ignorant, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious, joyous, and musical.[10] One of the most popular styles of minstrelsy was Blackface, where White performers burnt cork and later greasepaint or applied shoe polish to their skin with the objective of blackening it and exaggerating their lips, often wearing woolly wigs, gloves, tailcoats, or ragged clothes to give a mocking, racially prejudicial theatrical portrayal of African Americans.[11] This performance helped introduce the use of racial slurs for African Americans, including "darky" and "coon".[12]

 
This reproduction of a 1900 William H. West minstrel show poster, originally published by the Strobridge Litho Co., shows the transformation from "white" to "black."

The best-known stock character is Jim Crow, among several others, featured in innumerable stories, minstrel shows, and early films with racially prejudicial portrayals and messaging about African Americans.

Jim Crow

Main article: Jim Crow (character)

The character Jim Crow was dressed in rags, battered hat, and torn shoes. The actor wore Blackface and impersonated a very nimble and irreverently witty black field hand.[13] The character's popular song was "Turn about and wheel about, and do just so. And every time I turn about I Jump Jim Crow."[14]

Sambo, Golliwog, and pickaninny

Main articles: Sambo (racial term), Golliwog, and Pickaninny

The character Sambo was a stereotype of black men who were considered very happy, usually laughing, lazy, irresponsible, or carefree.[12] The Sambo stereotype gained notoriety through the 1898 children's book The Story of Little Black Sambo by Helen Bannerman. It told the story of a boy named Sambo who outwitted a group of hungry tigers. This depiction of black people was displayed prominently in films of the early 20th century. The original text suggested that Sambo lived in India, but that fact may have escaped many readers. The book has often been considered to be a slur against Africans.

The figure of the Golliwog, with black skin, white-rimmed eyes, exaggerated red lips, frizzy hair, high white collar, bow tie, and colourful jacket and pants, was based on the blackface minstrel tradition. The character was greatly popular among other Western nations, remaining so well into the twentieth century.[15] The derived Commonwealth English epithet "wog" is applied more often to people from Sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent than to African-Americans, but "Golly dolls" still in production mostly retain the look of the stereotypical blackface minstrel.[16]

The term pickaninny, reserved for children, has a similarly broadened pattern of use in popular American theater and media. It originated from the Spanish term “pequeño niño” and the Portuguese term “pequenino” to describe small child in general, but it was applied especially to African-American children in the United States and later to Australian Aboriginal children.[17]

Black children as alligator bait

Main article: Alligator bait
 
Racist 1900s postcard, captioned: "Alligator bait, Florida"

A variant of the pickaninny stereotype depicted black children being used as bait to hunt alligators.[18] Although scattered references to the supposed practice appeared in early 20th-century newspapers, there is no credible evidence that the stereotype reflected an actual historical practice.

Mammy

Main article: Mammy stereotype
 
Advertisement showing the commercial Aunt Jemima character with apron and kerchief, along with rag dolls, 1909
 
Clipping from May 29, 1910, issue of the Chicago Tribune reporting a move to build a "monument" to "Ol' Black Mammy" in Washington, D.C. The subhead mentions "the sentiment that clings to this picturesque character of antebellum days."

The Mammy archetype describes African-American women household slaves who served as nannies giving maternal care to the white children of the family, who received an unusual degree of trust and affection from their enslavers. Early accounts of the Mammy archetype come from memoirs and diaries that emerged after the American Civil War, idealizing the role of the dominant female house slave: a woman completely dedicated to the white family, especially the children, and given complete charge of domestic management. She was a friend and advisor.[19]

Mandingo

The Mandingo is a stereotype of a sexually insatiable black man with a large penis, invented by white slave owners to advance the idea that Black people were not civilized but rather "animalistic" by nature.[20] The supposedly inherent physical strength, agility, and breeding abilities of Black men were lauded by white enslavers and auctioneers in order to promote the slaves they sold.[9] Since then, the Mandingo stereotype has been used to socially and legally justify spinning instances of interracial affairs between Black men and white women into tales of uncontrollable and largely one-sided lust. This stereotype has also sometimes been conflated with the 'Black brute' or 'Black buck' stereotype, painting the picture of an 'untameable' Black man with voracious and violent sexual urges.[21]

 
Book cover for Kyle Onstott's 'Mandingo'.

The term 'Mandingo' is a corrupted word for the Mandinka peoples of West Africa, presently populating Mali, Guinea, and the Gambia. One of the earliest usages found dates back to the 20th century with the publication of Mandingo, a 1957 historical erotica. The novel was part of a larger series which presented, in graphic and erotic detail, various instances of interracial lust, promiscuity, nymphomania, and other sexual acts on a fictional slave-breeding plantation.[22] In conjunction with the film Birth of a Nation (1915), white American media formed the stereotype of the Black man as an untamed beast who aimed to enact violence and revenge against the white man through the sexual domination of the white woman.[9]

Sapphire

See also: Angry black woman

The Sapphire stereotype defines Black women as argumentative, overbearing, and emasculating in their relationships with men, particularly Black men. She is usually shown to be controlling and nagging, and her role is often to demean and belittle the Black man for his flaws. This portrayal of a verbally and physically abusive woman for Black women goes against common norms of traditional femininity, which require women to be submissive and non-threatening.[23][24] During the era of slavery, white slave owners inflated the image of an enslaved Black woman raising her voice at her male counterparts, which was often necessary in day-to-day work. This was used to contrast the loud and "uncivilized" Black woman against the white woman, who was considered more respectable, quiet, and morally behaved.[25]

The popularization of the Sapphire stereotype dates back to the successful 1928-1960 radio show Amos 'n' Andy, which was written and voiced by white actors. The Black female character Sapphire Stevens was the wife of George "Kingfish" Stevens, a Black man depicted as lazy and ignorant. These traits were often a trigger for Sapphire's extreme rage and violence. Sapphire was positioned as overly confrontational and emasculating of her husband, and the show's popularity turned her character into a stock caricature and stereotype.[9][26]

This stereotype has also developed into the trope of the 'Angry Black Woman', overall portraying Black American women as rude, loud, malicious, stubborn, and overbearing in all situations, not only in their relationships.

Jezebel

The Jezebel is a stereotype of a hypersexual, seductive, and sexually voracious Black woman. Her value in society or the relative media is based almost purely on her sexuality and her body.[27]

The roots of the Jezebel stereotype emerged during the era of chattel slavery in the United States. White slave owners exercised control over enslaved Black women's sexuality and fertility, as their worth on the auction block was determined by their childbearing ability, ie. their ability to produce more slaves.[28] The sexual objectification of Black women redefined their bodies as "sites of wild, unrestrained sexuality",[29] insatiably eager to engage in sexual activity and become pregnant. In reality, enslaved Black women were reduced to little more than breeding stock, frequently coerced and sexually assaulted by white men.[30]

Post-emancipation, the sexualization of Black women has remained rampant in Western society. Modern-day Jezebels are pervasive in popular music culture; Black women more often appear in music videos with provocative clothing and hypersexual behaviour compared to other races, including white women.[27] The Jezebel stereotype has also contributed to the adultification and sexualization of Black adolescent girls.[31]

Tragic mulatta

A stereotype that was popular in early Hollywood, the "tragic mulatta," served as a cautionary tale for black people. She was usually depicted as a sexually attractive, light-skinned woman who was of African descent but could pass for Caucasian.[32] The stereotype portrayed light-skinned women as obsessed with getting ahead, their ultimate goal being marriage to a white, middle-class man. The only route to redemption would be for her to accept her "blackness."

Uncle Tom

The Uncle Tom stereotype represents a black man who is simple-minded and compliant but most essentially interested in the welfare of whites over that of other blacks. It derives from the title character of the novel Uncle Tom's Cabin, and is synonymous with black male slaves who informed on other black slaves’ activities to their white master, often referred to as a "house Negro", particularly for planned escapes.[33] It is the male version of the similar stereotype Aunt Jemima.

Black brute, Black Buck

Further information: Black Buck

Black brutes or black bucks are stereotypes for black men, who are generally depicted as being highly prone to behavior that is violent and inhuman. They are portrayed to be hideous, terrifying black male predators who target helpless victims, especially white women.[34] In the post-Reconstruction United States, 'black buck' was a racial slur used to describe black men who refused to bend to the law of white authority and were seen as irredeemably violent, rude, and lecherous.[35]

In art

 
Samuel Jennings (active 1789–1834). Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences, or The Genius of America Encouraging the Emancipation of the Blacks.

From the Colonial Era to the American Revolution, ideas about African Americans were variously used in propaganda either for or against slavery. Paintings like John Singleton Copley's Watson and the Shark (1778) and Samuel Jennings's Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences (1792) are early examples of the debate under way at that time as to the role of black people in America. Watson represents an historical event, but Liberty is indicative of abolitionist sentiments expressed in Philadelphia's post-revolutionary intellectual community. Nevertheless, Jennings' painting represents African Americans in a stereotypical role as passive, submissive beneficiaries of not only slavery's abolition but also knowledge, which liberty had graciously bestowed upon them.

As another stereotypical caricature "performed by white men disguised in facial paint, minstrelsy relegated black people to sharply defined dehumanizing roles." With the success of T. D. Rice and Daniel Emmet, the label of "blacks as buffoons" was created.[36] One of the earliest versions of the "black as buffoon" can be seen in John Lewis Krimmel's Quilting Frolic. The violinist in the 1813 painting, with his tattered and patched clothing, along with a bottle protruding from his coat pocket, appears to be an early model for Rice's Jim Crow character. Krimmel's representation of a "[s]habbily dressed" fiddler and serving girl with "toothy smile" and "oversized red lips" marks him as "...one of the first American artists to use physiognomical distortions as a basic element in the depiction of African Americans."[36]

Contemporary stereotypes

Crack addicts and drug dealers

Scholars agree that news-media stereotypes of people of color are pervasive.[37][38][39][40][41][42] African Americans were more likely to appear as perpetrators in drug and violent crime stories in the network news.[43]

In the 1980s and the 1990s, stereotypes of black men shifted and the primary and common images were of drug dealers, crack victims, the underclass and impoverished, the homeless, and subway muggers.[1] Similarly, Douglas (1995), who looked at O. J. Simpson, Louis Farrakhan, and the Million Man March, found that the media placed African-American men on a spectrum of good versus evil.

Watermelon and fried chicken

Main articles: Watermelon stereotype and Fried chicken stereotype
 
A postcard showing an African-American girl eating a large watermelon

There are commonly held stereotypes that African Americans have an unorthodox appetite for watermelons and love fried chicken. Race and folklore professor Claire Schmidt attributes the latter both to its popularity in Southern cuisine and to a scene from the film Birth of a Nation in which a rowdy African-American man is seen eating fried chicken in a legislative hall.[44]

Welfare queen

Main article: Welfare queen

The welfare queen stereotype depicts an African-American woman who defrauds the public welfare system to support herself, having its roots in both race and gender. This stereotype negatively portrays black women as scheming and lazy, ignoring the genuine economic hardships which black women, especially mothers, disproportionately face.[45]

Magical Negro

Main article: Magical Negro
See also: John Henryism

The magical Negro (or mystical Negro) is a stock character who appears in a variety of fiction and uses special insight or powers to help the white protagonist. The Magical Negro is a subtype of the more generic numinous Negro, a term coined by Richard Brookhiser in National Review.[46] The latter term refers to clumsy depictions of saintly, respected or heroic black protagonists or mentors in US entertainment.[46]

Angry black woman

Main article: Angry black woman

In the 21st century, the "angry black woman" is depicted as loud, aggressive, demanding, uncivilized, and physically threatening, as well as lower-middle-class and materialistic.[8] She will not stay in what is perceived as her "proper" place.[47]

Controlling image

Controlling images are stereotypes that are used against a marginalized group to portray social injustice as natural, normal, and inevitable.[48] By erasing their individuality, controlling images silence black women and make them invisible in society.[8] The misleading controlling image present is that white women are the standard for everything, even oppression.[47]

Education

Studies show that scholarship has been dominated by white men and women.[49] Being a recognized academic includes social activism as well as scholarship. That is a difficult position to hold since white counterparts dominate the activist and social work realms of scholarship.[49] It is notably difficult for a black woman to receive the resources needed to complete her research and to write the texts that she desires.[49] That, in part, is due to the silencing effect of the angry black woman stereotype. Black women are skeptical of raising issues, also seen as complaining, within professional settings because of their fear of being judged.[8]

Mental and emotional consequences

Due to the angry black woman stereotype, black women tend to become desensitized about their own feelings to avoid judgment.[50] They often feel that they must show no emotion outside of their comfortable spaces. That results in the accumulation of these feelings of hurt and can be projected on loved ones as anger.[50] Once seen as angry, black women are always seen in that light and so have their opinions, aspirations, and values dismissed.[50] The repression of those feelings can also result in serious mental health issues, which creates a complex with the strong black woman. As a common problem within the black community, black women seldom seek help for their mental health challenges.[51]

Interracial relationships

Oftentimes, black women's opinions are not heard in studies that examine interracial relationships.[52] Black women are often assumed to be just naturally angry. However, the implications of black women's opinions are not explored within the context of race and history. According to Erica Child's study, black women are most opposed to interracial relationships.[52]

Since the 1600s, interracial sexuality has represented unfortunate sentiments for black women.[52] Black men who were engaged with white women were severely punished.[52] However, white men who exploited black women were never reprimanded. In fact, it was more economically favorable for a black woman to birth a white man's child because slave labor would be increased by the one-drop rule. It was taboo for a white woman to have a black man's child, as it was seen as race tainting.[52] In contemporary times, interracial relationships can sometimes represent rejection for black women. The probability of finding a "good" black man was low because of the prevalence of homicide, drugs, incarceration, and interracial relationships, making the task for black women more difficult.[52]

As concluded from the study, interracial dating compromises black love.[52] It was often that participants expressed their opinions that black love is important and represents more than the aesthetic since it is about black solidarity.[52] "Angry" black women believe that if whites will never understand black people and they still regard black people as inferior, interracial relationships will never be worthwhile.[52] The study shows that most of the participants think that black women who have interracial relationships will not betray or disassociate with the black community, but black men who date interracially are seen as taking away from the black community to advance the white patriarchy.[52]

"Black bitch"

The "black bitch" is a contemporary manifestation of the Jezebel stereotype. Characters termed "bad black girls," "black whores," and "black bitches" are archetypes of many blaxploitation films produced by the Hollywood establishment.[53]

Strong black woman

The "strong black woman" stereotype is a discourse through that primarily black middle-class women in the black Baptist Church instruct working-class black women on morality, self-help, and economic empowerment and assimilative values in the bigger interest of racial uplift and pride (Higginbotham, 1993). In this narrative, the woman documents middle-class women attempting to push back against dominant racist narratives of black women being immoral, promiscuous, unclean, lazy and mannerless by engaging in public outreach campaigns that include literature that warns against brightly colored clothing, gum chewing, loud talking, and unclean homes, among other directives.[54] That discourse is harmful, dehumanizing, and silencing.

The "strong black woman" narrative is a controlling image that perpetuates the idea it is acceptable to mistreat black women because they are strong and so can handle it. This narrative can also act as a silencing method. When black women are struggling to be heard because they go through things in life like everyone else, they are silenced and reminded that they are strong, instead of actions being taken toward alleviating their problems.[54]

Independent black woman

See also: B.A.P.S.

The "independent black woman" is the depiction of a narcissistic, overachieving, financially successful woman who emasculates black males in her life.[55]

Black American princess

See also: Black American princess

Athleticism

See also: Race and sports § "Black athletic superiority"

Blacks are stereotyped as being more athletic and superior at sports than other races. Even though they make up only 12.4% of the US population, 75% of NBA players[56] and 65% of NFL players are black.[57] African-American college athletes may be seen as getting into college solely on their athletic ability, not their intellectual and academic merit.[58]

Black athletic superiority is a theory that says black people possess traits that are acquired through genetic and/or environmental factors that permits them to excel over other races in athletic competition. White people are more likely to hold such views, but some black people and other racial affiliations do as well.[59]

Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights "natural black athleticism" has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.[60] The stereotype suggests that African Americans are incapable of competing in "white sports" such as ice hockey[61] and swimming.[62]

Intelligence

See also: Race and intelligence

Following the stereotypical character archetypes, African Americans have falsely and frequently been thought of and referred to as having little intelligence compared to other racial groups, particularly white people.[63] This has factored into African Americans being denied opportunities in employment. Even after slavery ended, the intellectual capacity of black people was still frequently questioned.

Stephen Jay Gould's book The Mismeasure of Man (1981) demonstrated how early 20th-century biases among scientists and researchers affected their purportedly objective scientific studies, data gathering, and conclusions which they drew about the absolute and relative intelligence of different groups and of gender and intelligence.[citation needed]

Media

Further information: Representation of African Americans in media

Early stereotypes

Early minstrel shows of the mid-19th century lampooned the supposed stupidity of black people.[citation needed] Even after slavery ended, the intellectual capacity of black people was still frequently questioned. Movies such as Birth of a Nation (1915) questioned whether black people were fit to run for governmental offices or to vote.

Some critics have considered Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn as "racist" because of its depiction of the slave Jim and other black characters. Some schools have excluded the book from their curricula or libraries.[64]

Stereotypes pervaded other aspects of culture, such as various board games that used Sambo or similar imagery in their design. An example is the Jolly Darkie Target Game in which players were expected to toss a ball through the "gaping mouth" of the target in cardboard decorated using imagery of Sambo.[65]

Other stereotypes displayed the impossibility of good relations between black and white people, instilling the idea that the two races could never coexist peacefully in society. The intent was to lead audiences to the conclusion of the proper solution to remove blacks from American society entirely.[66]

Film and television

See also: African-American representation in Hollywood

In film, black people are also shown in a stereotypical manner that promotes notions of moral inferiority. For female movie characters specifically, black actresses have been shown to use vulgar profanity, be physically violent, and lack overall self-control at a disproportionately higher rate than white actresses.[67]

African-American women have been represented in film and television in a variety of different ways, starting from the stereotype/archetype of "mammy" (as is exemplified the role played by Hattie McDaniel in Gone with the Wind) drawn from minstrel shows,[68] through to the heroines of blaxploitation movies of the 1970s, but the latter was then weakened by commercial studios.[69] The mammy stereotype was portrayed as asexual while later representations of black women demonstrated a predatory sexuality.[70]

Fashion

In print, black people are portrayed as overtly aggressive. In a study of fashion magazine photographs, Millard and Grant found that black models are often depicted as more aggressive and sociable but less intelligent and achievement-oriented.[71]

Sports

Further information: Race and sports

In Darwin's Athletes, John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a lack of emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.[72] Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights "natural black athleticism" has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.[60] Some contemporary sports commentators have questioned whether black people are intelligent enough to hold "strategic" positions or coach games such as football.[73]

In another example, a study of the portrayal of race, ethnicity, and nationality in televised sporting events by the journalist Derrick Z. Jackson in 1989 showed that black people were more likely than whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms.[74]

Criminal stereotyping

Main article: Criminal stereotype of African Americans

According to Lawrence Grossman, former president of CBS News and PBS, television newscasts "disproportionately show African Americans under arrest, living in slums, on welfare, and in need of help from the community."[75][76] Similarly, Hurwitz and Peffley wrote that violent acts committed by a person of color often take up more than half of local news broadcasts, which often portray the person of color in a much more sinister light than their white counterparts. The authors argue that African Americans are not only more likely to be seen as suspects of horrendous crimes in the press but also are interpreted as being violent or harmful individuals to the general public.[77]

Mary Beth Oliver, a professor at Penn State University, stated that "the frequency with which black men specifically have been the target of police aggression speaks to the undeniable role that race plays in false assumptions of danger and criminality."[78] Oliver additionally stated that "the variables that play contributory roles in priming thoughts of dangerous or aggressive black men, are age, dress, and gender, among others which lead to the false assumptions of danger and criminality."[78]

New media stereotypes

Social media

In 2012, Mia Moody, assistant professor of journalism, public relations and new media in Baylor's College of Arts and Sciences, documented Facebook fans' use of social media to target US President Barack Obama and his family through stereotypes. Her study found several themes and missions of groups targeting the Obamas. Some groups focused on attacking his politics and consisted of Facebook members who had an interest in politics and used social media to share their ideas. Other more-malicious types focused on the president's race, religion, sexual orientation, personality, and diet.[79]

Moody analyzed more than 20 Facebook groups/pages using the keywords "hate," "Barack Obama," and "Michelle Obama." Hate groups, which once recruited members through word of mouth and distribution of pamphlets, spread the message that one race is inferior, targeted a historically oppressed group, and used degrading, hateful terms.[79]

She concluded that historical stereotypes focusing on diet and blackface had all but disappeared from mainstream television shows and movies, but had resurfaced in newmedia representations. Most portrayals fell into three categories: blackface, animalistic and evil/angry. Similarly, media had made progress in their handling of gender-related topics, but Facebook offered a new platform for sexist messages to thrive. Facebook users played up shallow, patriarchal representations of Michelle Obama, focusing on her emotions, appearance, and personality. Conversely, they emphasized historical stereotypes of Barack Obama that depicted him as flashy and animalistic. Media's reliance on stereotypes of women and African Americans not only hindered civil rights but also helped determine how people treated marginalized groups, her study found.[79]

Video games

Representations of African Americans in video games tend to reinforce stereotypes of males as athletes or gangsters.[80][81]

Hip hop music

Further information: Misogyny in rap music

Hip hop music has reinforced stereotypes about black men. Exposure to violent, misogynistic rap music performed by African American male rappers has been shown to activate negative stereotypes towards black men as hostile, criminal and sexist.[82] [83] Hip hop portrays a stereotypical black masculine aesthetic and has stereotyped black men as hypersexual thugs and gangsters who hail from an inner city ghetto. [84][85] Listening to this misogynistic and violent Hip hop has effects on African American Men and their cognitive performance. They perform worse in tests resembling the Graduate Record Examination, after listening to this kind of music compared to white men under the same conditions. [86] African-American women are degraded and referred to as “bitches” and “hoes” in rap music.[87] African-American women are over-sexualized in modern hip hop music videos and are portrayed as sexual objects for rappers.[88] Over-sexualization of African American women in rap music videos may have health implications for viewers of such videos. In a survey study, adolescent African American women watching rap videos and perceiving them to contain more sexual stereotypes were more likely to binge drink, test positive for marijuana and have a negative body image.[89]

See also

References

Citations

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Bibliography

  • Collins, Patricia Hill (1990). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Hyman. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-044-45138-9.
  • West, Carolyn (2008). "Mammy, Jezebel, Sapphire, and Their Homegirls: Developing an 'Oppositional Gaze' Towards the Images of Black Women". Lectures on the Psychology of Women (4).[dead link]
  • White, Deborah Gray (1999). Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (Revised ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31481-6.

Further reading

  • Amoah, Jewel D. (1997). "Back on the Auction Block: A Discussion of Black Women and Pornography". National Black Law Journal. 14 (2): 204–221.
  • Anderson, L. M. (1997). Mammies no more: The changing image of black women on stage and screen. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Bogle, Donald. (1994). Toms, coons, mulattoes, mammies, and bucks: An interpretive history of Blacks in American films (New 3rd ed.). New York, NY: Continuum.
  • Jewell, K.S. (1993). From mammy to Miss America and beyond: Cultural images and the shaping of U.S. social policy. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Leab, D. J. (1975/1976). From Sambo to Superspade: The black experience in motion pictures. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
  • Patricia A. Turner, Ceramic Uncles & Celluloid Mammies: Black Images and Their Influence on Culture (Anchor Books, 1994).
  • Stampp, Kenneth M. (1971). "Rebels and Sambos: The Search for the Negro's Personality in Slavery". The Journal of Southern History. 37 (3): 367–392. doi:10.2307/2206947. JSTOR 2206947.
  • West, Carolyn M. (1995). "Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel: Historical images of Black women and their implications for psychotherapy". Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training. 32 (3): 458–466. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.32.3.458. ProQuest 614327223.

January 01, 1970
stereotypes, african, americans, stereotypes, about, inhabitants, africa, stereotypes, africans, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challen. For stereotypes about the inhabitants of Africa see Stereotypes of Africans This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Stereotypes of African Americans news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2022 Learn how and when to remove this message Stereotypes of African Americans are misleading beliefs about the culture of people with partial or total ancestry from any black racial groups of Africa whose ancestors resided in the United States since before 1865 largely connected to the racism and the discrimination to which African Americans are subjected These beliefs date back to the slavery of black people during the colonial era and they have evolved within American society The cover of an 1832 edition of the sheet music of Jump Jim Crow which depicts a stereotyped African American who is named Jim Crow The first major displays of stereotypes of African Americans were minstrel shows Beginning in the nineteenth century they used White actors who were dressed in blackface and attire which was supposedly worn by African Americans in order to lampoon and disparage blacks Some nineteenth century stereotypes such as the sambo are now considered to be derogatory and racist The Mandingo and Jezebel stereotypes portray African Americans as hypersexual contributing to their sexualization The Mammy archetype depicts a motherly black woman who is dedicated to her role working for a white family a stereotype which dates back to the origin of Southern plantations African Americans are frequently stereotyped as having an unusual appetite for fried chicken watermelon and grape drinks In the 1980s as well as in the following decades emerging stereotypes of black men depicted them as being criminals and social degenerates particularly as drug dealers crack addicts hobos and subway muggers 1 Jesse Jackson said the media portrays black people as less intelligent 2 The magical Negro is a stock character who is depicted as having special insight or powers and has been depicted and criticized in American cinema 3 In recent history black men are stereotyped as being deadbeat fathers 4 African American men are also stereotyped as being dangerous criminals 5 African Americans are frequently stereotyped as being hypersexual athletic uncivilized uneducated and violent Young urban African American men are frequently labelled gangstas or players 6 7 Stereotypes of black females include depictions which portray them as welfare queens or depictions which portray them as angry black women who are loud aggressive demanding and rude 8 Laziness submissiveness backwardness lewdness treachery and dishonesty are stereotypes historically assigned to African Americans 9 Contents 1 Historical stereotypes 1 1 Jim Crow 1 2 Sambo Golliwog and pickaninny 1 2 1 Black children as alligator bait 1 3 Mammy 1 4 Mandingo 1 5 Sapphire 1 6 Jezebel 1 7 Tragic mulatta 1 8 Uncle Tom 1 9 Black brute Black Buck 1 10 In art 2 Contemporary stereotypes 2 1 Crack addicts and drug dealers 2 2 Watermelon and fried chicken 2 3 Welfare queen 2 4 Magical Negro 2 5 Angry black woman 2 5 1 Controlling image 2 5 2 Education 2 5 3 Mental and emotional consequences 2 5 4 Interracial relationships 2 5 5 Black bitch 2 5 6 Strong black woman 2 5 7 Independent black woman 2 6 Black American princess 2 7 Athleticism 2 8 Intelligence 3 Media 3 1 Early stereotypes 3 2 Film and television 3 3 Fashion 3 4 Sports 3 5 Criminal stereotyping 3 6 New media stereotypes 3 6 1 Social media 3 6 2 Video games 3 6 3 Hip hop music 4 See also 5 References 5 1 Citations 5 2 Bibliography 6 Further readingHistorical stereotypes nbsp Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels 1843 Minstrel shows became a popular form of theater during the nineteenth century which portrayed African Americans in stereotypical and often disparaging ways some of the most common being that they are ignorant lazy buffoonish superstitious joyous and musical 10 One of the most popular styles of minstrelsy was Blackface where White performers burnt cork and later greasepaint or applied shoe polish to their skin with the objective of blackening it and exaggerating their lips often wearing woolly wigs gloves tailcoats or ragged clothes to give a mocking racially prejudicial theatrical portrayal of African Americans 11 This performance helped introduce the use of racial slurs for African Americans including darky and coon 12 nbsp This reproduction of a 1900 William H West minstrel show poster originally published by the Strobridge Litho Co shows the transformation from white to black The best known stock character is Jim Crow among several others featured in innumerable stories minstrel shows and early films with racially prejudicial portrayals and messaging about African Americans Jim Crow Main article Jim Crow character The character Jim Crow was dressed in rags battered hat and torn shoes The actor wore Blackface and impersonated a very nimble and irreverently witty black field hand 13 The character s popular song was Turn about and wheel about and do just so And every time I turn about I Jump Jim Crow 14 Sambo Golliwog and pickaninny Main articles Sambo racial term Golliwog and Pickaninny The character Sambo was a stereotype of black men who were considered very happy usually laughing lazy irresponsible or carefree 12 The Sambo stereotype gained notoriety through the 1898 children s book The Story of Little Black Sambo by Helen Bannerman It told the story of a boy named Sambo who outwitted a group of hungry tigers This depiction of black people was displayed prominently in films of the early 20th century The original text suggested that Sambo lived in India but that fact may have escaped many readers The book has often been considered to be a slur against Africans The figure of the Golliwog with black skin white rimmed eyes exaggerated red lips frizzy hair high white collar bow tie and colourful jacket and pants was based on the blackface minstrel tradition The character was greatly popular among other Western nations remaining so well into the twentieth century 15 The derived Commonwealth English epithet wog is applied more often to people from Sub Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent than to African Americans but Golly dolls still in production mostly retain the look of the stereotypical blackface minstrel 16 The term pickaninny reserved for children has a similarly broadened pattern of use in popular American theater and media It originated from the Spanish term pequeno nino and the Portuguese term pequenino to describe small child in general but it was applied especially to African American children in the United States and later to Australian Aboriginal children 17 Black children as alligator bait Main article Alligator bait nbsp Racist 1900s postcard captioned Alligator bait Florida A variant of the pickaninny stereotype depicted black children being used as bait to hunt alligators 18 Although scattered references to the supposed practice appeared in early 20th century newspapers there is no credible evidence that the stereotype reflected an actual historical practice Mammy Main article Mammy stereotype nbsp Advertisement showing the commercial Aunt Jemima character with apron and kerchief along with rag dolls 1909 nbsp Clipping from May 29 1910 issue of the Chicago Tribune reporting a move to build a monument to Ol Black Mammy in Washington D C The subhead mentions the sentiment that clings to this picturesque character of antebellum days The Mammy archetype describes African American women household slaves who served as nannies giving maternal care to the white children of the family who received an unusual degree of trust and affection from their enslavers Early accounts of the Mammy archetype come from memoirs and diaries that emerged after the American Civil War idealizing the role of the dominant female house slave a woman completely dedicated to the white family especially the children and given complete charge of domestic management She was a friend and advisor 19 Mandingo The Mandingo is a stereotype of a sexually insatiable black man with a large penis invented by white slave owners to advance the idea that Black people were not civilized but rather animalistic by nature 20 The supposedly inherent physical strength agility and breeding abilities of Black men were lauded by white enslavers and auctioneers in order to promote the slaves they sold 9 Since then the Mandingo stereotype has been used to socially and legally justify spinning instances of interracial affairs between Black men and white women into tales of uncontrollable and largely one sided lust This stereotype has also sometimes been conflated with the Black brute or Black buck stereotype painting the picture of an untameable Black man with voracious and violent sexual urges 21 nbsp Book cover for Kyle Onstott s Mandingo The term Mandingo is a corrupted word for the Mandinka peoples of West Africa presently populating Mali Guinea and the Gambia One of the earliest usages found dates back to the 20th century with the publication of Mandingo a 1957 historical erotica The novel was part of a larger series which presented in graphic and erotic detail various instances of interracial lust promiscuity nymphomania and other sexual acts on a fictional slave breeding plantation 22 In conjunction with the film Birth of a Nation 1915 white American media formed the stereotype of the Black man as an untamed beast who aimed to enact violence and revenge against the white man through the sexual domination of the white woman 9 Sapphire See also Angry black woman The Sapphire stereotype defines Black women as argumentative overbearing and emasculating in their relationships with men particularly Black men She is usually shown to be controlling and nagging and her role is often to demean and belittle the Black man for his flaws This portrayal of a verbally and physically abusive woman for Black women goes against common norms of traditional femininity which require women to be submissive and non threatening 23 24 During the era of slavery white slave owners inflated the image of an enslaved Black woman raising her voice at her male counterparts which was often necessary in day to day work This was used to contrast the loud and uncivilized Black woman against the white woman who was considered more respectable quiet and morally behaved 25 The popularization of the Sapphire stereotype dates back to the successful 1928 1960 radio show Amos n Andy which was written and voiced by white actors The Black female character Sapphire Stevens was the wife of George Kingfish Stevens a Black man depicted as lazy and ignorant These traits were often a trigger for Sapphire s extreme rage and violence Sapphire was positioned as overly confrontational and emasculating of her husband and the show s popularity turned her character into a stock caricature and stereotype 9 26 This stereotype has also developed into the trope of the Angry Black Woman overall portraying Black American women as rude loud malicious stubborn and overbearing in all situations not only in their relationships Jezebel The Jezebel is a stereotype of a hypersexual seductive and sexually voracious Black woman Her value in society or the relative media is based almost purely on her sexuality and her body 27 The roots of the Jezebel stereotype emerged during the era of chattel slavery in the United States White slave owners exercised control over enslaved Black women s sexuality and fertility as their worth on the auction block was determined by their childbearing ability ie their ability to produce more slaves 28 The sexual objectification of Black women redefined their bodies as sites of wild unrestrained sexuality 29 insatiably eager to engage in sexual activity and become pregnant In reality enslaved Black women were reduced to little more than breeding stock frequently coerced and sexually assaulted by white men 30 Post emancipation the sexualization of Black women has remained rampant in Western society Modern day Jezebels are pervasive in popular music culture Black women more often appear in music videos with provocative clothing and hypersexual behaviour compared to other races including white women 27 The Jezebel stereotype has also contributed to the adultification and sexualization of Black adolescent girls 31 Tragic mulatta A stereotype that was popular in early Hollywood the tragic mulatta served as a cautionary tale for black people She was usually depicted as a sexually attractive light skinned woman who was of African descent but could pass for Caucasian 32 The stereotype portrayed light skinned women as obsessed with getting ahead their ultimate goal being marriage to a white middle class man The only route to redemption would be for her to accept her blackness Uncle Tom The Uncle Tom stereotype represents a black man who is simple minded and compliant but most essentially interested in the welfare of whites over that of other blacks It derives from the title character of the novel Uncle Tom s Cabin and is synonymous with black male slaves who informed on other black slaves activities to their white master often referred to as a house Negro particularly for planned escapes 33 It is the male version of the similar stereotype Aunt Jemima Black brute Black Buck Further information Black Buck Black brutes or black bucks are stereotypes for black men who are generally depicted as being highly prone to behavior that is violent and inhuman They are portrayed to be hideous terrifying black male predators who target helpless victims especially white women 34 In the post Reconstruction United States black buck was a racial slur used to describe black men who refused to bend to the law of white authority and were seen as irredeemably violent rude and lecherous 35 In art nbsp Samuel Jennings active 1789 1834 Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences or The Genius of America Encouraging the Emancipation of the Blacks From the Colonial Era to the American Revolution ideas about African Americans were variously used in propaganda either for or against slavery Paintings like John Singleton Copley s Watson and the Shark 1778 and Samuel Jennings s Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences 1792 are early examples of the debate under way at that time as to the role of black people in America Watson represents an historical event but Liberty is indicative of abolitionist sentiments expressed in Philadelphia s post revolutionary intellectual community Nevertheless Jennings painting represents African Americans in a stereotypical role as passive submissive beneficiaries of not only slavery s abolition but also knowledge which liberty had graciously bestowed upon them As another stereotypical caricature performed by white men disguised in facial paint minstrelsy relegated black people to sharply defined dehumanizing roles With the success of T D Rice and Daniel Emmet the label of blacks as buffoons was created 36 One of the earliest versions of the black as buffoon can be seen in John Lewis Krimmel s Quilting Frolic The violinist in the 1813 painting with his tattered and patched clothing along with a bottle protruding from his coat pocket appears to be an early model for Rice s Jim Crow character Krimmel s representation of a s habbily dressed fiddler and serving girl with toothy smile and oversized red lips marks him as one of the first American artists to use physiognomical distortions as a basic element in the depiction of African Americans 36 Contemporary stereotypesThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2014 Learn how and when to remove this message Crack addicts and drug dealers Scholars agree that news media stereotypes of people of color are pervasive 37 38 39 40 41 42 African Americans were more likely to appear as perpetrators in drug and violent crime stories in the network news 43 In the 1980s and the 1990s stereotypes of black men shifted and the primary and common images were of drug dealers crack victims the underclass and impoverished the homeless and subway muggers 1 Similarly Douglas 1995 who looked at O J Simpson Louis Farrakhan and the Million Man March found that the media placed African American men on a spectrum of good versus evil Watermelon and fried chicken Main articles Watermelon stereotype and Fried chicken stereotype nbsp A postcard showing an African American girl eating a large watermelon There are commonly held stereotypes that African Americans have an unorthodox appetite for watermelons and love fried chicken Race and folklore professor Claire Schmidt attributes the latter both to its popularity in Southern cuisine and to a scene from the film Birth of a Nation in which a rowdy African American man is seen eating fried chicken in a legislative hall 44 Welfare queen Main article Welfare queen The welfare queen stereotype depicts an African American woman who defrauds the public welfare system to support herself having its roots in both race and gender This stereotype negatively portrays black women as scheming and lazy ignoring the genuine economic hardships which black women especially mothers disproportionately face 45 Magical Negro Main article Magical Negro See also John Henryism The magical Negro or mystical Negro is a stock character who appears in a variety of fiction and uses special insight or powers to help the white protagonist The Magical Negro is a subtype of the more generic numinous Negro a term coined by Richard Brookhiser in National Review 46 The latter term refers to clumsy depictions of saintly respected or heroic black protagonists or mentors in US entertainment 46 Angry black woman Main article Angry black woman In the 21st century the angry black woman is depicted as loud aggressive demanding uncivilized and physically threatening as well as lower middle class and materialistic 8 She will not stay in what is perceived as her proper place 47 Controlling image Controlling images are stereotypes that are used against a marginalized group to portray social injustice as natural normal and inevitable 48 By erasing their individuality controlling images silence black women and make them invisible in society 8 The misleading controlling image present is that white women are the standard for everything even oppression 47 Education Studies show that scholarship has been dominated by white men and women 49 Being a recognized academic includes social activism as well as scholarship That is a difficult position to hold since white counterparts dominate the activist and social work realms of scholarship 49 It is notably difficult for a black woman to receive the resources needed to complete her research and to write the texts that she desires 49 That in part is due to the silencing effect of the angry black woman stereotype Black women are skeptical of raising issues also seen as complaining within professional settings because of their fear of being judged 8 Mental and emotional consequences Due to the angry black woman stereotype black women tend to become desensitized about their own feelings to avoid judgment 50 They often feel that they must show no emotion outside of their comfortable spaces That results in the accumulation of these feelings of hurt and can be projected on loved ones as anger 50 Once seen as angry black women are always seen in that light and so have their opinions aspirations and values dismissed 50 The repression of those feelings can also result in serious mental health issues which creates a complex with the strong black woman As a common problem within the black community black women seldom seek help for their mental health challenges 51 Interracial relationships Oftentimes black women s opinions are not heard in studies that examine interracial relationships 52 Black women are often assumed to be just naturally angry However the implications of black women s opinions are not explored within the context of race and history According to Erica Child s study black women are most opposed to interracial relationships 52 Since the 1600s interracial sexuality has represented unfortunate sentiments for black women 52 Black men who were engaged with white women were severely punished 52 However white men who exploited black women were never reprimanded In fact it was more economically favorable for a black woman to birth a white man s child because slave labor would be increased by the one drop rule It was taboo for a white woman to have a black man s child as it was seen as race tainting 52 In contemporary times interracial relationships can sometimes represent rejection for black women The probability of finding a good black man was low because of the prevalence of homicide drugs incarceration and interracial relationships making the task for black women more difficult 52 As concluded from the study interracial dating compromises black love 52 It was often that participants expressed their opinions that black love is important and represents more than the aesthetic since it is about black solidarity 52 Angry black women believe that if whites will never understand black people and they still regard black people as inferior interracial relationships will never be worthwhile 52 The study shows that most of the participants think that black women who have interracial relationships will not betray or disassociate with the black community but black men who date interracially are seen as taking away from the black community to advance the white patriarchy 52 Black bitch This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2016 Learn how and when to remove this message The black bitch is a contemporary manifestation of the Jezebel stereotype Characters termed bad black girls black whores and black bitches are archetypes of many blaxploitation films produced by the Hollywood establishment 53 Strong black woman The strong black woman stereotype is a discourse through that primarily black middle class women in the black Baptist Church instruct working class black women on morality self help and economic empowerment and assimilative values in the bigger interest of racial uplift and pride Higginbotham 1993 In this narrative the woman documents middle class women attempting to push back against dominant racist narratives of black women being immoral promiscuous unclean lazy and mannerless by engaging in public outreach campaigns that include literature that warns against brightly colored clothing gum chewing loud talking and unclean homes among other directives 54 That discourse is harmful dehumanizing and silencing The strong black woman narrative is a controlling image that perpetuates the idea it is acceptable to mistreat black women because they are strong and so can handle it This narrative can also act as a silencing method When black women are struggling to be heard because they go through things in life like everyone else they are silenced and reminded that they are strong instead of actions being taken toward alleviating their problems 54 Independent black woman See also B A P S The independent black woman is the depiction of a narcissistic overachieving financially successful woman who emasculates black males in her life 55 Black American princess See also Black American princess Athleticism See also Race and sports Black athletic superiority Blacks are stereotyped as being more athletic and superior at sports than other races Even though they make up only 12 4 of the US population 75 of NBA players 56 and 65 of NFL players are black 57 African American college athletes may be seen as getting into college solely on their athletic ability not their intellectual and academic merit 58 Black athletic superiority is a theory that says black people possess traits that are acquired through genetic and or environmental factors that permits them to excel over other races in athletic competition White people are more likely to hold such views but some black people and other racial affiliations do as well 59 Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights natural black athleticism has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas such as intelligence 60 The stereotype suggests that African Americans are incapable of competing in white sports such as ice hockey 61 and swimming 62 Intelligence See also Race and intelligence Following the stereotypical character archetypes African Americans have falsely and frequently been thought of and referred to as having little intelligence compared to other racial groups particularly white people 63 This has factored into African Americans being denied opportunities in employment Even after slavery ended the intellectual capacity of black people was still frequently questioned Stephen Jay Gould s book The Mismeasure of Man 1981 demonstrated how early 20th century biases among scientists and researchers affected their purportedly objective scientific studies data gathering and conclusions which they drew about the absolute and relative intelligence of different groups and of gender and intelligence citation needed MediaFurther information Representation of African Americans in media Early stereotypes Early minstrel shows of the mid 19th century lampooned the supposed stupidity of black people citation needed Even after slavery ended the intellectual capacity of black people was still frequently questioned Movies such as Birth of a Nation 1915 questioned whether black people were fit to run for governmental offices or to vote Some critics have considered Mark Twain s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn as racist because of its depiction of the slave Jim and other black characters Some schools have excluded the book from their curricula or libraries 64 Stereotypes pervaded other aspects of culture such as various board games that used Sambo or similar imagery in their design An example is the Jolly Darkie Target Game in which players were expected to toss a ball through the gaping mouth of the target in cardboard decorated using imagery of Sambo 65 Other stereotypes displayed the impossibility of good relations between black and white people instilling the idea that the two races could never coexist peacefully in society The intent was to lead audiences to the conclusion of the proper solution to remove blacks from American society entirely 66 Film and television See also African American representation in Hollywood In film black people are also shown in a stereotypical manner that promotes notions of moral inferiority For female movie characters specifically black actresses have been shown to use vulgar profanity be physically violent and lack overall self control at a disproportionately higher rate than white actresses 67 African American women have been represented in film and television in a variety of different ways starting from the stereotype archetype of mammy as is exemplified the role played by Hattie McDaniel in Gone with the Wind drawn from minstrel shows 68 through to the heroines of blaxploitation movies of the 1970s but the latter was then weakened by commercial studios 69 The mammy stereotype was portrayed as asexual while later representations of black women demonstrated a predatory sexuality 70 Fashion In print black people are portrayed as overtly aggressive In a study of fashion magazine photographs Millard and Grant found that black models are often depicted as more aggressive and sociable but less intelligent and achievement oriented 71 Sports Further information Race and sports In Darwin s Athletes John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African American athletes encourages a lack of emphasis on academic achievement in black communities 72 Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights natural black athleticism has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas such as intelligence 60 Some contemporary sports commentators have questioned whether black people are intelligent enough to hold strategic positions or coach games such as football 73 In another example a study of the portrayal of race ethnicity and nationality in televised sporting events by the journalist Derrick Z Jackson in 1989 showed that black people were more likely than whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms 74 Criminal stereotyping Main article Criminal stereotype of African Americans According to Lawrence Grossman former president of CBS News and PBS television newscasts disproportionately show African Americans under arrest living in slums on welfare and in need of help from the community 75 76 Similarly Hurwitz and Peffley wrote that violent acts committed by a person of color often take up more than half of local news broadcasts which often portray the person of color in a much more sinister light than their white counterparts The authors argue that African Americans are not only more likely to be seen as suspects of horrendous crimes in the press but also are interpreted as being violent or harmful individuals to the general public 77 Mary Beth Oliver a professor at Penn State University stated that the frequency with which black men specifically have been the target of police aggression speaks to the undeniable role that race plays in false assumptions of danger and criminality 78 Oliver additionally stated that the variables that play contributory roles in priming thoughts of dangerous or aggressive black men are age dress and gender among others which lead to the false assumptions of danger and criminality 78 New media stereotypes Social media In 2012 Mia Moody assistant professor of journalism public relations and new media in Baylor s College of Arts and Sciences documented Facebook fans use of social media to target US President Barack Obama and his family through stereotypes Her study found several themes and missions of groups targeting the Obamas Some groups focused on attacking his politics and consisted of Facebook members who had an interest in politics and used social media to share their ideas Other more malicious types focused on the president s race religion sexual orientation personality and diet 79 Moody analyzed more than 20 Facebook groups pages using the keywords hate Barack Obama and Michelle Obama Hate groups which once recruited members through word of mouth and distribution of pamphlets spread the message that one race is inferior targeted a historically oppressed group and used degrading hateful terms 79 She concluded that historical stereotypes focusing on diet and blackface had all but disappeared from mainstream television shows and movies but had resurfaced in newmedia representations Most portrayals fell into three categories blackface animalistic and evil angry Similarly media had made progress in their handling of gender related topics but Facebook offered a new platform for sexist messages to thrive Facebook users played up shallow patriarchal representations of Michelle Obama focusing on her emotions appearance and personality Conversely they emphasized historical stereotypes of Barack Obama that depicted him as flashy and animalistic Media s reliance on stereotypes of women and African Americans not only hindered civil rights but also helped determine how people treated marginalized groups her study found 79 Video games Representations of African Americans in video games tend to reinforce stereotypes of males as athletes or gangsters 80 81 Hip hop music Further information Misogyny in rap music Hip hop music has reinforced stereotypes about black men Exposure to violent misogynistic rap music performed by African American male rappers has been shown to activate negative stereotypes towards black men as hostile criminal and sexist 82 83 Hip hop portrays a stereotypical black masculine aesthetic and has stereotyped black men as hypersexual thugs and gangsters who hail from an inner city ghetto 84 85 Listening to this misogynistic and violent Hip hop has effects on African American Men and their cognitive performance They perform worse in tests resembling the Graduate Record Examination after listening to this kind of music compared to white men under the same conditions 86 African American women are degraded and referred to as bitches and hoes in rap music 87 African American women are over sexualized in modern hip hop music videos and are portrayed as sexual objects for rappers 88 Over sexualization of African American women in rap music videos may have health implications for viewers of such videos In a survey study adolescent African American women watching rap videos and perceiving them to contain more sexual stereotypes were more likely to binge drink test positive for marijuana and have a negative body image 89 See also nbsp United States portal Africa United States relations African characters in comics African American culture African American history African American representation in Hollywood African diaspora Afrophobia Aunt Jemima Blackface Black matriarchy Black people Culture of Africa Culture of the Southern United States Discrimination in the United States History of Africa Person of color Colored people s time Coon song Discrimination in the United States Discrimination based on skin color United States History of the Southern United States How Rastus Gets His Turkey Life as a BlackMan board game Lynching Lynching in the United States Mass racial violence in the United States Minstrel show Negrophobia Racial profiling Racial segregation Scientific racism Slavery in the United States Stepin Fetchit Criminal stereotype of African Americans Police brutality in the United States Race in the United States criminal justice system Race and the war on drugs Stereotypes of Africa The Story of Little Black Sambo Uncle Remus Stereotypes of groups within the United States Stereotypes of Americans Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Stereotypes of white Americans Stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians in the United States Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States Stereotypes of South Asians Stereotypes of Jews Blonde stereotype LGBT stereotypes Ethnic stereotype Racism against African Americans Racism in the United States Racialization Culture of Africa History of Africa Stereotypes of AfricaReferencesCitations a b Drummond William J 1990 About Face From Alliance to Alienation Blacks and the News Media The American Enterprise 1 4 22 29 OCLC 4683318001 ERIC EJ414473 Jackson Assails Press On Portrayal of Blacks The New York Times 19 September 1985 D Marvin Jones 2005 Race Sex and Suspicion The Myth of the Black Male Praeger Publishers p 35 ISBN 978 0 275 97462 6 Single black fathers fight deadbeat Dad stereotype Associated Press 29 June 2019 Oliver Mary Beth 2003 African American Men as Criminal and Dangerous Implications of Media Portrayals of Crime on the Criminalization of African American Men Journal of African American Studies 7 2 3 18 doi 10 1007 s12111 003 1006 5 JSTOR 41819017 S2CID 142626192 Obama on Our Minds The Impact of Obama on the Psyche of America Feminisms Matter Debates Theories Activism Page 165 a b c d Harris Perry Melissa 2011 Sister Citizen Shame Stereotypes and Black Women in America Yale University Press pp 87 89 ISBN 978 0 300 16554 8 a b c d Popular and Pervasive Stereotypes of African Americans National Museum of African American History and Culture Ferris State University Waterhouse Richard 1985 The Internationalisation of American Popular Culture in the Nineteenth Century The Case of the Minstrel Show Australasian Journal of American Studies 4 1 1 11 JSTOR 41053377 Saxton Alexander 1975 Blackface Minstrelsy and Jacksonian Ideology American Quarterly 27 1 3 28 doi 10 2307 2711892 JSTOR 2711892 a b Lemons J Stanley 1977 Black Stereotypes as Reflected in Popular Culture 1880 1920 American Quarterly 29 1 102 116 doi 10 2307 2712263 JSTOR 2712263 Rehin George F December 1975 Harlequin Jim Crow Continuity and Convergence in Blackface Clowning The Journal of Popular Culture 9 3 682 701 doi 10 1111 j 0022 3840 1975 0903 682 x ProQuest 1297376766 Dorman James H 1969 The Strange Career of Jim Crow Rice With Apologies to Professor Woodward Journal of Social History 3 2 109 122 doi 10 1353 jsh 3 2 109 JSTOR 3786238 Pieterse Jan Nederveen 1992 Chapter 10 Popular Types White on Black Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture New Haven amp London Yale University Press England Golliwog pp 156 158 ISBN 0300050208 Retrieved 6 March 2024 via Internet Archive Gordon John 2008 Gaslight Ghostlight Golliwog Gaslight James Joyce Quarterly 46 1 19 37 ISSN 0021 4183 JSTOR 27820924 Santiago Valles Kelvin 1999 Still Longing for de Old Plantation The Visual Parodies and Racial National Imaginary of US Overseas Expansionism 1898 1903 American Studies International 37 3 18 43 ISSN 0883 105X JSTOR 41279710 Slaughter Defoe Diana 2008 Reviewed work African American Childhoods Historical Perspectives from Slavery to Civil Rights by Wilma King The Journal of African American History 93 2 294 296 doi 10 1086 JAAHv93n2p294 ISSN 1548 1867 JSTOR 25609979 White Deborah G Deborah Gray 1999 Ar n t I a woman female slaves in the plantation South Internet Archive New York W W Norton ISBN 978 0 393 31481 6 Yang George Ryser Tracey Ann 2008 Whiting up and Blacking Out White Privilege Race and White Chicks African American Review 42 3 4 731 746 ISSN 1062 4783 JSTOR 40301264 Pilgrim David 2023 2000 The Brute Caricature Jim Crow Museum Ferris State University Van Deburg William L 1984 Slavery amp race in American popular culture Internet Archive University of Wisconsin Press p 148 ISBN 978 0 299 09630 4 The Sapphire Caricature National Museum of African American History and Culture Ferris State University Jerald Morgan C Ward L Monique Moss Lolita Thomas Khia Fletcher Kyla D September 2017 Subordinates Sex Objects or Sapphires Investigating Contributions of Media Use to Black Students Femininity Ideologies and Stereotypes About Black Women Journal of Black Psychology 43 6 608 635 doi 10 1177 0095798416665967 ISSN 0095 7984 S2CID 151814376 via Sage Journals Versluys Eveline 2014 Stereotypes of African American Women in US Television Analysis of Scandal and Hawthorne Ghent University Library Retrieved 2023 11 04 The Sapphire Caricature National Museum of African American History and Culture Ferris State University a b Anderson Joel R Holland Elise Heldreth Courtney Johnson Scott P August 2018 Revisiting the Jezebel Stereotype The Impact of Target Race on Sexual Objectification Psychology of Women Quarterly 42 4 461 476 doi 10 1177 0361684318791543 ISSN 0361 6843 West Carolyn M 1995 Mammy Sapphire and Jezebel Historical images of Black women and their implications for psychotherapy Psychotherapy Theory Research Practice Training 32 3 458 466 doi 10 1037 0033 3204 32 3 458 ISSN 1939 1536 Collins Patricia H 2004 Black Sexual Politics African Americans Gender and the New Racism London Taylor amp Francis Group p 56 ISBN 978 0 415 93099 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint date and year link The Jezebel Stereotype Anti black Imagery Jim Crow Museum National Museum of African American History and Culture Ferris State University Meshelemiah Jacquelyn C A October 2022 How the Jezebel Stereotype has been Weaponized Against Black Girls and Made Them Vulnerable to Sex Trafficking An Examination of Carceral Public Systems Journal of African American Studies 26 4 355 374 doi 10 1007 s12111 022 09596 0 ISSN 1559 1646 S2CID 253217915 Bost Suzanne 1998 Fluidity without Postmodernism Michelle Cliff and the Tragic Mulatta Tradition African American Review 32 4 673 689 doi 10 2307 2901245 ISSN 1062 4783 JSTOR 2901245 The Tom Caricature Anti black Imagery Jim Crow Museum www ferris edu Retrieved 2022 11 22 The Brute Caricature Jim Crow Museum Ferris State University Corredera Vanessa 2017 Far More Black than Black Stereotypes Black Masculinity and Americanization in Tim Blake Nelson s O Literature Film Quarterly 45 3 ISSN 0090 4260 JSTOR 48678555 a b McElroy Guy C Gates Henry Louis Art Corcoran Gallery of Museum Brooklyn 1990 Facing history the Black image in American art 1710 1940 Bedford Arts pp xi xiii 14 ISBN 978 0 938491 38 5 Dates amp Barlow 1993 full citation needed page needed Martindale 1990 full citation needed page needed Collins 2004 full citation needed page needed Poindexter Smith amp Heider 2003 full citation needed page needed Rowley 2003 full citation needed page needed West 2001 full citation needed page needed Entman 2000 Demby Gene 2013 05 22 Where Did That Fried Chicken Stereotype Come From NPR Archived from the original on 29 Jun 2015 Retrieved 2024 01 16 Woodard Jennifer Bailey Mastin Teresa November 2005 Black Womanhood Essence and its Treatment of Stereotypical Images of Black Women Journal of Black Studies 36 2 264 281 doi 10 1177 0021934704273152 S2CID 144676210 a b Brookhiser Richard August 20 2001 The Numinous Negro His importance in our lives why he is fading National Review Retrieved May 28 2017 a b Jones Trina Norwood Kimberly 2017 Aggressive Encounters amp White Fragility Deconstructing the Trope of the Angry Black Woman Iowa Law Review 102 5 Collins Patricia Hill 2000 Black Feminist Thought Routledge pp 69 70 ISBN 978 0 415 92483 2 a b c Griffin Rachel Alicia 2011 I AM an Angry Black Woman Black Feminist Autoethnography Voice and Resistance Women s Studies in Communication 35 2 138 157 doi 10 1080 07491409 2012 724524 S2CID 144644154 a b c Beauboeuf Lafontant Tamara 2009 Behind the Mask of the Strong Black Woman Voice and the Embodiment of a Costly Performance Temple University Press pp 78 91 ISBN 978 1 59213 669 8 Ward Earlise C Clark Le Ondra Heidrich Susan November 2009 African American Women s Beliefs Coping Behaviors and Barriers to Seeking Mental Health Services Qualitative Health Research 19 11 1589 1601 doi 10 1177 1049732309350686 ISSN 1049 7323 PMC 2854663 PMID 19843967 a b c d e f g h i j Childs Erica 2005 Looking Behind the Stereotypes of the Angry Black Woman An Exploration of Black Women s Responses to Interracial Relationships Gender amp Society 19 4 544 561 doi 10 1177 0891243205276755 S2CID 145239066 Fontaine Nargis 5 May 2011 From Mammy to Madea and Examination of the Behaviors of Tyler Perry s Madea Character in Relation to the Mammy Jezebel and Sapphire Stereotypes Thesis doi 10 57709 1958901 a b Corbin Nichola Smith William Garcia J Roberto 14 May 2018 Trapped between justified anger and being the strong Black woman Black college women coping with racial battle fatigue at historically and predominantly White institutions International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 31 7 626 doi 10 1080 09518398 2018 1468045 S2CID 150175991 Moody Mia March 2012 From Jezebel to Ho An analysis of creative and imaginative shared representations of African American women Journal of Research on Women and Gender 3 1 74 94 hdl 10877 12850 Crepeau Richard C 2000 Lapchick Joe 1900 1970 basketball player and coach American National Biography doi 10 1093 anb 9780198606697 article 1900111 ISBN 978 0 19 860669 7 Census of Population and Housing 2000 United States Modified Race Data Summary File Version 1 2006 doi 10 3886 icpsr13574 v1 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Simiyu Wycliffe 2012 Challenges of Being a Black Student Athlete on U S College Campuses PDF Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics 5 40 63 hdl 10950 485 Sheldon Jane P Jayaratne Toby Epstein Petty Elizabeth M September 2007 White Americans Genetic Explanations for a Perceived Race Difference in Athleticism The Relation to Prejudice toward and Stereotyping of Blacks PDF Athletic Insight 9 3 33 Retrieved February 21 2016 a b Hall Ronald E September 2001 The Ball Curve Calculated Racism and the Stereotype of African American Men Journal of Black Studies 32 1 104 119 doi 10 1177 002193470103200106 S2CID 145345264 ERIC EJ633998 writer Tetsuhiko Endo Adventure sports 28 February 2012 Debunking the Stereotype That Blacks Don t Swim HuffPost Retrieved 29 December 2016 Young Harlem Athletes Are Cross Checking Hockey Stereotypes Retrieved 29 December 2016 Walzer Amy S Czopp Alexander M 2011 09 01 Able But Unintelligent Including Positively Stereotyped Black Subgroups in the Stereotype Content Model The Journal of Social Psychology 151 5 527 530 doi 10 1080 00224545 2010 503250 PMID 22017070 S2CID 31468700 Expelling Huck Finn jewishworldreview com Retrieved January 8 2006 Booker Christopher Brian 2000 I Will Wear No Chain A Social History of African American Males Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 275 95637 0 LCCN 99086221 Finkelman Paul 2006 Stereotypes of African Americans Encyclopedia of African American History 1619 1895 Vol 3 Oxford University Press pp 203 205 ISBN 978 0 19 516777 1 Robert M Entman Andrew Rojecki 2000 The Black Image in the White Mind The University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 21075 9 Entman Rojecki page needed K Sue Jewell 12 October 2012 From Mammy to Miss America and Beyond Cultural Images and the Shaping of US Social Policy Routledge p 41 ISBN 978 1 134 95189 5 Yvonne D Sims 2006 Women of Blaxploitation How the Black Action Film Heroine Changed American Popular Culture McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 5154 8 page needed Micki McElya 30 June 2009 Clinging to Mammy The Faithful Slave in Twentieth Century America Harvard University Press p 186 ISBN 978 0 674 04079 3 Jennifer E Millard Peter R Grant 2006 The Stereotypes Of Black And White Women In Fashion Magazine Photographs The Pose Of The Model And The Impression She Creates Sex Roles 54 9 10 659 673 doi 10 1007 s11199 006 9032 0 ISSN 0360 0025 S2CID 144129337 Hoberman John Milton November 3 1997 Darwin s Athletes How Sport Has Damaged Black America and Preserved the Myth of Race Mariner Books ISBN 978 0 395 82292 0 Hill Marc L 22 October 2003 America s Mishandling of the Donovan McNabb Rush Limbaugh Controversy PopMatters Retrieved 2007 06 02 Sabo Don Sue Curry Jansen Danny Tate Margaret Carlisle Duncan Susan Leggett November 1995 The Portrayal of Race Ethnicity and Nationality in Televised International Athletic Events Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles Archived from the original on 2007 07 01 Retrieved 2007 06 02 Grossman Lawrence K 1 July 2001 From Bad to Worse Black Images On White News Columbia Journalism Review 40 2 55 Gale A76693187 ProQuest 230359721 Romer Daniel Jamieson Kathleen H de Coteau Nicole J June 1998 The treatment of persons of color in local television news Ethnic blame discourse or realistic group conflict Communication Research 25 13 286 305 doi 10 1177 009365098025003002 S2CID 145749677 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Rome Dennis 2004 Black Demons The Media s Depiction of the African American Male Criminal Stereotype Greenwood Publishing page needed a b Oliver Mary Beth 2003 African American Men as Criminal and Dangerous Implications of Media Portrayals of Crime on the Criminalization of African American Men Journal of African American Studies 7 2 3 18 doi 10 1007 s12111 003 1006 5 S2CID 142626192 a b c Moody Mia Summer 2012 New Media Same Stereotypes An Analysis of Social Media Depictions of President Barack Obama and Michelle Obama The Journal of New Media amp Culture 8 1 Hispanics and Blacks Missing in Gaming Industry New America Media Retrieved 29 December 2016 Williams Dmitri Martins Nicole Consalvo Mia Ivory James D 2009 The virtual census representations of gender race and age in video games New Media amp Society 11 5 815 834 doi 10 1177 1461444809105354 S2CID 18036858 Howard Simon Hennes Erin P Sommers Samuel R July 2021 Stereotype Threat Among Black Men Following Exposure to Rap Music Social Psychological and Personality Science 12 5 719 730 doi 10 1177 1948550620936852 S2CID 234783670 Rudman Laurie A amp Lee Matthew R 2002 Implicit and Explicit Consequences of Exposure to Violent and Misogynous Rap Music Group Processes amp Intergroup Relations 5 2 133 150 https doi org 10 1177 1368430202005002541 Oware Matthew March 2011 Brotherly Love Homosociality and Black Masculinity in Gangsta Rap Music Journal of African American Studies 15 1 22 39 doi 10 1007 s12111 010 9123 4 S2CID 144533319 Black Men vs The Stereotype of the Hyper Masculinity vs Hardness of Rappers PAX Howard Simon Hennes Erin P amp Sommers Samuel R 2021 Stereotype Threat Among Black Men Following Exposure to Rap Music Social Psychological and Personality Science 12 5 719 730 https doi org 10 1177 1948550620936852 Lindsay Melanie June 2016 WHO YOU CALLIN A BITCH A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE IMAGES USED TO PORTRAY AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN IN RAP MUSIC Thesis Lewis Ladel June 2005 The Portrayal of African American Women in Hip Hop Videos Masters Theses Thesis Peterson Shani H Wingood Gina M DiClemente Ralph J Harrington Kathy amp Davies Susan 2007 Images of Sexual Stereotypes in Rap Videos and the Health of African American Female Adolescents Journal of Women s Health 16 8 1157 1164 https doi org 10 1089 jwh 2007 0429 Bibliography Collins Patricia Hill 1990 Black Feminist Thought Knowledge Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment Hyman p 80 ISBN 978 0 044 45138 9 West Carolyn 2008 Mammy Jezebel Sapphire and Their Homegirls Developing an Oppositional Gaze Towards the Images of Black Women Lectures on the Psychology of Women 4 dead link White Deborah Gray 1999 Ar n t I a Woman Female Slaves in the Plantation South Revised ed W W Norton amp Company ISBN 978 0 393 31481 6 Further readingAmoah Jewel D 1997 Back on the Auction Block A Discussion of Black Women and Pornography National Black Law Journal 14 2 204 221 Anderson L M 1997 Mammies no more The changing image of black women on stage and screen Lanham MD Rowman amp Littlefield Bogle Donald 1994 Toms coons mulattoes mammies and bucks An interpretive history of Blacks in American films New 3rd ed New York NY Continuum Jewell K S 1993 From mammy to Miss America and beyond Cultural images and the shaping of U S social policy New York NY Routledge Leab D J 1975 1976 From Sambo to Superspade The black experience in motion pictures Boston MA Houghton Mifflin Company Patricia A Turner Ceramic Uncles amp Celluloid Mammies Black Images and Their Influence on Culture Anchor Books 1994 Stampp Kenneth M 1971 Rebels and Sambos The Search for the Negro s Personality in Slavery The Journal of Southern History 37 3 367 392 doi 10 2307 2206947 JSTOR 2206947 West Carolyn M 1995 Mammy Sapphire and Jezebel Historical images of Black women and their implications for psychotherapy Psychotherapy Theory Research Practice Training 32 3 458 466 doi 10 1037 0033 3204 32 3 458 ProQuest 614327223 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Stereotypes of African Americans amp oldid 1221771179, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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