fbpx
Wikipedia

Crack cocaine

January 18, 2023

Crack cocaine, commonly known simply as crack, and also known as rock, is a free base form of the stimulant cocaine that can be smoked. Crack offers a short, intense high to smokers. The Manual of Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment calls it the most addictive form of cocaine.[1]

Two grams of crack cocaine

Crack cocaine first saw widespread use as a recreational drug in primarily impoverished neighborhoods in New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami in late 1984 and 1985; this rapid increase in use and availability was named the "crack epidemic",[2] which began to wane in the 1990s. The use of another highly addictive stimulant drug, crystal meth, ballooned between 1994 and 2004.[3][4]

Physical and chemical properties

Purer forms of crack resemble off-white, jagged-edged "rocks" of a hard, brittle plastic, with a slightly higher density than candle wax.[5] Like cocaine in other forms, crack rock acts as a local anesthetic, numbing the tongue or mouth only where directly placed. Purer forms of crack will sink in water or melt at the edges when near a flame (crack vaporizes at 90 °C, 194 °F).[1]

Crack cocaine sold on the streets may be adulterated (or "cut") with other substances mimicking the appearance of crack to increase bulk. Use of toxic adulterants such as levamisole,[6] a drug used to treat parasitic worm infections, has been documented.[7]

Synthesis

 
For cocaine (in a plastic bag at bottom) to be converted to crack, several supplies are needed. Pictured here are baking soda, a commonly used base in making crack, a metal spoon, a tealight, and a cigarette lighter. The spoon is held over the heat source to "cook" the cocaine into crack.
 
A close up of the "cooking" process that creates crack

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3, common baking soda) is a base used in the preparation of crack, although other weak bases may substitute for it.[8][9] The net reaction when using sodium bicarbonate is

Coc-H+Cl− + NaHCO3 → Coc + H2O + CO2 + NaCl

With ammonium bicarbonate:

Coc-H+Cl− + NH4HCO3 → Coc + NH4Cl + CO2 + H2O

With ammonium carbonate:

2(Coc-H+Cl−) + (NH4)2CO3 → 2 Coc + 2 NH4Cl + CO2 + H2O

Crack cocaine is frequently purchased already in rock form,[5] although it is not uncommon for some users to "wash up" or "cook" powder cocaine into crack themselves. This process is frequently done with baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), water, and a spoon. Once mixed and heated, the bicarbonate reacts with the hydrochloride of the powder cocaine, forming free base cocaine and carbonic acid (H2CO3) in a reversible acid-base reaction. The heating accelerates the degradation of carbonic acid into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. Loss of CO2 prevents the reaction from reversing back to cocaine hydrochloride. Free base cocaine separates as an oily layer, floating on the top of the now leftover aqueous phase. It is at this point that the oil is picked up rapidly, usually with a pin or long thin object. This pulls the oil up and spins it, allowing air to set and dry the oil, and allows the maker to roll the oil into the rock-like shape.

Crack vaporizes near temperature 90 °C (194 °F),[1] much lower than the cocaine hydrochloride melting point of 190 °C (374 °F).[1] Whereas cocaine hydrochloride cannot be smoked (burns with no effect),[1] crack cocaine when smoked allows for quick absorption into the blood stream, and reaches the brain in eight seconds.[1]

Crack cocaine can also be injected intravenously with the same effect as powder cocaine. However, whereas powder cocaine dissolves in water, crack must be dissolved in an acidic solution such as lemon juice (containing citric acid) or white vinegar (containing acetic acid), a process that effectively reverses the original conversion of powder cocaine to crack.[10] Harm reduction and public health agencies may distribute packets of citric acid or ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) for this purpose.[11]

Recreational use

 
A woman smoking crack cocaine

Crack cocaine is commonly used as a recreational drug. Effects of crack cocaine include euphoria,[12] supreme confidence,[13] loss of appetite,[12] insomnia,[12] alertness,[12] increased energy,[12] a craving for more cocaine,[13] and potential paranoia (ending after use).[12][14] Its initial effect is to release a large amount of dopamine,[5] a brain chemical inducing feelings of euphoria. The high usually lasts from 5 to 10 minutes,[5][12] after which time dopamine levels in the brain plummet, leaving the user feeling depressed and low.[5] When (powder) cocaine is dissolved and injected, the absorption into the bloodstream is at least as rapid as the absorption of the drug which occurs when crack cocaine is smoked,[12] and similar euphoria may be experienced.

Adverse effects

Physiological

 
Main physiological effects of crack cocaine

The short-term physiological effects of cocaine include[12] constricted blood vessels, dilated pupils, and increased temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. Some users of cocaine report feelings of restlessness, irritability, and anxiety. In rare instances, sudden death can occur on the first use of cocaine or unexpectedly thereafter.[12] Cocaine-related deaths are often a result of cardiac arrest or seizures followed by respiratory arrest.

Like other forms of cocaine, smoking crack can increase heart rate[15] and blood pressure, leading to long-term cardiovascular problems. Some research suggests that smoking crack or free base cocaine has additional health risks compared to other methods of taking cocaine. Many of these issues relate specifically to the release of methylecgonidine and its effect on the heart,[15] lungs,[16] and liver.[17]

  • Toxic adulterants: Many substances may have been added to expand the weight and volume of a batch, while still appearing to be pure crack. Occasionally, highly toxic substances are used, with a range of corresponding short and long-term health risks. Adulterants used with crack and cocaine include milk powder, sugars such as glucose, starch, caffeine, lidocaine, benzocaine, paracetamol, amphetamine, scopolamine and strychnine.[18]
  • Smoking problems: Any route of administration poses its own set of health risks; in the case of crack cocaine, smoking tends to be more harmful than other routes. Crack users tend to smoke the drug because that has a higher bioavailability than other routes typically used for drugs of abuse such as Insufflation. Crack has a melting point of around 90 °C (194 °F),[1] and the smoke does not remain potent for long. Therefore, crack pipes are generally very short, to minimize the time between evaporating and ingestion (thereby minimizing loss of potency).[19][20] Having a very hot pipe pressed against the lips often causes cracked and blistered lips, colloquially known as "crack lip". The use of "convenience store crack pipes"[21]—glass tubes which originally contained small artificial roses—may contribute to this condition. These 4-inch (10-cm) pipes[21] are not durable and will quickly develop breaks; users may continue to use the pipe even though it has been broken to a shorter length. The hot pipe might burn the lips, tongue, or fingers, especially when passed between people who take hits in rapid succession, causing the short pipe to reach higher temperatures than if used by one person alone.
  • Pure or large doses: Because the quality of crack can vary greatly, some people might smoke larger amounts of diluted crack, unaware that a similar amount of a new batch of purer crack could cause an overdose. This can trigger heart problems or cause unconsciousness.
  • Pathogens on pipes: When pipes are shared, bacteria or viruses can be transferred from person to person.

Crack cocaine causes DNA damage in multiple organs of rats[22] and mice.[23]

Crack lung

In crack users, acute respiratory symptoms have been reported, sometimes termed "crack lung". Symptoms include fever, coughing up blood and difficulty breathing.[24] In the 48-hour period after use, people with these symptoms have also had associated radiographic findings on chest X-ray of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema), interstitial pneumonia, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, and eosinophil infiltration.[24]

Psychological

Stimulant drug abuse (particularly amphetamine and cocaine) can lead to delusional parasitosis (aka Ekbom's Syndrome: a mistaken belief they are infested with parasites).[25] For example, excessive cocaine use can lead to formication, nicknamed "cocaine bugs" or "coke bugs", where the affected people believe they have, or feel, parasites crawling under their skin[25] (similar delusions may also be associated with high fever or in connection with alcohol withdrawal, sometimes accompanied by visual hallucinations of insects—see delirium tremens).[25]

People experiencing these hallucinations might scratch themselves to the extent of serious skin damage and bleeding, especially when they are delirious.[14][25]

Paranoia and anxiety are among the most common psychological symptoms of crack cocaine use. Psychosis is more closely associated with smoking crack cocaine than intranasal and intravenous use.[26]

Pregnancy and nursing

Main article: Prenatal cocaine exposure

Crack baby is a term for a child born to a mother who used crack cocaine during her pregnancy. The threat that cocaine use during pregnancy poses to the fetus is now considered exaggerated.[27] Studies show that prenatal cocaine exposure (independent of other effects such as, for example, alcohol, tobacco, or physical environment) has no appreciable effect on childhood growth and development.[28] However, the official opinion of the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the United States warns about health risks while cautioning against stereotyping:

Many recall that "crack babies", or babies born to mothers who used crack cocaine while pregnant, were at one time written off by many as a lost generation. They were predicted to suffer from severe, irreversible damage, including reduced intelligence and social skills. It was later found that this was a gross exaggeration. However, the fact that most of these children appear normal should not be over-interpreted as indicating that there is no cause for concern. Using sophisticated technologies, scientists are now finding that exposure to cocaine during fetal development may lead to subtle, yet significant, later deficits in some children, including deficits in some aspects of cognitive performance, information-processing, and attention to tasks—abilities that are important for success in school.[29]

There are also warnings about the threat of breastfeeding: The March of Dimes said "it is likely that cocaine will reach the baby through breast milk," and advises the following regarding cocaine use during pregnancy:

Cocaine use during pregnancy can affect a pregnant woman and her unborn baby in many ways. During the early months of pregnancy, it may increase the risk of miscarriage. Later in pregnancy, it can trigger preterm labor (labor that occurs before 37 weeks of pregnancy) or cause the baby to grow poorly. As a result, cocaine-exposed babies are more likely than unexposed babies to be born with low birth weight (less than 5.5 lb or 2.5 kg). Low-birthweight babies are 20 times more likely to die in their first month of life than normal-weight babies, and face an increased risk of lifelong disabilities such as mental retardation and cerebral palsy. Cocaine-exposed babies also tend to have smaller heads, which generally reflect smaller brains. Some studies suggest that cocaine-exposed babies are at increased risk of birth defects, including urinary tract defects and, possibly, heart defects. Cocaine also may cause an unborn baby to have a stroke, irreversible brain damage, or a heart attack.[30]

Reinforcement disorders

Tolerance

An appreciable tolerance to cocaine's high may develop, with many addicts reporting that they seek but fail to achieve as much pleasure as they did from their first experience.[12] Some users will frequently increase their doses to intensify and prolong the euphoric effects. While tolerance to the high can occur, users might also become more sensitive (drug sensitization) to cocaine's local anesthetic (painkilling) and convulsant (seizure-inducing) effects, without increasing the dose taken; this increased sensitivity may explain some deaths occurring after apparent low doses of cocaine.[12]

Addiction

Main article: Substance dependence

Crack cocaine is popularly thought to be the most addictive form of cocaine.[1] However, this claim has been contested: Morgan and Zimmer wrote that available data indicated that "smoking cocaine by itself does not increase markedly the likelihood of dependence ... The claim that cocaine is much more addictive when smoked must be reexamined."[31] They argued that cocaine users who are already prone to abuse are most likely to "move toward a more efficient mode of ingestion" (that is, smoking).

The intense desire to recapture the initial high is what is so addictive for many users.[5] On the other hand, Reinarman et al. wrote that the nature of crack addiction depends on the social context in which it is used and the psychological characteristics of users, pointing out that many heavy crack users can go for days or weeks without using the drug.[32]

Overdose

A typical response among users is to have another hit of the drug; however, the levels of dopamine in the brain take a long time to replenish themselves, and each hit taken in rapid succession leads to progressively less intense highs.[5] Nonetheless, a person might binge for 3 or more days without sleep, while inhaling hits from a pipe.[14]

Use of cocaine in a binge, during which the drug is taken repeatedly and at increasingly high doses, leads to a state of increasing irritability, restlessness, and paranoia.[12] This may result in full-blown paranoid psychosis, in which the individual loses touch with reality and experiences auditory hallucinations.[12]

Large amounts of crack cocaine (several hundred milligrams or more) intensify the user's high, but may also lead to bizarre, erratic, and violent behavior.[12] Large amounts can induce tremors, vertigo, muscle twitches, paranoia, or, with repeated doses, a toxic reaction closely resembling amphetamine poisoning.[12]

Society and culture

Synonyms

Synonyms used to refer to crack cocaine include atari; base; bazooka; beamers; beemers; bebe; bee-bee; berry; bing; bolo; bomb; boulder; boulders; butter; caine; cane; Casper; Casper the ghost; cavvy; chemical; chewies; cloud; cloud nine; crills; crunch and munch; dip; famous dimes; fan; fish scale; fries; fry; glo; golfball; gravel; grit; hail; hamburger; helper; hubba; ice cube; kangaroo; kibbles and bits; kibbles; krills; lightem; paste; patico; pebbles; pee wee; pony; raw; ready; ready rocks; redi rocks; roca; rock; rooster; rox; Roxanne; scud; Scotty; scramble; scruples; seven-up; sherm; sherms; sleet; snowballs; stones; teeth; tension; top gun; tweak; ultimate; wash; white cloud; work; yahoo; yale; yay; yayoo; yeah-O; yeyo; yeo; and yuck.[33]

Drug combinations

Crack cocaine may be combined with amphetamine ("croak"); tobacco ("coolie"); marijuana ("buddha"; "caviar"; "chronic"; "cocoa puffs"; "fry daddy"; "gimmie"; "gremmie"; "juice"; "primo"; "torpedo"; "turbo"; "woolie"; "woola"); heroin ("moon rock"); and phencyclidine ("clicker"; "p-funk"; "spacebase").[33]

Consumption

Crack smoking ("hitting the pipe"; "puffing"; "beaming up (to Scotty)") is commonly performed with utensils such as pipes ("bowl"; "devil's dick"; "glass dick"; "horn"; "Uzi"); improvised pipes made from a plastic bottle ("Masarati"); water pipes ("bong"; "hubbly-bubbly"); and laboratory pipettes ("demo").[33]

Legal status

Cocaine is listed as a Schedule I drug in the United Nations 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, making it illegal for non-state-sanctioned production, manufacture, export, import, distribution, trade, use and possession.[34] In most states (except in the United States) crack falls under the same category as cocaine.

Australia

In Australia, crack falls under the same category as cocaine, which is listed as a Schedule 8 controlled drug, indicating that any substances and preparations for therapeutic use under this category have a high potential for abuse and addiction. It is permitted for some medical use but is otherwise outlawed.

Canada

As a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, crack is not differentiated from cocaine and other coca products. However, the court may weigh the socio-economic factors of crack usage in sentencing. As a guideline, Schedule I drugs carry a maximum 7-year prison sentence for possession for an indictable offense and up to life imprisonment for trafficking and production. A summary conviction on possession carries a $1000–$2000 fine and/or 6 months to a year imprisonment.

United States

In the United States, cocaine is a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act, indicating that it has a high abuse potential but also carries a medicinal purpose.[35][36] Under the Controlled Substances Act, crack and cocaine are considered the same drug.

The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 increased penalties for crack cocaine possession and usage. It mandated a mandatory minimum sentence of five years without parole for possession of five grams of crack; to receive the same sentence with powder cocaine one had to have 500 grams.[37] This sentencing disparity was reduced from 100-to-1 to 18-to-1 by the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010.

Europe

In the United Kingdom, crack is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. In the Netherlands it is a List 1 drug of the Opium Law.

Political scandals

Rob Ford, the 64th mayor of Toronto, was filmed smoking crack while he was in office. Marion Barry, Mayor of Washington D.C., was filmed smoking crack in 1990 in a sting operation.[38]

See also

 
Look up crack cocaine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crack cocaine.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Estroff, Todd Wilk (2008). Manual of Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 44–45. ISBN 9781585627929. It is the most addictive form of cocaine
  2. ^ Reinarman, Craig; Levine, Harry G. (1997). "Crack in Context: America's Latest Demon Drug". In Reinarman, Craig; Levine, Harry G. (eds.). Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520202429.
  3. ^ Corwin, Miles (1989-10-08). "Potent Form of Speed Could Be Drug of '90s". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 2021-02-11. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  4. ^ "Methamphetamine: The Drug Epidemic of the 90's; Problems and Solutions". Office of Justice Programs. from the original on 2021-08-08. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Arias, Jeremy (July 2008). "Crack rocks offer a short but intense high to smokers". A.M. Costa Rica.
  6. ^ Kinzie, Erik (April 2009). "Levamisole Found in Patients Using Cocaine". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 53 (4): 546–7. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2008.10.017. PMID 19303517. Retrieved August 18, 2009.
  7. ^ Moisse, Katie (June 22, 2011). "Cocaine Laced With Veterinary Drug Levamisole Eats Away at Flesh". ABC News. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
  8. ^ Treadwell, SD; Robinson, TG (June 2007). "Cocaine use and stroke". Postgraduate Medical Journal (Review). 83 (980): 389–94. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2006.055970. PMC 2600058. PMID 17551070.
  9. ^ "Cocaine Abuse & Addiction". www1.nyc.gov. City of New York.
  10. ^ Ponton, Rhys; Scott, Jenny (12 July 2009). "Injection preparation processes used by heroin and crack cocaine injectors". Journal of Substance Use. 9 (1): 7–19. doi:10.1080/14659890410001665041. S2CID 56725689.
  11. ^ Harris, Magdalena; Scott, Jenny; Wright, Talen; Brathwaite, Rachel; Ciccarone, Daniel; Hope, Vivian (13 November 2019). "Injecting-related health harms and overuse of acidifiers among people who inject heroin and crack cocaine in London: a mixed-methods study". Harm Reduction Journal. 16 (1): 60. doi:10.1186/s12954-019-0330-6. PMC 6854679. PMID 31722732.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "DEA, Drug Information, Cocaine", United States DOJ Drug Enforcement Administration, 2008, webpage: DEA-cocaine 2008-06-22 at the Wayback Machine.
  13. ^ a b Madge, Tim (2001). White Mischief: A Cultural History of Cocaine. Edinburgh, Scotland: Mainstream Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 1-56025-370-3.
  14. ^ a b c "Life or Meth – CRACK OF THE 90'S", Salt Lake City Police Department, Utah, 2008, PDF file: Methlife-PDF October 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  15. ^ a b Scheidweiler, Karl; Plessinger, Mark A.; Shojaie, Jalil; Wood, Ronald W.; Kwong, Tai C. (2003). (PDF). Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. Rockville, Maryland: American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 307 (3): 1179–1187. doi:10.1124/jpet.103.055434. PMID 14561847. S2CID 15619796. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-03.
  16. ^ Yang Y, Ke Q, Cai J, Xiao YF, Morgan JP (2001). "Evidence for cocaine and methylecgonidine stimulation of M(2) muscarinic receptors in cultured human embryonic lung cells". British Journal of Pharmacology. 132 (2): 451–460. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0703819. PMC 1572570. PMID 11159694.
  17. ^ Fandiño AS, Toennes SW, Kauert GF (2002). "Studies on hydrolytic and oxidative metabolic pathways of anhydroecgonine methyl ester (methylecgonidine) using microsomal preparations from rat organs". Chemical Research in Toxicology. 15 (12): 1543–1548. doi:10.1021/tx0255828. PMID 12482236.
  18. ^ Cole, Claire; Jones, Lisa; McVeigh, Jim; Kicman, Andrew; Syed, Qutub; Belis, Mark A. (2010). Cut: A Guide to Adulterants, Bulking Agents and other Contaminants found in Illicit Drugs. Centre for Public Health, Liverpool John Moores University. pp. 6–25.
  19. ^ Mieczkowski, Tom (25 November 2020). Drug Testing Technology: Assessment of Field Applications. CRC Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-000-14222-8.
  20. ^ Cutler, Janis; Marcus, Eric (28 April 2010). Psychiatry. Oxford University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-19-970682-2.
  21. ^ a b Lengel, Allan (April 5, 2006). "A Rose With Another Name: Crack Pipe". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 28, 2017.
  22. ^ Moretti, Eduardo Gregolin; Yujra, Veronica Quispe; Claudio, Samuel Rangel; Silva, Marcelo Jose Dias; Vilegas, Wagner; Pereira, Camilo Dias Seabra; de Oliveira, Flavia; Ribeiro, Daniel Araki (April 2016). "Acute crack cocaine exposure induces genetic damage in multiple organs of rats". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 23 (8): 8104–8112. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-6141-3. hdl:11449/172464. PMID 26825523. S2CID 34132872.
  23. ^ Yujra, Veronica Quispe; Moretti, Eduardo Gregolin; Claudio, Samuel Rangel; Silva, Marcelo Jose Dias; Oliveira, Flavia de; Oshima, Celina Tizuko Fujiyama; Ribeiro, Daniel Araki (October 2016). "Genotoxicity and mutagenicity induced by acute crack cocaine exposure in mice". Drug and Chemical Toxicology. 39 (4): 388–391. doi:10.3109/01480545.2015.1126843. hdl:11449/172358. PMID 26712310. S2CID 207437479.
  24. ^ a b Mégarbane, B; Chevillard, L (5 December 2013). "The large spectrum of pulmonary complications following illicit drug use: features and mechanisms". Chemico-Biological Interactions. 206 (3): 444–51. doi:10.1016/j.cbi.2013.10.011. PMID 24144776.
  25. ^ a b c d "Delusional Parasitosis", The Bohart Museum of Entomology, 2005, webpage: UCDavis-delusional[permanent dead link].
  26. ^ Morton, W. Alexander (August 1999). "Cocaine and Psychiatric Symptoms". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 1 (4): 109–113. doi:10.4088/pcc.v01n0403. PMC 181074. PMID 15014683.
  27. ^ Okie, Susan (2009-01-27). "The Epidemic That Wasn't". The New York Times.
  28. ^ Zuckerman, Barry; Pell, Tripler; Knight, Wanda Grant; Augustyn, Marilyn; Frank, Deborah A. (2001-03-28). "Growth, Development, and Behavior in Early Childhood Following Prenatal Cocaine Exposure, Frank et al. 285 (12): 1613 – JAMA". JAMA. Jama.ama-assn.org. 285 (12): 1613–1625. doi:10.1001/jama.285.12.1613. PMC 2504866. PMID 11268270.
  29. ^ NIDA – Research Report Series – Cocaine Abuse and Addiction September 26, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ "Street Drugs and pregnancy". March of Dimes. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
  31. ^ Morgan, John P.; Zimmer, Lynn (1997). "Social Pharmacology of Smokeable Cocaine". In Reinarman, Craig; Levine, Harry G. (eds.). Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice. Berkeley, Ca.: University of California Press.
  32. ^ Reinarman, Craig; Waldorf, Dan; Murphy, Sheigla B.; Levine, Harry G. (1997). "The Contingent Call of the Pipe: Bingeing and Addiction Among Heavy Cocaine Smokers". In Reinarman, Craig; Levine, Harry G. (eds.). Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice. Berkeley, Ca.: University of California Press.
  33. ^ a b c Tom Dalzell (2009), The Routledge Dictionary of Modern American Slang and Unconventional English, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-37182-7
  34. ^ (PDF). International Narcotics Control Board. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2008-05-01.
  35. ^ . Usdoj.gov. Archived from the original on 2008-08-22. Retrieved 2008-09-05.
  36. ^ 21 U.S.C. § 812(b)(2) Retrieved 2008-05-01.
  37. ^ Sterling, Eric. "Drug Laws and Snitching: A Primer". PBS. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
  38. ^ LaFraniere, Sharon (January 19, 1990). "Barry Arrested on Cocaine Charges in Undercover FBI, Police Operation". The Washington Post. p. A1.

Further reading

  • Cooper, Edith Fairman, The emergence of crack cocaine abuse, Nova Publishers, 2002

January 18, 2023
crack, cocaine, this, article, need, rewritten, comply, with, wikipedia, quality, standards, help, talk, page, contain, suggestions, july, 2022, commonly, known, simply, crack, also, known, rock, free, base, form, stimulant, cocaine, that, smoked, crack, offer. This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia s quality standards You can help The talk page may contain suggestions July 2022 Crack cocaine commonly known simply as crack and also known as rock is a free base form of the stimulant cocaine that can be smoked Crack offers a short intense high to smokers The Manual of Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment calls it the most addictive form of cocaine 1 Two grams of crack cocaine Crack cocaine first saw widespread use as a recreational drug in primarily impoverished neighborhoods in New York City Philadelphia Baltimore Washington D C Los Angeles San Francisco and Miami in late 1984 and 1985 this rapid increase in use and availability was named the crack epidemic 2 which began to wane in the 1990s The use of another highly addictive stimulant drug crystal meth ballooned between 1994 and 2004 3 4 Contents 1 Physical and chemical properties 1 1 Synthesis 2 Recreational use 3 Adverse effects 3 1 Physiological 3 1 1 Crack lung 3 2 Psychological 3 3 Pregnancy and nursing 3 4 Reinforcement disorders 3 4 1 Tolerance 3 4 2 Addiction 4 Overdose 5 Society and culture 5 1 Synonyms 5 2 Drug combinations 5 3 Consumption 5 4 Legal status 5 4 1 Australia 5 4 2 Canada 5 4 3 United States 5 4 4 Europe 5 5 Political scandals 6 See also 7 References 8 Further readingPhysical and chemical propertiesPurer forms of crack resemble off white jagged edged rocks of a hard brittle plastic with a slightly higher density than candle wax 5 Like cocaine in other forms crack rock acts as a local anesthetic numbing the tongue or mouth only where directly placed Purer forms of crack will sink in water or melt at the edges when near a flame crack vaporizes at 90 C 194 F 1 Crack cocaine sold on the streets may be adulterated or cut with other substances mimicking the appearance of crack to increase bulk Use of toxic adulterants such as levamisole 6 a drug used to treat parasitic worm infections has been documented 7 Synthesis For cocaine in a plastic bag at bottom to be converted to crack several supplies are needed Pictured here are baking soda a commonly used base in making crack a metal spoon a tealight and a cigarette lighter The spoon is held over the heat source to cook the cocaine into crack A close up of the cooking process that creates crack Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 common baking soda is a base used in the preparation of crack although other weak bases may substitute for it 8 9 The net reaction when using sodium bicarbonate is Coc H Cl NaHCO3 Coc H2O CO2 NaClWith ammonium bicarbonate Coc H Cl NH4HCO3 Coc NH4Cl CO2 H2OWith ammonium carbonate 2 Coc H Cl NH4 2CO3 2 Coc 2 NH4Cl CO2 H2OCrack cocaine is frequently purchased already in rock form 5 although it is not uncommon for some users to wash up or cook powder cocaine into crack themselves This process is frequently done with baking soda sodium bicarbonate water and a spoon Once mixed and heated the bicarbonate reacts with the hydrochloride of the powder cocaine forming free base cocaine and carbonic acid H2CO3 in a reversible acid base reaction The heating accelerates the degradation of carbonic acid into carbon dioxide CO2 and water Loss of CO2 prevents the reaction from reversing back to cocaine hydrochloride Free base cocaine separates as an oily layer floating on the top of the now leftover aqueous phase It is at this point that the oil is picked up rapidly usually with a pin or long thin object This pulls the oil up and spins it allowing air to set and dry the oil and allows the maker to roll the oil into the rock like shape Crack vaporizes near temperature 90 C 194 F 1 much lower than the cocaine hydrochloride melting point of 190 C 374 F 1 Whereas cocaine hydrochloride cannot be smoked burns with no effect 1 crack cocaine when smoked allows for quick absorption into the blood stream and reaches the brain in eight seconds 1 Crack cocaine can also be injected intravenously with the same effect as powder cocaine However whereas powder cocaine dissolves in water crack must be dissolved in an acidic solution such as lemon juice containing citric acid or white vinegar containing acetic acid a process that effectively reverses the original conversion of powder cocaine to crack 10 Harm reduction and public health agencies may distribute packets of citric acid or ascorbic acid Vitamin C for this purpose 11 Recreational use A woman smoking crack cocaine Crack cocaine is commonly used as a recreational drug Effects of crack cocaine include euphoria 12 supreme confidence 13 loss of appetite 12 insomnia 12 alertness 12 increased energy 12 a craving for more cocaine 13 and potential paranoia ending after use 12 14 Its initial effect is to release a large amount of dopamine 5 a brain chemical inducing feelings of euphoria The high usually lasts from 5 to 10 minutes 5 12 after which time dopamine levels in the brain plummet leaving the user feeling depressed and low 5 When powder cocaine is dissolved and injected the absorption into the bloodstream is at least as rapid as the absorption of the drug which occurs when crack cocaine is smoked 12 and similar euphoria may be experienced Adverse effectsPhysiological Main physiological effects of crack cocaine The short term physiological effects of cocaine include 12 constricted blood vessels dilated pupils and increased temperature heart rate and blood pressure Some users of cocaine report feelings of restlessness irritability and anxiety In rare instances sudden death can occur on the first use of cocaine or unexpectedly thereafter 12 Cocaine related deaths are often a result of cardiac arrest or seizures followed by respiratory arrest Like other forms of cocaine smoking crack can increase heart rate 15 and blood pressure leading to long term cardiovascular problems Some research suggests that smoking crack or free base cocaine has additional health risks compared to other methods of taking cocaine Many of these issues relate specifically to the release of methylecgonidine and its effect on the heart 15 lungs 16 and liver 17 Toxic adulterants Many substances may have been added to expand the weight and volume of a batch while still appearing to be pure crack Occasionally highly toxic substances are used with a range of corresponding short and long term health risks Adulterants used with crack and cocaine include milk powder sugars such as glucose starch caffeine lidocaine benzocaine paracetamol amphetamine scopolamine and strychnine 18 Smoking problems Any route of administration poses its own set of health risks in the case of crack cocaine smoking tends to be more harmful than other routes Crack users tend to smoke the drug because that has a higher bioavailability than other routes typically used for drugs of abuse such as Insufflation Crack has a melting point of around 90 C 194 F 1 and the smoke does not remain potent for long Therefore crack pipes are generally very short to minimize the time between evaporating and ingestion thereby minimizing loss of potency 19 20 Having a very hot pipe pressed against the lips often causes cracked and blistered lips colloquially known as crack lip The use of convenience store crack pipes 21 glass tubes which originally contained small artificial roses may contribute to this condition These 4 inch 10 cm pipes 21 are not durable and will quickly develop breaks users may continue to use the pipe even though it has been broken to a shorter length The hot pipe might burn the lips tongue or fingers especially when passed between people who take hits in rapid succession causing the short pipe to reach higher temperatures than if used by one person alone Pure or large doses Because the quality of crack can vary greatly some people might smoke larger amounts of diluted crack unaware that a similar amount of a new batch of purer crack could cause an overdose This can trigger heart problems or cause unconsciousness Pathogens on pipes When pipes are shared bacteria or viruses can be transferred from person to person Crack cocaine causes DNA damage in multiple organs of rats 22 and mice 23 Crack lung In crack users acute respiratory symptoms have been reported sometimes termed crack lung Symptoms include fever coughing up blood and difficulty breathing 24 In the 48 hour period after use people with these symptoms have also had associated radiographic findings on chest X ray of fluid in the lungs pulmonary edema interstitial pneumonia diffuse alveolar hemorrhage and eosinophil infiltration 24 Psychological Stimulant drug abuse particularly amphetamine and cocaine can lead to delusional parasitosis aka Ekbom s Syndrome a mistaken belief they are infested with parasites 25 For example excessive cocaine use can lead to formication nicknamed cocaine bugs or coke bugs where the affected people believe they have or feel parasites crawling under their skin 25 similar delusions may also be associated with high fever or in connection with alcohol withdrawal sometimes accompanied by visual hallucinations of insects see delirium tremens 25 People experiencing these hallucinations might scratch themselves to the extent of serious skin damage and bleeding especially when they are delirious 14 25 Paranoia and anxiety are among the most common psychological symptoms of crack cocaine use Psychosis is more closely associated with smoking crack cocaine than intranasal and intravenous use 26 Pregnancy and nursing Main article Prenatal cocaine exposure Crack baby is a term for a child born to a mother who used crack cocaine during her pregnancy The threat that cocaine use during pregnancy poses to the fetus is now considered exaggerated 27 Studies show that prenatal cocaine exposure independent of other effects such as for example alcohol tobacco or physical environment has no appreciable effect on childhood growth and development 28 However the official opinion of the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the United States warns about health risks while cautioning against stereotyping Many recall that crack babies or babies born to mothers who used crack cocaine while pregnant were at one time written off by many as a lost generation They were predicted to suffer from severe irreversible damage including reduced intelligence and social skills It was later found that this was a gross exaggeration However the fact that most of these children appear normal should not be over interpreted as indicating that there is no cause for concern Using sophisticated technologies scientists are now finding that exposure to cocaine during fetal development may lead to subtle yet significant later deficits in some children including deficits in some aspects of cognitive performance information processing and attention to tasks abilities that are important for success in school 29 There are also warnings about the threat of breastfeeding The March of Dimes said it is likely that cocaine will reach the baby through breast milk and advises the following regarding cocaine use during pregnancy Cocaine use during pregnancy can affect a pregnant woman and her unborn baby in many ways During the early months of pregnancy it may increase the risk of miscarriage Later in pregnancy it can trigger preterm labor labor that occurs before 37 weeks of pregnancy or cause the baby to grow poorly As a result cocaine exposed babies are more likely than unexposed babies to be born with low birth weight less than 5 5 lb or 2 5 kg Low birthweight babies are 20 times more likely to die in their first month of life than normal weight babies and face an increased risk of lifelong disabilities such as mental retardation and cerebral palsy Cocaine exposed babies also tend to have smaller heads which generally reflect smaller brains Some studies suggest that cocaine exposed babies are at increased risk of birth defects including urinary tract defects and possibly heart defects Cocaine also may cause an unborn baby to have a stroke irreversible brain damage or a heart attack 30 Reinforcement disorders Tolerance An appreciable tolerance to cocaine s high may develop with many addicts reporting that they seek but fail to achieve as much pleasure as they did from their first experience 12 Some users will frequently increase their doses to intensify and prolong the euphoric effects While tolerance to the high can occur users might also become more sensitive drug sensitization to cocaine s local anesthetic painkilling and convulsant seizure inducing effects without increasing the dose taken this increased sensitivity may explain some deaths occurring after apparent low doses of cocaine 12 Addiction Main article Substance dependence Crack cocaine is popularly thought to be the most addictive form of cocaine 1 However this claim has been contested Morgan and Zimmer wrote that available data indicated that smoking cocaine by itself does not increase markedly the likelihood of dependence The claim that cocaine is much more addictive when smoked must be reexamined 31 They argued that cocaine users who are already prone to abuse are most likely to move toward a more efficient mode of ingestion that is smoking The intense desire to recapture the initial high is what is so addictive for many users 5 On the other hand Reinarman et al wrote that the nature of crack addiction depends on the social context in which it is used and the psychological characteristics of users pointing out that many heavy crack users can go for days or weeks without using the drug 32 OverdoseA typical response among users is to have another hit of the drug however the levels of dopamine in the brain take a long time to replenish themselves and each hit taken in rapid succession leads to progressively less intense highs 5 Nonetheless a person might binge for 3 or more days without sleep while inhaling hits from a pipe 14 Use of cocaine in a binge during which the drug is taken repeatedly and at increasingly high doses leads to a state of increasing irritability restlessness and paranoia 12 This may result in full blown paranoid psychosis in which the individual loses touch with reality and experiences auditory hallucinations 12 Large amounts of crack cocaine several hundred milligrams or more intensify the user s high but may also lead to bizarre erratic and violent behavior 12 Large amounts can induce tremors vertigo muscle twitches paranoia or with repeated doses a toxic reaction closely resembling amphetamine poisoning 12 Society and cultureSynonyms Synonyms used to refer to crack cocaine include atari base bazooka beamers beemers bebe bee bee berry bing bolo bomb boulder boulders butter caine cane Casper Casper the ghost cavvy chemical chewies cloud cloud nine crills crunch and munch dip famous dimes fan fish scale fries fry glo golfball gravel grit hail hamburger helper hubba ice cube kangaroo kibbles and bits kibbles krills lightem paste patico pebbles pee wee pony raw ready ready rocks redi rocks roca rock rooster rox Roxanne scud Scotty scramble scruples seven up sherm sherms sleet snowballs stones teeth tension top gun tweak ultimate wash white cloud work yahoo yale yay yayoo yeah O yeyo yeo and yuck 33 Drug combinations Crack cocaine may be combined with amphetamine croak tobacco coolie marijuana buddha caviar chronic cocoa puffs fry daddy gimmie gremmie juice primo torpedo turbo woolie woola heroin moon rock and phencyclidine clicker p funk spacebase 33 Consumption Crack smoking hitting the pipe puffing beaming up to Scotty is commonly performed with utensils such as pipes bowl devil s dick glass dick horn Uzi improvised pipes made from a plastic bottle Masarati water pipes bong hubbly bubbly and laboratory pipettes demo 33 Legal status U S Food and Drug Administration anti crack poster Cocaine is listed as a Schedule I drug in the United Nations 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs making it illegal for non state sanctioned production manufacture export import distribution trade use and possession 34 In most states except in the United States crack falls under the same category as cocaine Australia In Australia crack falls under the same category as cocaine which is listed as a Schedule 8 controlled drug indicating that any substances and preparations for therapeutic use under this category have a high potential for abuse and addiction It is permitted for some medical use but is otherwise outlawed Canada As a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act crack is not differentiated from cocaine and other coca products However the court may weigh the socio economic factors of crack usage in sentencing As a guideline Schedule I drugs carry a maximum 7 year prison sentence for possession for an indictable offense and up to life imprisonment for trafficking and production A summary conviction on possession carries a 1000 2000 fine and or 6 months to a year imprisonment United States In the United States cocaine is a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act indicating that it has a high abuse potential but also carries a medicinal purpose 35 36 Under the Controlled Substances Act crack and cocaine are considered the same drug The Anti Drug Abuse Act of 1986 increased penalties for crack cocaine possession and usage It mandated a mandatory minimum sentence of five years without parole for possession of five grams of crack to receive the same sentence with powder cocaine one had to have 500 grams 37 This sentencing disparity was reduced from 100 to 1 to 18 to 1 by the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010 Europe In the United Kingdom crack is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 In the Netherlands it is a List 1 drug of the Opium Law Political scandals Rob Ford the 64th mayor of Toronto was filmed smoking crack while he was in office Marion Barry Mayor of Washington D C was filmed smoking crack in 1990 in a sting operation 38 See also Look up crack cocaine in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crack cocaine CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking Cocaine paste paco Structurally related chemicals proparacaine tetracaine lidocaine procaine hexylcaine bupivacaine benoxinate mepivacaine prilocaine etidocaine benzocaine chloroprocaine propoxycaine dyclonine dibucaine and pramoxine References a b c d e f g h Estroff Todd Wilk 2008 Manual of Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment Washington D C American Psychiatric Publishing pp 44 45 ISBN 9781585627929 It is the most addictive form of cocaine Reinarman Craig Levine Harry G 1997 Crack in Context America s Latest Demon Drug In Reinarman Craig Levine Harry G eds Crack in America Demon Drugs and Social Justice Berkeley California University of California Press ISBN 978 0520202429 Corwin Miles 1989 10 08 Potent Form of Speed Could Be Drug of 90s Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on 2021 02 11 Retrieved 2021 08 08 Methamphetamine The Drug Epidemic of the 90 s Problems and Solutions Office of Justice Programs Archived from the original on 2021 08 08 Retrieved 2021 08 08 a b c d e f g Arias Jeremy July 2008 Crack rocks offer a short but intense high to smokers A M Costa Rica Kinzie Erik April 2009 Levamisole Found in Patients Using Cocaine Annals of Emergency Medicine 53 4 546 7 doi 10 1016 j annemergmed 2008 10 017 PMID 19303517 Retrieved August 18 2009 Moisse Katie June 22 2011 Cocaine Laced With Veterinary Drug Levamisole Eats Away at Flesh ABC News Retrieved 10 July 2020 Treadwell SD Robinson TG June 2007 Cocaine use and stroke Postgraduate Medical Journal Review 83 980 389 94 doi 10 1136 pgmj 2006 055970 PMC 2600058 PMID 17551070 Cocaine Abuse amp Addiction www1 nyc gov City of New York Ponton Rhys Scott Jenny 12 July 2009 Injection preparation processes used by heroin and crack cocaine injectors Journal of Substance Use 9 1 7 19 doi 10 1080 14659890410001665041 S2CID 56725689 Harris Magdalena Scott Jenny Wright Talen Brathwaite Rachel Ciccarone Daniel Hope Vivian 13 November 2019 Injecting related health harms and overuse of acidifiers among people who inject heroin and crack cocaine in London a mixed methods study Harm Reduction Journal 16 1 60 doi 10 1186 s12954 019 0330 6 PMC 6854679 PMID 31722732 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p DEA Drug Information Cocaine United States DOJ Drug Enforcement Administration 2008 webpage DEA cocaine Archived 2008 06 22 at the Wayback Machine a b Madge Tim 2001 White Mischief A Cultural History of Cocaine Edinburgh Scotland Mainstream Publishing p 18 ISBN 1 56025 370 3 a b c Life or Meth CRACK OF THE 90 S Salt Lake City Police Department Utah 2008 PDF file Methlife PDF Archived October 31 2007 at the Wayback Machine a b Scheidweiler Karl Plessinger Mark A Shojaie Jalil Wood Ronald W Kwong Tai C 2003 Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of methylecgonidine a crack cocaine pyrolyzate PDF Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics Rockville Maryland American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 307 3 1179 1187 doi 10 1124 jpet 103 055434 PMID 14561847 S2CID 15619796 Archived from the original PDF on 2019 03 03 Yang Y Ke Q Cai J Xiao YF Morgan JP 2001 Evidence for cocaine and methylecgonidine stimulation of M 2 muscarinic receptors in cultured human embryonic lung cells British Journal of Pharmacology 132 2 451 460 doi 10 1038 sj bjp 0703819 PMC 1572570 PMID 11159694 Fandino AS Toennes SW Kauert GF 2002 Studies on hydrolytic and oxidative metabolic pathways of anhydroecgonine methyl ester methylecgonidine using microsomal preparations from rat organs Chemical Research in Toxicology 15 12 1543 1548 doi 10 1021 tx0255828 PMID 12482236 Cole Claire Jones Lisa McVeigh Jim Kicman Andrew Syed Qutub Belis Mark A 2010 Cut A Guide to Adulterants Bulking Agents and other Contaminants found in Illicit Drugs Centre for Public Health Liverpool John Moores University pp 6 25 Mieczkowski Tom 25 November 2020 Drug Testing Technology Assessment of Field Applications CRC Press p 124 ISBN 978 1 000 14222 8 Cutler Janis Marcus Eric 28 April 2010 Psychiatry Oxford University Press p 228 ISBN 978 0 19 970682 2 a b Lengel Allan April 5 2006 A Rose With Another Name Crack Pipe The Washington Post Retrieved May 28 2017 Moretti Eduardo Gregolin Yujra Veronica Quispe Claudio Samuel Rangel Silva Marcelo Jose Dias Vilegas Wagner Pereira Camilo Dias Seabra de Oliveira Flavia Ribeiro Daniel Araki April 2016 Acute crack cocaine exposure induces genetic damage in multiple organs of rats Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 23 8 8104 8112 doi 10 1007 s11356 016 6141 3 hdl 11449 172464 PMID 26825523 S2CID 34132872 Yujra Veronica Quispe Moretti Eduardo Gregolin Claudio Samuel Rangel Silva Marcelo Jose Dias Oliveira Flavia de Oshima Celina Tizuko Fujiyama Ribeiro Daniel Araki October 2016 Genotoxicity and mutagenicity induced by acute crack cocaine exposure in mice Drug and Chemical Toxicology 39 4 388 391 doi 10 3109 01480545 2015 1126843 hdl 11449 172358 PMID 26712310 S2CID 207437479 a b Megarbane B Chevillard L 5 December 2013 The large spectrum of pulmonary complications following illicit drug use features and mechanisms Chemico Biological Interactions 206 3 444 51 doi 10 1016 j cbi 2013 10 011 PMID 24144776 a b c d Delusional Parasitosis The Bohart Museum of Entomology 2005 webpage UCDavis delusional permanent dead link Morton W Alexander August 1999 Cocaine and Psychiatric Symptoms Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1 4 109 113 doi 10 4088 pcc v01n0403 PMC 181074 PMID 15014683 Okie Susan 2009 01 27 The Epidemic That Wasn t The New York Times Zuckerman Barry Pell Tripler Knight Wanda Grant Augustyn Marilyn Frank Deborah A 2001 03 28 Growth Development and Behavior in Early Childhood Following Prenatal Cocaine Exposure Frank et al 285 12 1613 JAMA JAMA Jama ama assn org 285 12 1613 1625 doi 10 1001 jama 285 12 1613 PMC 2504866 PMID 11268270 NIDA Research Report Series Cocaine Abuse and Addiction Archived September 26 2007 at the Wayback Machine Street Drugs and pregnancy March of Dimes Retrieved 2009 05 26 Morgan John P Zimmer Lynn 1997 Social Pharmacology of Smokeable Cocaine In Reinarman Craig Levine Harry G eds Crack in America Demon Drugs and Social Justice Berkeley Ca University of California Press Reinarman Craig Waldorf Dan Murphy Sheigla B Levine Harry G 1997 The Contingent Call of the Pipe Bingeing and Addiction Among Heavy Cocaine Smokers In Reinarman Craig Levine Harry G eds Crack in America Demon Drugs and Social Justice Berkeley Ca University of California Press a b c Tom Dalzell 2009 The Routledge Dictionary of Modern American Slang and Unconventional English Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 37182 7 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961 PDF International Narcotics Control Board Archived from the original PDF on 2008 05 09 Retrieved 2008 05 01 DEA Title 21 Section 812 Usdoj gov Archived from the original on 2008 08 22 Retrieved 2008 09 05 21 U S C 812 b 2 Retrieved 2008 05 01 Sterling Eric Drug Laws and Snitching A Primer PBS Retrieved 20 May 2013 LaFraniere Sharon January 19 1990 Barry Arrested on Cocaine Charges in Undercover FBI Police Operation The Washington Post p A1 Further readingCooper Edith Fairman The emergence of crack cocaine abuse Nova Publishers 2002 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Crack cocaine amp oldid 1132598740, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.