Homelessness

"Homeless" redirects here. For other uses, see Homeless (disambiguation).

Homelessness or houselessness – also known as a state of being unhoused or unsheltered – is the condition of lacking stable, safe, and adequate housing. People can be categorized as homeless if they are:

• living on the streets, also known as rough sleeping (primary homelessness);
• moving between temporary shelters, including houses of friends, family, and emergency accommodation (secondary homelessness); and
• living in private boarding houses without a private bathroom or security of tenure (tertiary homelessness).^[1]
• have no permanent house or place to live safely
• Internally Displaced Persons, persons compelled to leave their places of domicile, who remain as refugees within their country's borders.

Homeless family sleeping on the streets of Kolkata, India (top); a homeless man in Paris, France (bottom).

The rights of people experiencing homelessness also varies from country to country.^[2] United States government homeless enumeration studies^[3][4] also include people who sleep in a public or private place, which is not designed for use as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings.^[5][6] Homelessness and poverty are interrelated.^[1] There is no methodological consensus on counting homeless people and identifying their needs; therefore, in most cities, only estimated homeless populations are known.^[7]

In 2005, an estimated 100 million people worldwide were homeless, and as many as one billion people (one in 6.5 at the time) live as squatters, refugees, or in temporary shelter, all lacking adequate housing.^[8][9][10]

Homeless child and adult living on the streets

Scarce and expensive housing is the main cause of rising homelessness in the United States.^[11]

United Nations definition

In 2004, the United Nations sector of Economic and Social Affairs defined a homeless household as those households without a shelter that would fall within the scope of living quarters due to a lack of a steady income. They carry their few possessions with them, sleeping in the streets, in doorways or on piers, or in another space, on a more or less random basis.^[12]

In 2009, at the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European Statisticians (CES), held in Geneva, Switzerland, the Group of Experts on Population and Housing Censuses defined homelessness as:

In its Recommendations for the Censuses of Population and Housing, the CES identifies homeless people under two broad groups:
(a) Primary homelessness (or rooflessness). This category includes persons living in the streets without a shelter that would fall within the scope of living quarters;
(b) Secondary homelessness. This category may include persons with no place of usual residence who move frequently between various types of accommodations (including dwellings, shelters, and institutions for the homeless or other living quarters). This category includes persons living in private dwellings but reporting 'no usual address on their census form.
The CES acknowledges that the above approach does not provide a full definition of the 'homeless'.^[13]

Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 December 1948 by the UN General Assembly, contains this text regarding housing and quality of living:

Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing, and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.^[14]

The ETHOS Typology of Homelessness and Housing Exclusion was developed as a means of improving understanding and measurement of homelessness in Europe, and to provide a common "language" for transnational exchanges on homelessness. The ETHOS approach confirms that homelessness is a process (rather than a static phenomenon) that affects many vulnerable households at different points in their lives.^[15]

The typology was launched in 2005 and is used for different purposes: as a framework for debate,^[16] for data collection purposes, for policy purposes, monitoring purposes, and in the media. This typology is an open exercise that makes abstraction of existing legal definitions in the EU member states. It exists in 25 language versions, the translations being provided mainly by volunteer translators.

Despite all the international agreements and efforts, many countries and individuals in power do not consider housing as a human right. Former US President, Jimmy Carter, addressed this issue in a 2017 interview. He said, “A lot of people don't look at housing as a human right, but it is.” His view contrasts with many American, especially those in power, that do not believe this right is inline with the US constitution. ^[17]

Other terms

Recent^[when?] homeless enumeration survey documentation utilizes the term unsheltered homeless. The common colloquial term street people does not fully encompass all unsheltered people, in that many such persons do not spend their time in urban street environments. Many shun such locales, because homeless people in urban environments may face the risk of being robbed or assaulted. Some people convert unoccupied or abandoned buildings ("squatting"), or inhabit mountainous areas or, more often, lowland meadows, creek banks, and beaches.^[18] Many jurisdictions have developed programs to provide short-term emergency shelter during particularly cold spells, often in churches or other institutional properties. These are referred to as warming centers, and are credited by their advocates as lifesaving.^[19]

History

Early history through the 19th century

Further information: Homelessness in England and Homelessness in the United States

 

The Bowery Mission in New York City, United States, in the 1800s

 

German illustration of a homeless mother and her children in the street, before 1883

 

A homeless man living in a sewer, Vienna, Austria, c. 1900

 

Homeless memorial in Toronto, Canada

United Kingdom

Following the Peasants' Revolt, English constables were authorized under 1383 English Poor Laws statute to collar vagabonds and force them to show support; if they could not, the penalty was gaol.^[20] Vagabonds could be sentenced to the stocks for three days and nights; in 1530, whipping was added. The presumption was that vagabonds were unlicensed beggars.^[20] In 1547, a bill was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law, namely two years servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offense and death for the second. Large numbers of vagabonds were among the convicts transported to the American colonies in the 18th century.^[21] During the 16th century in England, the state first tried to give housing to vagrants instead of punishing them, by introducing bridewells to take vagrants and train them for a profession. In the 17th and 18th centuries, these were replaced by workhouses but these were intended to discourage too much reliance on state help.

United States

In the Antebellum South, the availability of slave labor made it difficult for poor white people to find work. To prevent poor white people from cooperating with enslaved black people, slaveowners policed poor whites with vagrancy laws.^[22]

After the American Civil War, a large number (by the hundreds or thousands) of homeless men formed part of a counterculture known as "hobohemia" all over the United States. In smaller towns, hobos temporarily lived near train tracks and hopped onto trains to various destinations.^[23][24]

The growing movement toward social concern sparked the development of rescue missions, such as the U.S. first rescue mission, the New York City Rescue Mission, founded in 1872 by Jerry and Maria McAuley.^[25][26]

Modern

 

Food line at the Yonge Street Mission, 381 Yonge Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in the 1930s

20th century

Further information: Homelessness in the United States § Historical_background

The Great Depression of the 1930s caused a devastating epidemic of poverty, hunger, and homelessness in the United States. When Franklin D. Roosevelt took over the presidency from Herbert Hoover in 1933, he passed the New Deal, which greatly expanded social welfare, including providing funds to build public housing. This marked the end of the Great Depression.^[27]

How the Other Half Lives and Jack London's The People of the Abyss (1903) discussed homelessness and raised public awareness, which caused some changes in building codes and some social conditions. In England, dormitory housing called "spikes" was provided by local boroughs. By the 1930s in England, there were 30,000 people living in these facilities. In 1933, George Orwell wrote about poverty in London and Paris, in his book Down and Out in Paris and London. In general, in most countries, many towns and cities had an area that contained the poor, transients, and afflicted, such as a "skid row". In New York City, for example, there was an area known as "the Bowery", traditionally, where people with an alcohol use disorder were to be found sleeping on the streets, bottle in hand.

In the 1960s in the UK, nature and growing problem of homelessness changed in England as public concern grew. The number of people living "rough" in the streets had increased dramatically. However, beginning with the Conservative administration's Rough Sleeper Initiative, the number of people sleeping rough in London fell dramatically. This initiative was supported further by the incoming Labour administration from 2009 onwards with the publication of the 'Coming in from the Cold' strategy published by the Rough Sleepers Unit, which proposed and delivered a massive increase in the number of hostel bed spaces in the capital and an increase in funding for street outreach teams, who work with rough sleepers to enable them to access services.^[28]

Scotland saw a slightly different picture, with the impact of the right to buy ending in a devastating drop in available social housing, something that has never ever recovered. The 1980s and the 1990s resulted in an ever increasing picture of people becoming homeless, with very few rights to provide access to allow change.

2000s

However this picture changed in Scotland from 2001, as the Scottish Parliament came into place. It was agreed by all parties that a ten-year plan to eradicate homelessness by the end of 2012 would be implemented. The minister of housing met with the third sector and Local Authorities every 6 weeks, checking on progress, whilst consultations brought about legislative change, alongside work to prevent homelessness. There was a peak in applications around 2005, but from there onwards figures dropped year on year for the next 8 years. However, with a focus on the broader numbers of people experiencing homelessness, many people with higher levels of need got caught in the system. Work from 2017 started to address this, with a framework currently in place to work towards a day where everyone in Scotland has a home suitable to meet their needs.

In 2002, research showed that children and families were the largest growing segment of the homeless population in the United States,^[29][30] and this has presented new challenges to agencies.

In the US, the government asked many major cities to come up with a ten-year plan to end homelessness.^[when?] One of the results of this was a "Housing First" solution. The Housing First program offers homeless people access to housing without having to undergo tests for sobriety and drug usage. The Housing First program seems to benefit homeless people in every aspect except for substance abuse, for which the program offers little accountability.^[31] An emerging consensus is that the Housing First program still gives clients a higher chance at retaining their housing once they get it.^[32] A few critical voices argue that it misuses resources and does more harm than good; they suggest that it encourages rent-seeking and that there is not yet enough evidence-based research on the effects of this program on the homeless population.^[33] Some formerly homeless people, who were finally able to obtain housing and other assets which helped to return to a normal lifestyle, have donated money and volunteer services to the organizations that provided aid to them during their homelessness.^[34] Alternatively, some social service entities that help homeless people now employ formerly homeless individuals to assist in the care process.

 

Homeless children in the United States.^[35] The number of homeless children reached record highs in 2011,^[36] 2012,^[37] and 2013^[38] at about three times their number in 1983.^[37]

Homelessness has migrated toward rural and suburban areas. The number of homeless people has not changed dramatically but the number of homeless families has increased according to a report of HUD.^[39] The United States Congress appropriated $25 million in the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Grants for 2008 to show the effectiveness of Rapid Re-housing programs in reducing family homelessness.^[40][41][42] In February 2009, President Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, part of which addressed homelessness prevention, allocating $1.5 billion for a Homeless Prevention Fund. The Emergency Shelter Grant (ESG) program's name was changed to Emergency Solution Grant (ESG) program, and funds were re-allocated to assist with homeless prevention and rapid re-housing for families and individuals.^[43]

Causes

Major reasons for homelessness include:^{[44][45][46][47][48]}

Rent and eviction

Gentrification is a process in which a formerly affordable neighborhood becomes popular with wealthier people, raising housing prices and pushing poorer residents out. Gentrification can cause or influence evictions, foreclosures, and rent regulation.

Increased wealth disparity and income inequality causes distortions in the housing market that push rent burdens higher, making housing unaffordable.^{[49][original research?]}

In many countries, people lose their homes by government orders to make way for newer upscale high-rise buildings, roadways, and other governmental needs.^[50] The compensation may be minimal, in which case the former occupants cannot find appropriate new housing and become homeless.

Mortgage foreclosures where mortgage holders see the best solution to a loan default is to take and sell the house to pay off the debt can leave people homeless.^[51] Foreclosures on landlords often lead to the eviction of their tenants. "The Sarasota, Florida, Herald Tribune noted that, by some estimates, more than 311,000 tenants nationwide have been evicted from homes this year after lenders took over the properties."^[44][52]

Rent regulation also has a small effect on shelter and street populations.^[53] This is largely due to rent control reducing the quality and quantity of housing. For example, a 2019 study found that San Francisco's rent control laws reduced tenant displacement from rent controlled units in the short-term, but resulted in landlords removing 30% of the rent controlled units from the rental market, (by conversion to condos or TICs) which led to a 15% citywide decrease in total rental units, and a 7% increase in citywide rents.^[54]

Economics

A substantial percentage of the US homeless population are individuals who are chronically unemployed, or have trouble managing their expenses. This can lead to poverty.^[55] Factors that can lead to economic struggle include neighbourhood gentrification (as previously discussed), drug addiction or gambling addiction, job loss, debt, chronic overspending of money, loss of money and/or assets due to divorce, death of breadwinning spouse, being denied jobs due to discrimination, living off of welfare or disability income, and many others.

Poverty

Poverty is a significant factor in homelessness. Alleviation of poverty, as a result, plays an essential role in eliminating homelessness. Some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have studied ‘unconditional cash transfers’ (UCTs) to low-income families and individuals to reduce poverty in developing countries. Despite their initial concern about UCT’s potential negative effects on the recipients, the researchers found promising results. The study in Kenya found that the assisted households increased their consumption and savings. While the families spent more for their food and food security, they did not incur any expenses on unnecessary goods or services. ^[56] This study shows that a proper approach to poverty could effectively eliminate this factor as part of a solution to homelessness. Providing access to education and employment to low-income families and individuals must also be considered to combat poverty and preventing homelessness.^{[57] [58]}

Physical and mental health

It is not surprising that many researchers have identified that “Homelessness is closely connected to decline in physical and mental health”.^[59] Most people who use homeless shelters on a frequent basis face multiple disadvantages, such as increased prevalence of physical and mental health problems, disabilities, addiction, poverty, and discrimination.^[60] Studies have shown that homeless people have a high level of morbidity and mortality. Moreover, they suffer from a wide range of medical problems, including serious infectious diseases, e.g., tuberculosis, HIV/AIDs and STDs, addictions, and mental illnesses. Notably, the lack of access to adequate medical care for homeless people adversely affects the healthcare system as well. Homeless people often obtain their care in hospital emergency departments, partly due to their inability to pay for medical services. Statistics demonstrate that the homeless are admitted to a hospital five times more than the general public and stay under care much longer. Their prolonged hospital stays impose a significant cost to the healthcare system and deprives others from receiving their timely healthcare.

Studies show that preventive and primary care (which homeless people are not receiving) substantially lower the overall healthcare costs.^[61] Unfortunately, in terms of providing adequate treatment to homeless people with respect to their mental illness, the healthcare system’s performance has not been promising, either.^[62][63][59] It is apparent that a comprehensive solution to homelessness must include an effective approach to providing healthcare to homeless people.

Disabilities, especially where disability services are non-existent, inconvenient, or poorly performing can impact a person's ability to support house payments, mortgages, or rent, especially if they are unable to work.^[64] Traumatic brain injury is one main disability that can account for homelessness. According to a Canadian survey, traumatic brain injury is widespread among homeless people and, for around 70% of respondents, can be attributed to a time "before the onset of homelessness"^[65]

Being afflicted with a mental disorder, including substance use disorders, where mental health services are unavailable or difficult to access can also drive homelessness for the same reasons as disabilities.^[66] A United States federal survey done in 2005 indicated that at least one-third of homeless men and women have serious psychiatric disorders or problems. Autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia are the top two common mental disabilities among the U.S. homeless. Personality disorders are also very prevalent, especially Cluster A.^[67][68] Substance abuse can also cause homelessness from behavioral patterns associated with addiction, that alienate an addicted individual's family and friends, who could otherwise provide support during difficult economic times.

Discrimination

A history of experiencing domestic violence can also attribute to homelessness. Compared to housed women, homeless women were more likely to report childhood histories of abuse, as well as more current physical abuse by male partners.^[69]

Gender disparities also influence the demographics of homelessness. The experiences of homeless women and women in poverty are often overlooked, however, they experience specific gender-based victimization. As individuals with little to no physical or material capital, homeless women are particularly targeted by male law enforcement, and men living on the street. It has been found that "street-based homelessness dominates mainstream understanding of homelessness and it is indeed an environment in which males have far greater power (O'Grady and Gaietz, 2004)."^[70] Women on the street are often motivated to gain capital through affiliation and relationships with men, rather than facing homelessness alone. Within these relationships, women are still likely to be physically and sexually abused.^[70]

Social exclusion related to sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, or sex characteristics can also attribute to homelessness based on discrimination. Relationship breakdown, particularly in relation to young people and their parents, such as disownment due to sexuality or gender identity is one example.^[71][72]

Former imprisonment status and a criminal history can also affect securing housing.

Human and natural disasters

Natural disasters, including but not limited to earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, tornadoes, and volcanic eruptions can cause homelessness. An example is the 1999 Athens earthquake in Greece, in which many middle class people became homeless, with some of them living in containers, especially in the Nea Ionia earthquake survivors container city provided by the government; in most cases, their only property that survived the quake was their car. Such people are known in Greece as seismopathis, meaning earthquake-struck.^{[citation needed]}

War or armed conflict can create refugees fleeing the violence. Whether they be either domestic or foreign to the country, the number of migrants can outstrip the supply of affordable housing, leaving some section of this population to be homeless.

Foster care

Transitions from foster care and other public systems can also impact homelessness; specifically, youth who have been involved in, or are a part of the foster care system, are more likely to become homeless. Most leaving the system have no support and no income, making it nearly impossible to break the cycle, and forcing them to live on the streets. There is also a lack of shelter beds for youth; various shelters have strict and stringent admissions policies.^[73]

Choice

Although uncommon, some choose to be homeless as a personal lifestyle choice.^[74][75] There are different reasons why someone would choose to become homeless. They may not want to contribute to a capitalist society, which includes having a job, spending and owing money, and paying taxes to the government. The main aspect of freeganism is anti-consumerism, and avoiding spending excessive amounts of money at all costs. Some see homelessness as more 'free' than living in a house or apartment, and prefer being in nature, as well as away from other people. Some may have had a traumatic experience in a house or apartment, such as a fire, and feel safer outside, being able to survey their surroundings.

Challenges

Main article: Discrimination against homeless people

The basic problem of homelessness is the need for personal shelter, warmth, and safety. Other difficulties include:

 

Homeless people in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

• Hygiene and sanitary facilities
• Hostility from the public and laws against urban vagrancy
• Cleaning and drying of clothes
• Obtaining, preparing, and storing food
• Keeping contact with friends, family, and government service providers without a permanent location or mailing address
• Medical problems, including issues caused by an individual's homeless state (e.g., hypothermia or frostbite from sleeping outside in cold weather), or issues which are exacerbated by homelessness due to lack of access to treatment (e.g., mental health and the individual not having a place to store prescription drugs)
• Personal security, quiet, and privacy, especially for sleeping, bathing, and other hygiene activities
• Safekeeping of bedding, clothing, and possessions, which may have to be carried at all times

People experiencing homelessness face many problems beyond the lack of a safe and suitable home. They are often faced with reduced access to private and public services and vital necessities:^[76]

• General rejection or discrimination from other people
• Increased risk of suffering violence and abuse
• Limited access to education
• Loss of usual relationships with the mainstream
• Not being seen as suitable for employment
• Reduced access to banking services
• Reduced access to communications technology
• Reduced access to healthcare and dental services
• Targeting by municipalities to exclude from public space^[77]
• Implication of hostile architecture^[78]
• Difficulty forming trust in relation to services, systems, and other people; exacerbating pre-existing difficulty accessing aid and escaping homelessness, particularly present in the chronically homeless.^[79] Statistics from the past twenty years, in Scotland, demonstrate that the biggest cause of homelessness is varying forms of relationship breakdown.

There is sometimes corruption and theft by the employees of a shelter, as evidenced by a 2011 investigative report by FOX 25 TV in Boston, wherein a number of Boston public shelter employees were found stealing large amounts of food over a period of time from the shelter's kitchen for their private use and catering.^[80][81] Homeless people are often obliged to adopt various strategies of self-presentation in order to maintain a sense of dignity, which constrains their interaction with passers-by, and leads to suspicion and stigmatization by the mainstream public.^[82]

Homelessness is also a risk factor for depression caused by prejudice. When someone is prejudiced against people who are homeless, and then becomes homeless themselves, their anti-homelessness prejudice turns inward, causing depression. "Mental disorders, physical disability, homelessness, and having a sexually transmitted infection are all stigmatized statuses someone can gain despite having negative stereotypes about those groups."^[83] Difficulties can compound exponentially. A study found that in the city of Hong Kong over half of the homeless people in the city (56%) had some degree of mental illness. Only 13% of the 56% were receiving treatment for their condition leaving a huge portion of homeless untreated for their mental illness.^[84]

The issue of anti-homeless architecture came to light in 2014, after a photo displayed hostile features (spikes on the floor) in London, and took social media by storm. The photo of an anti-homeless structure was a classic example of hostile architecture, in an attempt to discourage people from attempting to access or use public space in irregular ways. However, although this has only recently^[when?] came to light, hostile architecture has been around for a long time in many places.^[85]: 68 An example of this is a low overpass that was put in place between New York City and Long Island. Robert Moses, an urban planner, designed it this way in an attempt to prevent public buses from being able to pass through it.^[86]

Healthcare

 

Student nurse at Jacksonville University School of Nursing takes the blood pressure of a homeless veteran during the annual Stand Down for Homelessness activity in Savannah, Georgia.

Health care for homeless people is a major public health challenge. When compared to the general population, people who are homeless experience higher rates of adverse physical and mental health outcomes. Chronic disease severity, respiratory conditions, rates of mental health illnesses and substance use are all often greater in homeless populations than the general population.^[87][88] Homelessness is also associated with a high risk of suicide attempts.^[89][90] Homeless people are more likely to suffer injuries and medical problems from their lifestyle on the street, which includes poor nutrition,^[91] exposure to the severe elements of weather, and a higher exposure to violence. Yet at the same time, they have reduced access to public medical services or clinics,^[92] in part because they often lack identification or registration for public healthcare services. There are significant challenges in treating homeless people who have psychiatric disorders because clinical appointments may not be kept, their continuing whereabouts are unknown, their medicines may not be taken as prescribed, medical and psychiatric histories are not accurate, and other reasons. Because many homeless people have mental illnesses, this has presented a crisis in care.^[66][93][94]

The conditions affecting homeless people are somewhat specialized, and have opened a new area of medicine tailored to this population. Skin conditions, including scabies, are common, because homeless people are exposed to extreme cold in the winter, and have little access to bathing facilities. They have problems caring for their feet,^[95] and have more severe dental problems than the general population.^[96] Diabetes, especially untreated, is widespread in the homeless population.^[97] Specialized medical textbooks have been written to address this for providers.^[98]

Due to the demand for free medical services by homeless people, it might take months to get a minimal dental appointment in a free-care clinic. Communicable diseases are of great concern, especially tuberculosis, which spreads more easily in crowded homeless shelters in high-density urban settings.^[99] There has been ongoing concern and studies about the health and wellness of the older homeless population, typically ages 50 to 64 and older, as to whether they are significantly more sickly than their younger counterparts, and if they are under-served.^[100][101]

A 2011 study led by Dr. Rebecca T. Brown in Boston, conducted by the Institute for Aging Research (an affiliate of Harvard Medical School), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and the Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program found the elderly homeless population had "higher rates of geriatric syndromes, including functional decline, falls, frailty, and depression than seniors in the general population, and that many of these conditions may be easily treated if detected". The report was published in the Journal of Geriatric Internal Medicine.^[102] There are government avenues which provide resources for the development of healthcare for homeless people. In the United States, the Bureau of Primary Health Care has a program that provides grants to fund the delivery of healthcare to homeless people.^[103] According to 2011 UDS, data community health centers were able to provide service to 1,087,431 homeless individuals.^[104] There are also many nonprofit and religious organizations which provide healthcare services to homeless people. These organizations help meet the large need which exists for expanding healthcare for homeless people.

There have been significant numbers of unsheltered persons dying of hypothermia, adding impetus to the trend of establishing warming centers, as well as extending enumeration surveys with vulnerability indexes.^[105][106]

Effect on life expectancy

In 1999, Dr. Susan Barrow of the Columbia University Center for Homelessness Prevention Studies reported in a study that the "age-adjusted death rates of homeless men and women were four times those of the general U.S. population and two to three times those of the general population of New York City".^[107] A report commissioned by homeless charity Crisis in 2011 found that on average, homeless people in the UK have a life expectancy of 47 years, 30 years younger than the rest of the population.^[108]

Health impacts of extreme weather events

See also: Climate change and poverty

People experiencing homelessness are at a significant increased risk to the effects of extreme weather events. Such weather events include extreme heat and cold, floods, storm surges, heavy rain, and droughts. While there are many contributing factors to these events, climate change is driving an increasing frequency and intensity of these events.^[109] The homeless population is considerably more vulnerable to these weather events, due to their higher rates of chronic disease, and lower socioeconomic status. Despite having a minimal carbon footprint, homeless people unfortunately experience a disproportionate burden of the effects of climate change.^[110]

Homeless persons have increased vulnerability to extreme weather events for many reasons. They are disadvantaged in most social determinants of health, including lack of housing and access to adequate food and water, reduced access to health care, and difficulty in maintaining health care.^[110] They have significantly higher rates of chronic disease including respiratory disease and infections, gastrointestinal disease, musculoskeletal problems and mental health disease.^[111] In fact, self-reported rates of respiratory diseases (including asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema) are double that of the general population.^[110]

The homeless population often live in higher risk urban areas, with increased exposure and little protection from the elements. They also have limited access to clean drinking water, and other methods of cooling down.^[111] The built environment in urban areas also contributes to the "heat island effect", the phenomenon whereby cities experience higher temperatures due to the predominance of dark, paved surfaces, and lack of vegetation.^[112] Homeless populations are often excluded from disaster planning efforts, further increasing their vulnerability when these events occur.^[113] Without the means to escape extreme temperatures and seek proper shelter, and cooling or warming resources, homeless people are often left to suffer the brunt of the extreme weather.

The health effects that result from extreme weather include exacerbation of chronic diseases and acute illnesses. Pre-existing conditions can be greatly exacerbated by extreme heat and cold, including cardiovascular, respiratory, skin and renal disease, often resulting in higher morbidity and mortality during extreme weather. Acute conditions such as sunburn, dehydration, heat stroke, and allergic reactions are also common. In addition, a rise in insect bites can lead to vector-borne infections.^[111] Mental health conditions can also be impacted by extreme weather events as a result of lack of sleep, increased alcohol consumption, reduced access to resources and reduced ability to adjust to the environmental changes.^[111] In fact, pre-existing psychiatric illness has been shown to triple the risk of death from extreme heat.^[114] Overall, extreme weather events appear to have a "magnifying effect" in exacerbating the underlying prevalent mental and physical health conditions of homeless populations.^[113]

Case study: Hurricane Katrina

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina, a category 5 hurricane, made landfall on Florida and Louisiana. It particularly affected the city of New Orleans and the surrounding areas. Hurricane Katrina was the deadliest hurricane in the US in seven decades, with more than 1,600 confirmed deaths, and more than 1,000 people missing. The hurricane disproportionately affected marginalized individuals, and individuals with lower socioeconomic status (i.e., 93% of shelter residents were African–American, 32% had household incomes below $10,000/year and 54% were uninsured).^[110] The storm nearly doubled the number of homeless people in New Orleans. While in most cities, homeless people account for 1% of the population, in New Orleans', the homeless account for 4% of the population. In addition to its devastating effects on infrastructure and the economy, the estimated prevalence of mental illness and the incidence of West Nile Virus more than doubled after Hurricane Katrina in the hurricane-affected regions.^[110]

Legal documentation

Homeless people may find it difficult to document their date of birth or their address. Due to the fact that homeless people usually have no place to store possessions, they often lose their belongings, including identification and other documents, or find them destroyed by police or others. Without a photo ID, homeless persons cannot get a job or access many social services, including healthcare. They can be denied access to even the most basic assistance: clothing closets, food pantries, certain public benefits, and in some cases, emergency shelters. Obtaining replacement identification is difficult. Without an address, birth certificates cannot be mailed. Fees may be cost-prohibitive for impoverished persons. And some states will not issue birth certificates unless the person has photo identification, creating a Catch-22.^[115] This problem is far less acute in countries that provide free-at-use health care, such as the UK, where hospitals are open-access day and night and make no charges for treatment. In the U.S., free-care clinics for homeless people and other people do exist in major cities, but often attract more demand than they can meet.^[116]

Victimization by violent crimes

Homeless people are often the victims of violent crime. A 2007 study found that the rate of violent crimes against homeless people in the United States is increasing.^[117] A study of women veterans found that homelessness is associated with domestic violence, both directly, as the result of leaving an abusive partner, and indirectly, due to trauma, mental health conditions, and substance abuse.^[118]

Stigma

Conditions such as alcoholism and mental illness are often associated with homelessness.^[119] Many people fear homeless people, due to the stigma surrounding the homeless community. Surveys have revealed that before spending time with the homeless, most people fear them, but after spending time with homeless people, that fear is lessened, or is no longer there.^[120] Another effect of this stigma is isolation.^[121]

The stigmas of homelessness can thus be divided into three major categories in general: (1) attributing homelessness to personal incompetency and health conditions (e.g., unemployment, mental health issues, substance abuse, etc.);^[122] (2) seeing homeless people as posing threats to one's personal safety;^[122] and (3) de-sanitizing homeless people (i.e., seeing them as pathogens).^[123][124] Past research has shown that those types of stigmas are being reinforced through the fact that one is homeless and have a negative impact on effective public policymaking in terms of reducing homelessness.^[122][123] When a person lives on a street, many aspects of their personal situations, such as mental health issues and alcoholism, are more likely to be exposed to the public as compared to people who are not homeless and have access to resources that will help improve their personal crises.^[122] Such lack of privacy inevitably reinforces stigma by increasing observations of stereotypes for the public. Furthermore, media often attributes those personal crises to the direct cause of crimes, further leading the public to believe that homeless people are a threat to their personal safety. Many also believe that contacts with homeless people increase their chance of contracting diseases given that they lack access to stable, sanitary living conditions.^[123] Those types of stigmas are intertwined with each other when shaping public opinions on policies related to the homeless population, resulting in many ineffective policies that do not reduce homelessness at all.^[123] An example of such ineffective but somewhat popular policies is imposing bans on sleeping on the streets.^[123]

Relying on the famous contact hypothesis, researchers argue that increasing contact between the homeless population and non-homeless population is likely to change public opinions on this out-group and make the public more well-informed when it comes to policymaking.^[125][126] While some believe that the contact hypothesis is only valid on the condition that the context and type of contact are specified, in the case of reducing discrimination against the homelessness population, some survey data indicate that the context (e.g., the proportion of the homeless population in one's city) and type of contact (e.g., TV shows about the homelessness population or interpersonal conversations about homelessness) do not produce much variation as they all increase positive attitudes towards homeless people and public policies that aid this group.^[122] Given that the restrictions of contexts and types of contact to reduce stigma are minimal, this finding is informative and significant to the government when it comes to making policies to offer institutional support for reducing discrimination in a country and for gauging public opinions on their proposed policies to reduce homelessness.^[125][127]

Global statistics

Demographics

 

Homeless man sleeping in London, 2015

In western countries such as the United States, the typical homeless person is male and single,^[128] with the Netherlands reporting 80% of homeless people aged 18–65 to be men. Some cities have particularly high percentages of males in homeless populations, with men comprising eighty-five percent of the homeless in Dublin.^[129] Non-white people are also overrepresented in homeless populations, with such groups two and one-half times more likely to be homeless in the U.S. The median age of homeless people is approximately 35.^[130]

Statistics for developed countries

In 2005, an estimated 100 million people worldwide were homeless.^[131] The following statistics indicate the approximate average number of homeless people at any one time. Each country has a different approach to counting homeless people, and estimates of homelessness made by different organizations vary wildly, so comparisons should be made with caution.

European Union: 3,000,000 (UN-HABITAT 2004)

England: 11,580 single households were assessed as rough sleeping at the point of approach in 2021, up 39% from 2019–20, with 119,400 households owed a prevention duty in 2020–21 ^[132]

Scotland: 27,571 households were assessed as homeless in 2020/21, a decrease of 13% compared to 2019/20 ^[133]

Canada: 150,000^[134]

Australia: On census night in 2006 there were 105,000 people homeless across Australia, an increase from the 99,900 Australians who were counted as homeless in the 2001 census^[135]

 

Tents of homeless people in San Francisco, California, May 2020

United States:^[136] The HUD 2018 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress reports that in a single night, roughly 553,000 people were experiencing homelessness in the United States.^[137] According to HUD's July 2010 fifth Homeless Assessment Report to Congress, in a single night in January 2010, single-point analysis reported to HUD showed 649,917 people experiencing homelessness. This number had increased from January 2009's 643,067. The unsheltered count increased by 2.8 percent while the sheltered count remained the same. Also, HUD reported the number of chronically homeless people (persons with severe disabilities and long homeless histories) decreased one percent between 2009 and 2010, from 110,917 to 109,812. Since 2007 this number had decreased by 11 percent. This was mostly due to the expansion of permanent supportive housing programs.

The change in numbers has occurred due to the prevalence of homelessness in local communities rather than other changes. According to HUD's July 2010 Homeless Assessment Report to Congress, more than 1.59 million people spent at least one night in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program during the 2010 reporting period, a 2.2 percent increase from 2009. Most users of homeless shelters used only an emergency shelter, while 17 percent used only transitional housing, and less than 5 percent used both during the reporting period. Since 2007, the annual number of those using homeless shelters in cities has decreased from 1.22 million to 1.02 million, a 17 percent decrease. The number of persons using homeless shelters in suburban and rural areas increased 57 percent, from 367,000 to 576,000.^[138] In the U.S., the federal government's HUD agency has required federally-funded organizations to use a computer tracking system for homeless people and their statistics, called HMIS (Homeless Management Information System).^{[139][140][141]} There has been some opposition to this kind of tracking by privacy advocacy groups, such as EPIC.^[142]

However, HUD considers its reporting techniques to be reasonably accurate for homeless in shelters and programs in its Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress.^[143][144] Actually determining and counting the number of homeless is very difficult in general due to their lifestyle habits.^[145][146] There are so-called "hidden homeless" out of sight of the normal population and perhaps staying on private property.^[147] Various countries, states, and cities have come up with differing means and techniques to calculate an approximate count. For example, a one night "homeless census count", called a point-in-time (PIT) count, usually held in early winter for the year, is a technique used by a number of American cities, such as Boston.^{[148][149][150]} Los Angeles uses a mixed set of techniques for counting, including the PIT street count.^[147][151]

In 2003, The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) had begun requiring a PIT count in all "Continuum of Care" communities which required them to report a count of people, housing status, and geographic locations of individuals counted. Some communities provide sub-population information to the PIT, such as information on veterans, youth, and elderly individuals, as done in Boston.^[152]

Japan: 20,000–100,000 (some figures put it at 200,000–400,000).^[153] Reports show that homelessness is on the rise in Japan since the mid-1990s.^[154] There are more homeless men than homeless women in Japan because it is usually easier for women to get a job and they are less isolated than men. Also Japanese families usually provide more support for women than they do for men.^[155]

Developing and undeveloped countries

 

Street child in Kenya

The number of homeless people worldwide grew steadily in 2005.^[156][157] In some developing countries such as Nigeria and South Africa, homelessness is rampant, with millions of children living and working on the streets.^[158][159] Homelessness has become a problem in the countries of China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines despite their growing prosperity, partly due to migrant workers who have trouble finding permanent homes.^[160]

Determining the true number of homeless people worldwide varies between 100 million and 1 billion people based on the exact definition used.^[161] Refugees, asylum-seekers, and internally displaced persons can also be considered homeless in that they, too, experience "marginalization, minority status, socioeconomic disadvantage, poor physical health, collapse of social supports, psychological distress, and difficulty adapting to host cultures" such as the domestic homeless.^[162]

In the past twenty years, scholars such as Tipple and Speak have begun to refer to homelessness as the "antithesis or absence of home" rather than rooflessness or the "lack of physical shelter." This complication in the homelessness debate further delineates the idea that home actually consists of an adequate shelter, an experienced and dynamic place that serves as a "base" for nurturing human relationships and the "free development of individuals" and their identity.^[163] Thus, the home is perceived to be an extension of one's self and identity. In contrast, the homeless experience, according to Moore, constitutes more as a "lack of belonging" and a loss of identity that leads to individuals or communities feeling "out of place" once they can no longer call a place of their own home.^[164]

This new perspective on homelessness sheds light on the plight of refugees, a population of stateless people who are not normally included in the mainstream definition of homelessness. It has also created problems for researchers because the nature of "counting" homeless people across the globe relies heavily on who is considered a homeless person. Homeless individuals, and by extension refugees, can be seen as lacking lack the "crucible of our modern society" and lacking a way of actively belonging to and engaging with their respective communities or cultures.^[165] As Casavant demonstrates, a spectrum of definitions for homelessness, called the "continuum of homelessness", should refer to refugees as homeless individuals because they not only lose their home, but they are also afflicted with a myriad of problems that parallel those affecting the domestic homeless, such as "[a lack of] stable, safe and healthy housing, an extremely low income, adverse discrimination in access to services, with problems of mental health, alcohol, and drug abuse or social disorganization".^[166] Refugees, like the domestic homeless, lose their source of identity and way of connecting with their culture for an indefinite period of time.

 

Refugee camp in the Democratic Republic of Congo, 2013

Thus, the current definition of homelessness unfortunately allows people to simplistically assume that homeless people, including refugees, are merely "without a place to live" when that is not the case. As numerous studies show, forced migration and displacement brings with it another host of problems including socioeconomic instability, "increased stress, isolation, and new responsibilities" in a completely new environment.^[167]

For people in Russia, especially the youth, alcohol and substance use is a major cause and reason for becoming and continuing to be homeless.^[168] The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UN-Habitat) wrote in its Global Report on Human Settlements in 1995: "Homelessness is a problem in developed as well as in developing countries. In London, for example, life expectancy among homeless people is more than 25 years lower than the national average."

Poor urban housing conditions are a global problem, but conditions are worst in developing countries. Habitat says that today 600 million people live in life- and health-threatening homes in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. For example, more than three in four young people had insufficient means of shelter and sanitation in some African countries like Malawi.^[169] "The threat of mass homelessness is greatest in those regions because that is where population is growing fastest. By 2015, the 10 largest cities in the world will be in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Nine of them will be in developing countries: Mumbai, India – 27.4 million; Lagos, Nigeria – 24.4; Shanghai, China – 23.4; Jakarta, Indonesia – 21.2; São Paulo, Brazil – 20.8; Karachi, Pakistan – 20.6; Beijing, China – 19.4; Dhaka, Bangladesh – 19; Mexico City, Mexico – 18.8. The only city in a developed country that will be in the top ten is Tokyo, Japan – 28.7 million."^[170]

In 2008, Dr. Anna Tibaijuka, executive director of UN-HABITAT, referring to the recent report "State of the World's Cities Report 2008/2009",^[171] said that the world economic crisis we are in should be viewed as a "housing finance crisis" in which the poorest of poor were left to fend for themselves.^[172]

Refuges and alternative accommodation

 

Homeless shelter in Poznan, Poland

There are various places where a homeless person might seek refuge:

• 24-hour Internet cafes are now used by over 5,000 Japanese "Net cafe refugees". An estimated 75% of Japan's 3,200 all-night internet cafes cater to regular overnight guests, who in some cases have become their main source of income.^[173]
• 24-hour McDonald's restaurants are used by "McRefugees" in Japan, China and Hong Kong. There are about 250 McRefugees in Hong Kong.^[174]
• Couch surfing: temporary sleeping arrangements in dwellings of friends or family members ("couch surfing"). This can also include housing in exchange for labor or sex. Couch surfers may be harder to recognize than street homeless people and are often omitted from housing counts.^[175]
• Homeless shelters: including emergency cold-weather shelters opened by churches or community agencies, which may consist of cots in a heated warehouse, or temporary Christmas Shelters. More elaborate homeless shelters such as Pinellas Hope in Florida provide residents with a recreation tent, a dining tent, laundry facilities, outdoor tents, casitas, and shuttle services that help inhabitants get to their jobs each day.^[176]
• Inexpensive boarding houses: have also been called flophouses. They offer cheap, low-quality temporary lodging.
• Inexpensive motels offer cheap, low-quality temporary lodging. However, some who can afford housing live in a motel by choice. For example, David and Jean Davidson spent 22 years at various UK Travelodges.^[177]
• Public places: Parks, bus or train stations, public libraries, airports, public transportation vehicles (by continual riding where unlimited passes are available), hospital lobbies or waiting areas, college campuses, and 24-hour businesses such as coffee shops. Many public places use security guards or police to prevent people from loitering or sleeping at these locations for a variety of reasons, including image, safety, and comfort of patrons.^[178][179]
• Shantytowns: ad hoc dwelling sites of improvised shelters and shacks, usually near rail yards, interstates and high transportation veins. Some shantytowns have interstitial tenting areas, but the predominant feature consists of hard structures. Each pad or site tends to accumulate roofing, sheathing, plywood, and nailed two by fours.
• Single room occupancy (more commonly abbreviated to SRO):a form of housing that is typically aimed at residents with low or minimal incomes who rent small, furnished single rooms with a bed, chair, and sometimes a small desk.^[180] SRO units are rented out as permanent residence or primary residence^[181] to individuals, within a multi-tenant building where tenants share a kitchen, toilets or bathrooms. In the 2010s, some SRO units may have a small refrigerator, microwave and sink.^[180] (also called a "residential hotel").
• Squatting in an unoccupied structure where a homeless person may live without payment and without the owner's knowledge or permission. Often these buildings are long abandoned and not safe to occupy.
• Tent cities: ad hoc campsites of tents and improvised shelters consisting of tarpaulins and blankets, often near industrial and institutionally zoned real estate such as rail yards, highways and high transportation veins. A few more elaborate tent cities, such as Dignity Village, are hybrids of tent cities and shantytowns. Tent cities frequently consist only of tents and fabric improvised structures, with no semi-permanent structures at all.
• Outdoors: on the ground or in a sleeping bag, tent, or improvised shelter, such as a large cardboard box, under a bridge, in an urban doorway, in a park or a vacant lot.
• Tunnels such as abandoned subway, maintenance, or train tunnels are popular among the long-term or permanent homeless.^[182][183] The inhabitants of such refuges are called in some places, like New York City, "Mole People". Natural caves beneath urban centers allow for places where people can congregate. Leaking water pipes, electric wires, and steam pipes allow for some of the essentials of living.
• Vehicles: cars or trucks used as temporary or sometimes long-term living quarters, for example by those recently evicted from a home. Some people live in recreational vehicles (RVs), school buses, vans, sport utility vehicles, covered pickup trucks, station wagons, sedans, or hatchbacks. The vehicular homeless, according to homeless advocates and researchers, comprise the fastest-growing segment of the homeless population.^[184] Many cities have safe parking programs in which lawful sites are permitted at churches or in other out-of-the-way locations. For example, because it is illegal to park on the street in Santa Barbara, the New Beginnings Counseling Center worked with the city to make designated parking lots available to homeless people.^[176]

Other housing options

Transitional housing
Transitional housing provides temporary housing for certain segments of the homeless population, including the working homeless, and is meant to transition residents into permanent, affordable housing. This is usually a room or apartment in a residence with support services. The transitional time can be relatively short, for example, one or two years, and in that time the person must file for and obtain permanent housing along with gainful employment or income, even if Social Security or assistance. Sometimes transitional housing programs charge a room and board fee, maybe 30% of an individual's income, which is sometimes partially or fully refunded after the person procures a permanent residence. In the U.S., federal funding for transitional housing programs was originally allocated in the McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1986.^{[185][186][187]}

Foyers
Foyers are a specific type of transitional housing designed for homeless or at-risk teens. Foyers are generally institutions that provide affordable accommodation as well as support and training services for residents. They were pioneered in the 1990s in the United Kingdom, but have been adopted in areas in Australia and the United States as well.

Supportive housing
Supportive housing is a combination of housing and services intended as a cost-effective way to help people live more stable, productive lives. Supportive housing works well for those who face the most complex challenges – individuals and families confronted with homelessness who also have very low incomes or serious, persistent issues such as substance use disorder, addictions, alcohol use disorder, mental illness, HIV/AIDS, or other serious challenges. A 2021 systematic review of 28 interventions, mostly in North America, showed that interventions with highest levels of support led to improved outcomes for both housing stability, and health outcomes.^[188]

Government initiatives
In South Australia, the state government of Premier Mike Rann (2002–2011) committed substantial funding to a series of initiatives designed to combat homelessness. Advised by Social Inclusion Commissioner David Cappo and the founder of New York's Common Ground program, Rosanne Haggerty, the Rann government established Common Ground Adelaide,^[189] building high-quality inner city apartments (combined with intensive support) for "rough sleeping" homeless people. The government also funded the Street to Home program and a hospital liaison service designed to assist homeless people admitted to the emergency departments of Adelaide's major public hospitals. Rather than being released back into homelessness, patients identified as rough sleepers were found accommodation backed by professional support. Common Ground and Street to Home now operate across Australia in other States.^[190]

Assistance and resources

Main article: Homelessness services

Further information: List of homelessness organizations

Most countries provide a variety of services to assist homeless people. Provisions of food, shelter, and clothing and may be organized and run by community organizations, often with the help of volunteers, or by government departments. Assistance programs may be supported by government, charities, churches, and individual donors. However, not all homeless people can access these resources. In 1998, a study by Koegel and Schoeni of a homeless population in Los Angeles, California, found that a significant minority of homeless did not participate in government assistance programs, with high transaction costs being a likely contributing factor.^[191]

Social supports

See also: Wall of kindness

While some homeless people are known to have a community with one another,^[192] providing each other various types of support,^[193] people who are not homeless also may provide them friendship, relational care, and other forms of assistance. Such social supports may occur through a formal process, such as under the auspices of a non-governmental organization, religious organization, or homeless ministry, or may be done on an individual basis.

Income

Employment

The United States Department of Labor has sought to address one of the main causes of homelessness, a lack of meaningful and sustainable employment, through targeted training programs and increased access to employment opportunities that can help homeless people develop sustainable lifestyles.^[194] This has included the development of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, which addresses homelessness on the federal level in addition to connecting homeless individuals to resources at the state level.^[195] All individuals who are in need of assistance are able, in theory, to access employment and training services under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA), although this is contingent upon funding and program support by the government.^[194]

Income sources outside of regular employment

Waste management

Homeless people can also use waste management services to earn money. Some homeless people find returnable bottles and cans and bring them to recycling centers to earn money. They can sort out organic trash from other trash or separate out trash made of the same material (for example, different types of plastics, and different types of metal). In addition, rather than picking waste at landfills, they can also collect litter found on/beside the road to earn an income.^[196]

Street newspapers

Main article: Street newspaper

 

A street newspaper vendor, selling Street Sheet, in San Francisco, United States

Street newspapers are newspapers or magazines sold by homeless or poor individuals and produced mainly to support these populations. Most such newspapers primarily provide coverage about homelessness and poverty-related issues and seek to strengthen social networks within homeless communities, making them a tool for allowing homeless individuals to work.^[197]

Medicine

The 2010 passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act could provide new healthcare options for homeless people in the United States, particularly through the optional expansion of Medicaid. A 2013 Yale study indicated that a substantial proportion of the chronically homeless population in America would be able to obtain Medicaid coverage if states expanded Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act.^[198]

In 1985, the Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program was founded to assist the growing numbers of homeless living on the streets and in shelters in Boston and who were suffering from a lack of effective medical services.^[199][200] In 2004, Boston Health Care for the Homeless in conjunction with the National Health Care for the Homeless Council published a medical manual called The Health Care of Homeless Persons, edited by James J. O'Connell, M.D., specifically for the treatment of the homeless population.^[201] In June 2008 in Boston, the Jean Yawkey Place, a four-story, 7,214.2-square-metre (77,653 sq ft) building, was opened by the Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program. It is an entire full-service building on the Boston Medical Center campus dedicated to providing healthcare for homeless people. It also contains a long-term care facility, the Barbara McInnis House, which expanded to 104 beds and is the first and largest medical respite program for homeless people in the United States.^{[202][203][204]}

In Los Angeles, a collaboration between the Ostrow School of Dentistry of the University of Southern California and the Union Rescue Mission shelter offer homeless people in the Skid Row area free dental services.^[205]

Studies on the effects of intensive mental health interventions have demonstrated some improvements in housing stability and to be economically beneficial on cost-analysis.^[206]

Housing

Permanent supportive housing (PSH) interventions appear to have improvements in housing stability for people living with homelessness even in long-term.^[207][206]

Savings from housing homeless in the US

In 2013, a Central Florida Commission on Homelessness study indicated that the region spends $31,000 a year per homeless person to cover "salaries of law enforcement officers to arrest and transport homeless individuals – largely for nonviolent offenses such as trespassing, public intoxication or sleeping in parks – as well as the cost of jail stays, emergency room visits and hospitalization for medical and psychiatric issues. This did not include "money spent by nonprofit agencies to feed, clothe and sometimes shelter these individuals". In contrast, the report estimated the cost of permanent supportive housing at "$10,051 per person per year" and concluded that "[h]ousing even half of the region's chronically homeless population would save taxpayers $149 million over the next decade – even allowing for 10 percent to end up back on the streets again." This particular study followed 107 long-term-homeless residents living in Orange, Osceola or Seminole Counties.^[208] There are similar studies showing large financial savings in Charlotte and Southeastern Colorado from focusing on simply housing the homeless."^[209]

In general, housing interventions had mixed economic results on cost-analysis studies.^[206]

Innovative solutions

Los Angeles conducted a competition promoted by Mayor Eric Garcetti soliciting ideas from developers to use bond money more efficiently in building housing for the city's homeless population. The top five winners were announced on 1 February 2019 and the concepts included using assembly-ready molded polymer panels that can be put together with basic tools, prefabricated 5-story stack-able houses, erecting privately financed modular buildings on properties that do not require City Council approval, using bond money to convert residential garages into small apartments which are then dedicated to homeless rentals, and the redeveloping of Bungalow-court units, the small low-income iconic buildings that housed 7% of the city's population in the 1920s.^[210]

In the neighborhood of Westlake, Los Angeles, the city is funding the first transitionally homeless housing building using "Cargotecture", or "architecture built from repurposed shipping containers." The Hope on Alvarado micro-apartment building will consist of 4-stories of 84 containers stacked together like Lego bricks on top of a traditionally constructed ground floor. Completion is anticipated by the end of 2019.^[211]

Political action

Voting for elected officials is important for the homeless population to have a voice in the democratic process.^[212]

There are also many community organizations and social movements around the world which are taking action to reduce homelessness. They have sought to counteract the causes and reduce the consequences by starting initiatives that help homeless people transition to self-sufficiency. Social movements and initiatives tend to follow a grassroots, community-based model of organization – generally characterized by a loose, informal and decentralized structure, with an emphasis on radical protest politics. By contrast, an interest group aims to influence government policies by relying on more of a formal organizational structure.^[212] These groups share a common element: they are both made up of and run by a mix of allies of the homeless population and former or current members of the homeless population. Both grassroots groups and interest groups aim to break stereotyped images of homeless people as being weak and hapless, or defiant criminals and drug addicts, and to ensure that the voice of homeless people and their representatives is clearly heard by policymakers.

Organizing in homeless shelters

Homeless shelters can become grounds for community organization and the recruitment of homeless individuals into social movements for their own cause. Cooperation between the shelter and an elected representative from the homeless community at each shelter can serve as the backbone of this type of initiative. The representative presents and forwards problems raises concerns and provides new ideas to the director and staff of the shelters. Examples of possible problems are ways to deal with substance use disorders by certain shelter users, and resolution of interpersonal conflicts. SAND, the Danish National Organization for Homeless People, is one example of an organization that uses this empowerment approach.^[213] Issues reported at the homeless shelters are then addressed by SAND at the regional or national level. To open further dialogue, SAND organizes regional discussion forums where staff and leaders from the shelters, homeless representatives, and local authorities meet to discuss issues and good practices at the shelters.^[212]

Veteran specific

Main article: Homeless veterans in the United States

 

Homeless veteran man in New York, United States

There are a number of homeless organizations that support homeless veterans, an issue most commonly seen in the United States.^{[citation needed]}

Non-governmental organizations house or redirect homeless veterans to care facilities. Social Security Income/Social Security Disability Income, Access, Outreach, Recovery Program (SOAR) is a national project funded by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. It is designed to increase access to SSI/SSDI for eligible adults who are homeless or at risk of becoming homeless and have a mental illness or a co-occurring substance use disorder. Using a three-pronged approach of Strategic Planning, Training, and Technical Assistance (TA), the SOAR TA Center coordinates this effort at the state and community level.^[214]

The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development and Veterans Administration have a special Section 8 housing voucher program called VASH (Veterans Administration Supported Housing), or HUD-VASH, which gives out a certain number of Section 8 subsidized housing vouchers to eligible homeless and otherwise vulnerable US armed forces veterans.^[215] The HUD-VASH program has shown success in housing many homeless veterans.^[216] The support available to homeless veterans varies internationally, however. For example, in England, where there is a national right to housing, veterans are only prioritized by local authority homelessness teams if they are found to be vulnerable due to having served in the Armed Forces.^[217]

Under the Department of Labor, the Veterans' Employment and Training Service (VETS) offers a variety of programs targeted at ending homelessness among veterans.^[194] The Homeless Veterans' Reintegration Program (HVRP) is the only national program that is exclusively focused on assisting veterans as they reenter the workforce.^[194] The VETS program also has an Incarcerated Veterans' Transition Program, as well as services that are unique to female Veterans.^[194] Mainstream programs initiated by the Department of Labor have included the Workforce Investment Act, One-Stop Career Centers, and a Community Voice Mail system that helps to connect homeless individuals around the United States with local resources.^[218] Targeted labor programs have included the Homeless Veterans' Reintegration Project, the Disability Program Navigator Initiative, efforts to end chronic homelessness through providing employment and housing projects, Job Corps, and the Veterans Workforce Investment Program (VWIP).^[218]

By location

Further information: List of countries by homeless population

Africa

Egypt

Main article: Homelessness in Egypt

Homelessness in Egypt is a significant social issue affecting some 12 million people in the country. Egypt has over 1,200 areas designated for irregular dwellings that do not conform to standard building laws, allowing homeless people to build shacks and other shelters for themselves.^[219]

Reportedly, in Egypt, homelessness is defined to include those living in marginal housing.^[220] Some scholars have stated that there is no agreed upon definition of homelessness in Egypt due to the difficulties government would face if an official definition were accepted.^[221]

According to UNICEF, there are 1 million children living on the streets in Egypt.^[222] Other researchers estimate the number to be some 3 million.^[223] Homelessness NGOs assisting street children include those such as Hope Village Society,^[222] and NAFAS.^[220] Other NGOs, such as Plan International Egypt, work to reintegrate street children back into their families.^[224]

South Africa

Main article: Homelessness in South Africa

Homelessness in South Africa dates back to the apartheid period.^[225] Increasing unemployment, lack of affordable housing, social disintegration, and social and economic policies have all been identified as contributing factors to the issue.^[226] Some scholars argue that solutions to homelessness in South Africa lie more within the private sphere than in the legal and political spheres.^[227]

There is no national census on homeless people in South Africa, researchers instead rely on individual studies of homeless persons in particular cities.^[228] The South African homeless population has been estimated at 200,000 people from a diverse range of backgrounds.^[229] Most South African municipalities primarily view homelessness as a social dependency issue, responding with social interventions.

One study found that three out of four South African metropolitan municipalities viewed homelessness primarily as a social dependency issue, responding with social interventions. At the same time, homeless South Africans indicated that the most important thing the municipality could assist them with was employment and well-located affordable housing.^[230]

 

A homeless person collecting recyclable materials in Stellenbosch, South Africa

Asia

China

Main article: Homelessness in China

In 2011, there were approximately 2.41 million homeless adults and 179,000 homeless children living in the country.^[231] However, one publication estimated that there were one million homeless children in China in 2012.^[232]

Housing in China is highly regulated by the Hukou system. This gives rise to a large number of migrant workers, numbering at 290.77 million in 2019.^[233] These migrant workers have rural Hukou, but they move to the cities in order to find better jobs, though due to their rural Hukou they are entitled to fewer privileges than those with urban Hukou.^{[citation needed]} According to Huili et al.,^[234] these migrant workers "live in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions" and are always at risk of displacement to make way for new real estate developments. In 2017, the government responded to a deadly fire in a crowded building in Beijing by cracking down on dense illegal shared accommodations and evicting the residents, leaving many migrant laborers homeless.^[235] This comes in the context of larger attempts by the government to limit the population increase in Beijing, often targeting migrant laborers.^[236] However, according to official government statistics,^[233] migrant workers in China have an average of 20.4 square metres (220 sq ft) of living space per capita, and the vast majority of migrant workers have basic living facilities such as heating, bathing, refrigerators, and washing machines.

Several natural disasters have led to homelessness in China. The 2000 Yunnan earthquake left 92,479 homeless and destroyed over 41,000 homes.^[237]

Homelessness among people with mental health problems is 'much less common' in China than in high-income countries, due to stronger family ties, but is increasing due to migration within families and as a result of the one-child policy. A study in Xiangtan found at least 2439 schizophrenic people that have been homeless on a total population of 2.8 million. It was found that "homelessness was more common in individuals from rural communities (where social support services are limited), among those who wander away from their communities (i.e., those not from Xiangtan municipality), and among those with limited education (who are less able to mobilize social supports). Homelessness was also associated with greater age; [the cause] may be that older patients have 'burned their bridges' with relatives and, thus, end up on the streets."^[238]

During the Cultural Revolution a large part of child welfare homes were closed down, leaving their inhabitants homeless. By the late 1990s, many new homes were set up to accommodate abandoned children. In 1999, the Ministry of Civil Affairs estimated the number of abandoned children in welfare homes to be 66,000.^[239]

According to the Ministry of Civil Affairs, China had approximately 2,000 shelters and 20,000 social workers to aid approximately 3 million homeless people in 2014.^[240]

From 2017 to 2019, the government of Guangdong Province assisted 5,388 homeless people in reuniting with relatives elsewhere in China. The Guangdong government assisted more than 150,000 people over a three-year period.^[241]

In 2020, in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Chinese Ministry of Civil Affairs announced several actions of the Central Committee in response to homelessness, including increasing support services and reuniting homeless people with their families.^[242] In Wuhan, the situation for homeless people was particularly bad, as the lockdown made it impossible for homeless migrants to return to other parts of the country. The Wuhan Civil Affairs Bureau set up 69 shelters in the city to house 4,843 people.^[243]

India

Main article: Homelessness in India

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines 'homeless' as those who do not live in a regular residence due to lack of adequate housing, safety, and availability.^[244] The United Nations Economic and Social Council Statement has a broader definition for homelessness; it defines homelessness as follows: 'When we are talking about housing, we are not just talking about four walls and a roof. The right to adequate housing is about security of tenure, affordability, access to services and cultural adequacy. It is about protection from forced eviction and displacement, fighting homelessness, poverty and exclusion.^[245] India defines 'homeless' as those who do not live in census houses, but rather stay on pavements, roadsides, railway platforms, staircases, temples, streets, in pipes, or other open spaces.^[244] There are 1.77 million homeless people in India, or 0.15% of the country's total population, according to the 2011 census consisting of single men, women, mothers, the elderly, and the disabled.^[244][246] However, it is argued that the numbers are far greater than accounted by the point in time method. For example, while the Census of 2011 counted 46.724 homeless individuals in Delhi, the Indo-Global Social Service Society counted them to be 88,410, and another organization called the Delhi Development Authority counted them to be 150,000.^[245] Furthermore, there is a high proportion of mentally ill and street children in the homeless population.^[247] There are 18 million street children in India, the largest number of any country in the world, with 11 million being urban.^[248][249] Finally, more than three million men and women are homeless in India's capital city of New Delhi; the same population in Canada would make up approximately 30 electoral districts.^[250] A family of four members has an average of five homeless generations in India.^[244]

There is a shortage of 18.78 million houses in the country. Total number of houses has increased from 52.06 million to 78.48 million (as per 2011 census). However, the country still ranks as the 124th wealthiest country in the world as of 2003.^[251] More than 90 million people in India make less than US$1 per day, thus setting them below the global poverty threshold.^[251] The ability of the Government of India to tackle urban homelessness and poverty may be affected in the future by both external and internal factors.^[251] The number of people living in slums in India has more than doubled in the past two decades and now exceeds the entire population of Britain, the Indian Government has announced.^[252] About 78 million people in India live in slums and tenements.^[253] 17% of the world's slum dwellers reside in India.^[251] Subsequent to the release of Slumdog Millionaire in 2008, Mumbai was a slum tourist destination for slumming where homeless people and slum dwellers alike could be openly viewed by tourists.^[254]

Indonesia

Main article: Homelessness in Indonesia

Homelessness in Indonesia refers to the issue of homelessness, a condition wherein people lack a stable and appropriate place of housing. The number of homeless people in Indonesia is estimated to be up to 3 million people in the country, over 28,000 in Jakarta alone.^[255][256] A number of terms are used to describe homeless people in Indonesia, including tunawisma, which is used by the government, and gelandangan, meaning "tramp".^[257][258]

Squatters and street homeless people are often targeted by police raids who say that homeless people "disturb the attractiveness of the city".^[256]

One cause of homelessness in Indonesia is forced evictions. According to researchers, between the years 2000 and 2005 over 92,000 people were forcefully evicted from their homes.^[259]

Israel

Main article: Homelessness in Israel

Homelessness in Israel is a phenomenon that mostly developed after the mid-1980s.^[260]

Homelessness increased following the wave of Soviet immigration in 1991. As many as 70 percent of homeless people in Tel Aviv are immigrants from the former Soviet Union, nearly all of them men. According to homeless shelter founder Gilad Harish, "when the recession hit Israel in the early 90s, the principle of 'last in, first out' kicked in, and many Russian immigrants lost their jobs. Being new to the country, they didn't have a strong family support system to fall back on like other Israelis do. Some ended up on the street with nowhere to go."^[261]

The number of homeless people in Israel grew in the 2000s, and the Association for Civil Rights in Israel claimed that the authorities were ignoring the issue.^[262]

Some 2,000 families in Israel lose their homes every year after defaulting on their mortgage loans. However, a law amendment passed in 2009 protects the rights of mortgage debtors and ensures that they are not evicted after failing to meet mortgage payments. The amendment is part of a wider reform in the law in the wake of a lengthy battle by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel and other human rights groups.^[263]

In 2007, the number of homeless youth was on the rise. More than 25% of all homeless youth in 2007 were girls, compared to 15% in 2004. A report by Elem, a non-profit organization that helps youth at risk, pointed to a 5% rise in the number of youths either homeless or wandering the streets late at night while their parents worked or due to strained relations at home. The organization estimated that in 2007 it provided programs or temporary shelter to roughly 32,000 youths in some 30 locations countrywide.^[264]

In 2014, the number of homeless individuals in Israel was estimated at 1,831, about 600 of whom were living on the streets of Tel Aviv.^[265] This makes up 0.02% of the country's population, a low figure compared to other developed nations. In July 2015, the Welfare Ministry estimated the number of homeless to be between 800 and 900, including 450 receiving services and treatment from their municipalities but continuing to live on the streets. Elem claimed the true figure was much higher. In December 2015, a large study by the Welfare Ministry found that 2,300 people in Israel were homeless.^[266][267]

Homeless people in Israel are entitled to a monthly government stipend of NIS 1,000.^[266] In addition, there are both state-run homeless shelters operated by the Welfare Ministry and privately run shelters.

Adi Nes, an Israeli photographer, has brought public attention to the issue by taking pictures of Israel's homeless.^[268]

Japan

Main article: Homelessness in Japan

Homelessness in Japan (ホームレス, 浮浪者)) is a social issue primarily affecting middle-aged and elderly males. Homelessness is thought to have peaked in the 1990s as a consequence of the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble and has largely fallen since then.

According to the "Special Act in regards to Supporting the Autonomy of the Homeless Population" (Japanese: ホームレスの自立の支援等に関する特別措置法)), the term "homeless" is defined as "those who utilize city parks, river banks, roads, train stations, and other facilities as their place of stay in order to live their daily lives".^[269]

Names for the homeless in Japan include hōmuresu (ホームレス, from the English "homeless"), furousha (浮浪者, meaning "wandering person"), kojiki (乞食, meaning beggar), and runpen (ルンペン, from German [[wikt:Lumpen|Lumpen]]). More recently^[when?], nojukusha (野宿者, "person who sleeps outside") and nojuku roudousha (野宿労働者, "laborer who sleeps outside") have been used to avoid negative connotations associated with the word "homeless".^[270]

Philippines

See also: Street children in the Philippines and Squatting in the Philippines

There are approximately 4.5 million homeless people in the Philippines, about 3 million of them in Manila.^[271]

Europe

One fifth of the total population of the European Union – totalling 91.4 million people – are still at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and access to housing remains difficult for many Europeans. According to a Eurostat survey,^{[full citation needed]} three-in-100 people say they have already had to live with relatives on a temporary basis while one-in-100 people say they have already lived on the street, in emergency or temporary accommodation or in a place not suitable for housing.

• Homelessness in Denmark (6,431)
• Homelessness in Finland (4,300)
• Homelessness in France (300,000)
• Homelessness in Germany (678,000)
• Homelessness in Greece (40,000)
• Homelessness in Hungary (30,000)
• Homelessness in Ireland (8,313)
• Homelessness in the Netherlands (39,300)
• Homelessness in Portugal (8,209)
• Homelessness in Spain (40,000)
• Homelessness in Sweden (34,000)

Switzerland

Main article: Homelessness in Switzerland

Homelessness in Switzerland is a known social issue, however, there are few estimates as to the number of Swiss people affected.^[272] Homelessness is less visible in Switzerland than in many other Western countries. The majority of homeless people in Geneva are Swiss or French, with a minority from other countries.^[273]

One Swiss study found that 1.6 percent of all patients admitted to psychiatric wards were homeless. The study reported that social factors and psychopathology are independently contributing to the risk of homelessness.^[274]

In 2014, Swiss authorities reportedly began allowing homeless people to sleep in fallout shelters built during the Cold War.^[273]

There are a number of centers for providing food for the homeless, including the Suneboge community center.^[275]

United Kingdom

Main articles: Homelessness in the United Kingdom, Homelessness in England, and Homelessness in Scotland

Homelessness across the UK is a devolved matter, resulting in different legislation, frameworks, and even definitions, from country to country.

 

Number of homeless in England per 100,000 people, 1998–2014

Since the late 1990s, housing policy has been a devolved matter, and state support for homeless people, together with legal rights in housing, have therefore diverged to a certain degree. A national service, called Streetlink, was established in 2012 to help members of the public obtain near-immediate assistance for specific rough sleepers, with the support of the Government (as housing is a devolved matter, the service currently only extends to England).

The annual number of homeless households in England peaked in 2003–04 at 135,420 before falling to a low of 40,020 in 2009–10.^[276] In 2017–18, there were 56,600 homeless households, which was 60 per cent below the 2003–04 peak, and 40 per cent higher than the 2009–10 low.^[277] The UK has more than 120,000 children in temporary accommodation, a number which has increased from 69,050 children in 2010.^[278][279]

In 2007 the official figures for England were that an average of 498 people slept rough each night, with 248 of those in London.^[280]

Homelessness in England since 2010 has been rising. By 2016 it is estimated the numbers sleeping rough had more than doubled since 2010.^[281] The National Audit Office say in relation to homelessness in England 2010–17 there has been a 60% rise in households living in temporary accommodation and a rise of 134% in rough sleepers.^[282][283] It is estimated 4,751 people bedded down outside overnight in England in 2017, up 15% on previous year.^[284] The housing charity Shelter used data from four sets of official 2016 statistics and calculated 254,514 people in England were homeless.^[285]

The Homelessness Reduction Act 2017 places a new duty on local authorities in England to assist people threatened with homelessness within 56 days and to assess, prevent and relieve homelessness for all eligible applicants including single homeless people from April 2018.^[286] Before the 2017 HRA, homeless households were defined and measured as those who were owed a 'main homelessness duty' by local authorities. But since 2018, the definition of homeless households has broadened as households are owed a new relief duty and a prevention duty. The main homelessness duty definition has not been changed by the 2017 HRA. However, these households are now only owed a main duty if their homelessness has not been successfully prevented or relieved.^[287] In 2019–20, 288,470 households were owed the new prevention or relief duties, which is four times the number of households owed the 'main duty' in 2017–18 prior to implementation of the Homelessness Reduction Act.^[277]

The picture in Scotland is considerably different, with law that entitles everyone to a roof over their head if they are homeless.^[288] This accommodation is often in the form of somewhere temporary, until something permanent becomes available. Though across the course of 2022 this will change, reducing the use of temporary accommodation, in line with the Homeless and Rough Sleeping Action Group (HARSAG) recommendations.^[289] Currently people are spending an average of 199 days(April 2020 to March 2021)in temporary accommodation before being housed in somewhere permanent.^[290]

Most recently updated in October 2020, Scotland is working to eradicate homelessness through the 'Ending Homelessness Together' action plan.^[291] It is anticipated that with this, alongside a focus on prevention, and Local Authorities working with the third sector on plans known as Rapid Rehousing Transition Plans, that people will no longer be homeless for any length of time.

In terms of figures, in 2020/21, there were 42,149 people in homeless households – 30,345 adults and 11,804 children in Scotland.^[133] This was a drop of 9% from the previous year, though it is unclear if this was partly due to statistics being collected differently during the start of the pandemic.

North America

Canada

This section is an excerpt from Homelessness in Canada.[edit]

 

Graffiti of homeless in Quebec City

Homelessness in Canada was not a social problem until the 1980s.^{[citation needed]} Canadian government housing policies and programs in place throughout the 1970s were based on a concept of shelter as a basic need or requirement for survival and of the obligation of government and society to provide adequate housing for everyone.^[292][293] Public policies shifted away from rehousing in the 1980s in wealthy Western countries like Canada, which led to a de-housing of households that had previously been housed. By 1987, when the United Nations established the International Year of Shelter for the Homeless (IYSH), homelessness had become a serious social problem in Canada. The report of the major 1987 IYSH conference held in Ottawa said that housing was not a high priority for government, and this was a significant contributor to the homelessness problem. While there was a demand for adequate and affordable housing for low income Canadian families, government funding was not available. In the 1980s a "wider segment of the population" began to experience homelessness for the first time – evident through their use of emergency shelters and soup kitchens. Shelters began to experience overcrowding, and demand for services for the homeless was constantly increasing. A series of cuts were made to national housing programs by the federal government through the mid-1980s and in the 1990s. While Canada's economy was robust, the cuts continued and in some cases accelerated in the 1990s, including cuts to the 1973 national affordable housing program. The government solution for homelessness was to create more homeless shelters and to increase emergency services. In the larger metropolitan areas like Toronto the use of homeless shelters increased by 75% from 1988 to 1998. Urban centres such as Montreal, Laval, Vancouver, Edmonton, and Calgary all experienced increasing homelessness.^[294]

In Action Plan 2011, the Federal Government of Canada proposed $120 million annually from April 2014 until April 2019—with $70 million in new funding—to renew its Homelessness Partnering Strategy (HPS) with a focus on the Housing First model. Private or public organizations across Canada were eligible for HPS subsidies to implement Housing First programs.

United States

Main article: Homelessness in the United States

See also: Homeless women in the United States and List of tent cities in the United States

 

A woman giving a homeless man food in New York City, United States (2008)

After Franklin D. Roosevelt took over the presidency from Herbert Hoover in 1933, he oversaw passage of the New Deal, which greatly expanded social welfare, including providing funds to build public housing. This marked the end of the Great Depression.^[27] However, the number of homeless people grew in the 1980s, when Ronald Reagan decimated the public housing budget in the 1980s, including the federally funded affordable housing production put in place by the New Deal.^[295] By the mid-1980s, there was a dramatic increase in family homelessness. Tied into this was an increasing number of impoverished and runaway children, teenagers, and young adults, which created a new substratum of the homeless population (street children or street youth).^[296]

In 2015, the United States reported that there were 564,708 homeless people within its borders, one of the higher reported figures worldwide.^[297]

Housing First is an initiative to help homeless people reintegrate into society, and out of homeless shelters. It was initiated by the federal government's Interagency Council on Homelessness. It asks cities to come up with a plan to end chronic homelessness. In this direction, there is the belief that if homeless people are given independent housing to start, with some proper social supports, then there would be no need for emergency homeless shelters, which it considers a good outcome. However this is a controversial position.^{[298][299][300]}

There is evidence that the Housing First program works more efficiently than Treatment First programs. Studies show that having the stability of housing through the Housing First program will encourage homeless people to focus on other struggles they are facing, such as substance abuse. Meanwhile, Treatment First programs promote an "all or nothing" approach which require clients to participate in programs applicable to their struggles as a condition for housing assistance. Treatment First utilizes a less individualistic approach than Housing First and solutions are created under one standard rather than fit to each client's specific needs.^[300]

 

Skid Row, Los Angeles contains one of the largest stable populations, between 5,000 and 8,000, of homeless people in the United States.^[301]

In 2009 it was estimated that one out of 50 children or 1.5 million children in the United States would experience some form of homelessness each year.^[302]

In 2010 in New York City, where there were over 36,000 homeless people in 2009,^[303] there was a mobile video exhibit in the streets showing a homeless person on a screen and asking onlookers and passersby to text with their cellphones a message for him, and they also could donate money by cellphones to the organization Pathways to Housing.^[304][305] In September 2010, it was reported that the Housing First Initiative had significantly reduced the chronic homeless single person population in Boston, Massachusetts, although homeless families were still increasing in number. Some shelters were reducing the number of beds due to lowered numbers of homeless, and some emergency shelter facilities were closing, especially the emergency Boston Night Center.^[306] In 2011, the Department of Veterans Affairs Supportive Services for Veterans Families Initiative, SSVF, began funding private non-profit organizations and consumer cooperatives to provide supportive services to very low-income veteran families living in or transitioning to permanent housing.^[307]

In 2019, in an interview with CBS News, scholar Sara Goldrick-Rab said that her study on college student homelessness found that "[n]early one in ten college students said they were homeless in the last year, meaning they had at least one night where they did not know where they were going to sleep."^[308]

Puerto Rico

According to the count by the Puerto Rico Department of Family, in January 2017 there were 3,501 homeless persons in the territory. The study shows that 26% of this population live in the capital, San Juan. Other municipalities percentage of this population was Ponce with 6.3%, Arecibo with 6%, Caguas with 5.3%, and Mayagüez with 4.7%. Results from the study determined that 76% of the homeless population were men and 24% were women and that both men and women populations, were on average age, 40 years old. This steadily increasing population, might have increased more drastically as a result of Hurricane María which caused over 90 billion dollars in damage to the island of Puerto Rico.^[309]

Data provided by the Department of Community Social Development of San Juan, indicates that in 1988 the number of homeless in the municipality was of 368, while in 2017 there are about 877 persons without a home. While the average age for the overall homeless population is 40 years old for both women and men, in San Juan the median is 48 years for men and 43 years for women. Other data obtained showed that more than 50% have university level education. Also it revealed that 35% of men and 25% of women have relapsed more than four times after unsuccessful attempts to reinsert themselves socially. Reasons given to wander are varied with the most common causes being drug abuse (30.6%), family problems (22.4%), financial or economic problems (15.0%), and others such as unemployment, mental health problems, domestic violence, evictions, or lack of support when released from prison.^[310]

Oceania

Australia

Main article: Homelessness in Australia

 

A homeless person's shelter under a fallen willow tree in Australia

 

Abandoned transient encampment in Mawson, ACT

In Australia the Supported Accommodation Assistance Program (SAAP) is a joint Commonwealth and state government program which provides funding for more than 1,200 organizations which are aimed to assist homeless people or those in danger of becoming homeless, as well as women and children escaping domestic violence.^[311] They provide accommodation such as refuges, shelters, and half-way houses, and offer a range of supported services. The Commonwealth has assigned over $800 million between 2000 and 2005 for the continuation of SAAP. The current program, governed by the Supported Assistance Act 1994, specifies that "the overall aim of SAAP is to provide transitional supported accommodation and related support services, in order to help people who are homeless to achieve the maximum possible degree of self-reliance and independence. This legislation has been established to help the homeless people of the nation and help rebuild the lives of those in need. The cooperation of the states also helps enhance the meaning of the legislation and demonstrates their desire to improve the nation as best they can." In 2011, the Specialist Homelessness Services (SHS) program replaced the SAAP program.^[312]

New Zealand

Main article: Homelessness in New Zealand

Homelessness in New Zealand has been linked to the general issue of lack of suitable housing.^[313] The homeless population is generally measured through the country's census and by universities and other academic centres. In 2009, urban homelessness (rough sleepers or improvised dwellings) were estimated at less than 300, while rural homelessness (improvised dwellings) was estimated between 500 and 1000. An additional 8,000–20,000 live in "temporary accommodation unsuited for long-term habitation (caravans, campgrounds, substandard housing and boarding houses)."^[314] Homelessness in New Zealand has traditionally been reduced by the provision of state housing, similar to Germany and other developed countries.^{[citation needed]}

Statistical authorities in New Zealand have expanded their definition of homelessness to include 'people living in improvised shelters', 'people staying in camping grounds/motor camps' and 'people sharing accommodation with someone else's household'.^[315]

The issue is believed to have become increasingly visible in recent^[when?] years.^[313] Media in New Zealand have published an accusatory account of the presence of homeless people in public spaces, positioning homeless men as disruptive threats. Though community members have shown support though writing opinion pieces.^[316]

In late January 2019, the New York Times reported rising housing prices to be a major factor in the increasing homelessness in New Zealand so that "smaller markets like Tauranga, a coastal city on the North Island with a population of 128,000, had seen an influx of people who had left Auckland in search of more affordable housing. Average property values in Tauranga had risen to $497,000 from $304,000 in the last five years, and Demographia now rated it among the 10 least affordable cities in the world — along with famously expensive locales such as Hong Kong, San Francisco, Sydney and Vancouver, British Columbia."^[317]

In mid August 2019, the Associate Housing Minister Kris Faafoi and Social Development Minister Carmel Sepuloni announced that the Government would be launching a NZ$54 million program to tackle homelessness in New Zealand. This includes investing $31 million over the next four years for 67 intensive case managers and navigators to work with homeless people and a further $16 million for the Sustaining Tenancies Programme. This funding complements the Government's Housing First programme.^[318][319]

Russia and the USSR

Main article: Homelessness in Russia

After the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, major cities experienced a large influx of former peasants who sought jobs as industrial workers in rapidly developing Russian industry. These people often lived in harsh conditions, sometimes renting a room shared between several families. There also was a large number of shelterless homeless. Immediately after the October Revolution a special program of "compression" (уплотнение) was enabled: people who had no shelter were settled in flats of those who had large (4, 5, or 6-room) flats with only one room left to previous owners. The flat was declared state property. This led to a large number of shared flats where several families lived simultaneously. Nevertheless, the problem of complete homelessness was mostly solved as anybody could apply for a room or a place in dormitory (the number of shared flats steadily decreased after large-scale residential building program was implemented starting in the 1960s).

 

Homeless people sleeping outside in Yekaterinburg

By 1922 there were at least 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I and the Russian Civil War.^[320] This led to the creation of a large number of orphanages. By the 1930s the USSR declared the abolition of homelessness and any citizen was obliged to have a propiska – a place of permanent residency. Nobody could be stripped of propiska without substitution or refuse it without a confirmed permission (called "order") to register in another place. If someone wanted to move to another city or expand their living area, he had to find a partner who wanted to mutually exchange the flats. The right for shelter was secured in the Soviet constitution. Not having permanent residency was legally considered a crime.

After the breakup of the USSR, the problem of homelessness sharpened dramatically, partially because of the legal vacuum of the early 1990s with some laws contradicting each other and partially because of a high rate of frauds in the realty market. In 1991 articles 198 and 209 of Russian criminal code which instituted a criminal penalty for not having permanent residence were abolished. In Moscow, the first overnight shelter for homeless was opened in 1992.^[321] In the late 1990s, certain amendments in law were implemented to reduce the rise in homelessness, such as the prohibition of selling last flat with registered children. In 2002, there were 300,000 homeless people in Moscow.^[322]

Nevertheless, the state is still obliged to give permanent shelter for free to anybody who needs better living conditions or has no permanent registration, because the right to shelter is still included in the constitution. Several projects of special cheap 'social' flats for those who failed to repay mortgages were proposed to facilitate mortgage market.^[323]

In 2022, it was reported that Russian authorities were targeting homeless people to conscript them into the war in Ukraine.^[324]

Popular culture

Main article: Homelessness in popular culture

 

A street bench in Kitsilano, British Columbia, Canada, with a snowman depicting a homeless person

Homelessness in popular culture is depicted in various works.

Films

• Modern Times, 1936 film, shows negative effects of vagrancy laws.
• Cathy Come Home, 1966, shows the effects of homelessness on parenthood.
• God Bless the Child, 1988, made-for-TV movie about a single mother (Mare Winningham) living on the streets of New York City with her young daughter.
• Homeless Sam & Sally, a 2020 dark comedy film and a television series with the same name released in 2019, is about a story regarding a mother named Sally Silver and her mentally ill son Sam Silver who comes up with ways to live normal lives while being homeless in Koreatown, Los Angeles.
• Dark Days, 2000, 81 minutes, documentary by Marc Singer, who followed the lives of people living in the Freedom Tunnel, an Amtrak tunnel in New York City.
• Homeless to Harvard: The Liz Murray Story, 2003 film about a homeless girl, Liz Murray, who works her way up to admission to Harvard University.
• 66 Months, a 2011 British documentary film about a homeless man who makes it on his own for 6 years without any government programs helping him.
• The Pursuit of Happyness, a 2006 biographical film where a father and son struggle to get a job and end up homeless after an eviction and later a tax garnishment. After several weeks living from place to place in 1981 San Francisco, he lands a permanent position in a brokerage firm after successfully completing an unpaid internship.
• Same Kind of Different as Me, 2017 American film about a successful art dealer, his wife and an initially violent member of a homeless shelter community. It is based on the 2006 book of the same name.
• Curly Sue, a 1991 comedy drama film that focuses on a homeless con artist and his friend who gets lucky with a roof over their heads by tricking a wealthy attorney.
• Life Stinks, a 1991 comedy film about a wealthy businessman who bets a corporate rival that he can live his life as a homeless man but finds out later on in the story that being homeless isn't easy or fun.
• The Saint of Fort Washington, a 1993 drama film where a homeless disabled man gets guidance from a friendly veteran as they cope with the realities of being on the streets.

See also

• Ghost town repopulation
• Grave dwellers
• Homeless Jesus, a bronze sculpture by Canadian sculptor Timothy Schmalz depicting Jesus as a homeless person sleeping on a park bench, which since 2013 has been installed in many places across the world
• Hunter-gatherers
• Internally displaced person
• Nomads
• Right to housing

References

1. Hanson-Easey, Scott; Every, Danielle; Tehan, Bridget; Richardson, John; Krackowizer, Antoinette (2016). (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
2. "Glossary defining homelessness". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
3. Bogard, Cynthia J., "Advocacy and Enumeration: Counting Homeless People in a Suburban Community" 25 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, American Behavioral Scientist September 2001 vol. 45 no. 1 105–120
4. Gabbard, W. Jay; et al., "Methodological Issues in Enumerating Homeless Individuals", Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless Volume 16, Number 2 / May 2007 90–103
5. Office of Applied Studies, United States Department of Health and Human Services, "Terminology" 23 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine
6. "United States Code, Title 42, Chapter 119, Subchapter I, § 11302". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
7. Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 348.
8. . Share-international.org. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
9. "Global Homelessness Statistics – Homeless World Cup". Homelessworldcup.org. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
10. "Homelessness around the world". Boston.com. 14 December 2011.
11. Colburn, Gregg; Aldern, Clayton Page (2022). Homelessness Is a Housing Problem. University of California Press. pp. 147, passim. ISBN 978-0520383791.
12. "United Nations Demographic Yearbook review: National reporting of household characteristics, living arrangements and homeless households: Implications for international recommendations", United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, Demographic and Social Statistics Branch, 14 April 2004
13. (PDF). United Nations Economic and Social Council, 18 August 2009; Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European Statisticians, Group of Experts on Population and Housing Censuses, Twelfth Meeting, Geneva. 28–30 October 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2012.
14. "Article 25". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
15. "ETHOS Typology on Homelessness and Housing Exclusion". www.feantsa.org. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
16. Amore, Kate, Michael Baker and Philippa Howden-Chapman. (PDF). The European Journal of Homelessness, Volume 5.2, December 2011. FEANTSA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
17. Florida, Richard (27 July 2017). "Why Jimmy Carter Believes Housing Is a Basic Human Right". Bloomberg.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
18. "Inside Straight Edge". Writer: David Shadrack Smith. Directors: Jim Gaffey and David Shadrack Smith. Inside. National Geographic Society. 9 April 2008. Retrieved on 28 January 2011.
19. Svitek, Patrick. . Daily Northwestern. Archived from the original on 23 March 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
20. Marjorie Keniston McIntosh (1998). Controlling Misbehavior in England, 1370–1600. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521894043.
21. Convict Voyages (1): Overview, by Anthony Vaver, Early American Crime, 6 January 2009
22. Merritt, K. L. (2017). Masterless men: poor whites and slavery in the Antebellum South. Cambridge University Press.^{[ISBN missing][page needed]}
23. Depastino, Todd, Citizen Hobo: How a Century of Homelessness Shaped America, Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 2003. ISBN 0226143783. (Interview with Todd Depastino)
24. "Riding the Rails". PBS. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
25. "New York City Rescue Mission website". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
26. . New York City Rescue Mission. Archived from the original on 7 November 2011.
27. Kennedy, David M. "What the New Deal Did." Political Science Quarterly, vol. 124, no. 2, [The Academy of Political Science, Wiley], 2009, pp. 251–268, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25655654.
28. Wilson, Wendy. Rough Sleepers, Standard Note SN/SP/2007, House of Commons Library, 9 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine
29. . Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
30. "Homeless Youth" (PDF). National Coalition for the Homeless. 2005. (164 KB)
31. Rook, John; Waegemakers Schiff, Jeannette (2012). Housing First – Where is the evidence?. Canadian Homelessness Research Network. ISBN 978-1550146196.
32. Padgett, Deborah K.; Stanhope, Victoria; Henwood, Ben F.; Stefancic, Ana (1 April 2011). "Substance Use Outcomes Among Homeless Clients with Serious Mental Illness: Comparing Housing First with Treatment First Programs". Community Mental Health Journal. 47 (2): 227–232. doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9283-7. ISSN 1573-2789. PMC 2916946. PMID 20063061.
33. Lucas, David S. (1 September 2017). "Federal homelessness policy: A robust political economy approach". The Review of Austrian Economics. 30 (3): 277–303. doi:10.1007/s11138-016-0356-x. ISSN 1573-7128. S2CID 157044332.
34. Solutions at Work, "Formerly Homeless Boston Man Donates Significant Portion of Social Security Retro-Check to the Organizations and People Who Gave Him a 'Hand Up'" 17 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, 2002.
35. Bassuk, E.L., et al. (2011) America's Youngest Outcasts: 2010 17 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine (Needham, MA: The National Center on Family Homelessness) page 20
36. "Homeless children at record high in US. Can the trend be reversed?". The Christian Science Monitor. 13 December 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
37. "State of the Homeless 2012". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
38. . The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
39. Wendy Koch. "Homelessness in Suburbs Increases". USA Today, 9 July 2009: 3a
40. National Alliance to End Homelessness, "Rapid Re-Housing" 12 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine, 8 July 2008.
41. United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, "Homeless Assistance Programs" 10 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine
42. National Alliance to End Homelessness, "HUD and McKinney-Vento Appropriations" 28 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, FY 2010
43. United States Department of Housing and Urban Development^{[full citation needed]}
44. (PDF). United States Conference of Mayors. December 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 January 2010.
45. United States Conference of Mayors, "A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness in America's Cities: a 27-city survey", December 2001.
46. United States Conference of Mayors, (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2008. (1.19 MB), December 2005, "Main Causes of Homelessness", pp. 63–64. "Survey Cities Say Lack of Federal Commitment to Hurricane Evacuees Will Strain Local Limited Resources". (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 26 October 2009. (62.3 KB) sodexhousa.com 12 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine
47. Vanneman, Reeve, "Main Causes of Homelessness" 22 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine, University of Maryland
48. Cf. Levinson, Encyclopedia of Homelessness, article entry on "Causes of Homelessness: Overview" by Paul Koegel, pp. 50–58.
49. For example, cf. "News Release: Personal Income for Metropolitan Areas, 2006" 18 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
50. Elder, James, "Helping homeless victims of forced evictions in Zimbabwe" 3 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine, UNICEF, 20 June 2005
51. Goodman, Peter S., "Foreclosures Force Ex-Homeowners to Turn to Shelters", The New York Times, 18 October 2009
52. "Homes Not Handcuffs: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities" (PDF). Nationalhomeless.org. July 2009. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
53. Grimes, Paul (January 1997). "Assessing the Effect of Rent Control on Homelessness". Journal of Urban Economics. 41: 23–37. doi:10.1006/juec.1996.1085.
54. Qian, Franklin; McQuade, Tim; Diamond, Rebecca (2019). "The Effects of Rent Control Expansion on Tenants, Landlords, and Inequality: Evidence from San Francisco". American Economic Review. 109 (9): 3365–3394. doi:10.1257/aer.20181289. ISSN 0002-8282.
55. Coalition on Homelessness and Housing in Ohio (17 September 2006). Homelessness: The Causes and Facts 18 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 May 2006.
56. Haushofer, J.; Shapiro, J. (2016). "The Short-Term Impact of Unconditional Cash Transfers to the Poor: Experimental Evidence from Kenya". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 131 (4): 1973–2042. doi:10.1093/qje/qjw025. PMC 7575201. PMID 33087990.
57. "Canada's National Housing Strategy". Government of Canada: Ministry of Families, Children and Social Development.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
58. "About Reaching Home: Canada's Homelessness Strategy". Government of Canada. 31 March 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
59. Sleet, D. A.; Francescutti, L. H. (6 November 2021). "Homelessness and Public Health: A Focus on Strategies and Solutions". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (11660): 11660. doi:10.3390/ijerph182111660. PMC 8583397. PMID 34770173.
60. Quirouette, M. (2016). "Managing Multiple Disadvantages: The Regulation of Complex Needs in Emergency Shelters for the Homeless". Journal of Poverty. 20 (3): 316–339. doi:10.1080/10875549.2015.1094774. S2CID 155529754.
61. Amadeo, K. (22 November 2021). "How Preventative Care Lowers Healthcare Costs". The Balance: US Economy.
62. Hwang, S. W. (23 January 2001). "Homelessness and Health". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 164 (2): 229–233. PMC 80688. PMID 11332321.
63. Frankish, C. J.; Hwang, S. W.; Quantz, D. (2005). "Homelessness and Health in Canada". Canadian Journal of Public Health. 96 (Suppl 2): S23–S29. doi:10.1007/BF03403700. PMC 6976130. PMID 16078553.
64. Shinn, Marybeth; et al. (2007). "Predictors of homelessness among older adults in New York City: Disability, economic, human and social capital and stressful events". Journal of Health Psychology. 12 (5): 696–708. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.929.4845. doi:10.1177/1359105307080581. PMID 17855456. S2CID 35730622.
65. Stephen W. Hwang MD MPH (2008). "The effect of traumatic brain injury on the health of homeless people". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 179 (8): 779–784. doi:10.1503/cmaj.080341. PMC 2553875. PMID 18838453.
66. Segal S. P.; Baumohl J. (1980). "Engaging the disengaged: Proposals on madness and vagrancy". Social Work. 25 (5): 358–365. doi:10.1093/sw/25.5.358. JSTOR 23713231. PMC 7470109. PMID 32905443.
67. E. Fuller Torey (2008): The Insanity Offense – How America's Failure to Treat the Seriously Mentally Ill Endangers Its Citizens, ISBN 978-0393066586^{[page needed]}
68. Connolly, Adrian J. (2008). (PDF). Journal of Personality Disorders. 22 (6): 573–588. doi:10.1521/pedi.2008.22.6.573. PMID 19072678. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2017. With regard to Axis II, Cluster A personality disorders (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal) were found in almost all participants (92% had at least one diagnosis), and Cluster B (83% had at least one of antisocial, borderline, histrionic, or narcissistic) and C (68% had at least one of avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive) disorders also were highly prevalent.
69. Buckner, John C. (1991). "Pathways into homelessness: An epidemiological analysis". New Directions for Program Evaluation. 1991 (52): 17–30. doi:10.1002/ev.1591. ISSN 0164-7989.
70. Watson, Juliet (May 2016). "Gender-Based Violence and Young Homeless Women: Femininity, Embodiment and Vicarious Physical Capital". The Sociological Review. 64 (2): 256–273. doi:10.1111/1467-954x.12365. ISSN 0038-0261. S2CID 147099882.
71. Seymour, George "The Young and the Homeless" Online Opinion 9 April 2010
72. The Yogyakarta Principles, Principle 11 and 15^{[ISBN missing][page needed]}
73. "Homeless and Runaway Youth".
74. Sundeen, Mark (7 March 2012). "Homeless by Choice: How to Live for Free in America". The Atlantic. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
75. "The Reason Some Choose to Be Homeless". www.shelteroutfitters.com. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
76. Amster, Randall (2008). Lost in Space: The Criminalization, Globalization, and Urban Ecology of Homelessness. New York: LFB Scholarly. ISBN 978-1593322977. OCLC 221150739.
77. Roark, Marc (28 February 2014). "Homelessness at the Cathedral". Working Paper Series. SSRN 2402925.
78. "Defensive architecture: keeping poverty unseen and deflecting our guilt". The Guardian. 18 February 2015.
79. Pendleton, Lloyd (14 November 2017), The Housing First approach to homelessness, retrieved 7 December 2017
80. Beaudet, Mike, "FOX Undercover: Employees implicated in thefts from local homeless" 3 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, FOX 25 TV, Boston, Tuesday, 22 February 2011
81. Smith, Stephen, "Shelter kitchen theft prevalent, report says", The Boston Globe, 23 February 2011
82. Dromi, Shai M. (1 December 2012). "Penny for Your Thoughts: Beggars and the Exercise of Morality in Daily Life". Sociological Forum. 27 (4): 847–871. doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01359.x. S2CID 11173506.
83. Cox, William T. L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 7 (5): 427–449. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204. PMID 26168502. S2CID 1512121.
84. Yim L and others, "Prevalence Of Mental Illness Among Homeless People In Hong Kong" (2015) 10 PLOS ONE
85. Petty, James (2016). "The London Spikes Controversy: Homelessness, Urban Securitisation and the Question of 'Hostile Architecture'". International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy. 5: 67–81. doi:10.5204/ijcjsd.v5i1.286. ProQuest 2269385649.
86. Joy, Tara (22 September 2017). "Hostile Architecture: A Quiet War Against the Disadvantaged". The Wesleyan Argus.
87. Fazel, S; Khosla, V; Doll, H; Geddes, J (2008). "The Prevalence of Mental Disorders among the Homeless in Western Countries: Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis". PLOS Medicine. 5 (12): e225. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050225. PMC 2592351. PMID 19053169.
88. Shelton, Katherine; Taylor, Pamela; Bonner, Adrian; van den Bree, Marianne (2009). "Risk Factors for Homelessness: Evidence From a Population-Based Study". Psychiatric Services. 60 (4): 465–472. doi:10.1176/ps.2009.60.4.465. PMID 19339321.
89. Molnar, B; Shade, S; Kral, A; et al. (1998). "Suicidal behaviour and sexual/physical abuse among street youth". Child Abuse and Neglect. 25: 137–148.
90. For example:
    • Karaca, Zeynal; Wong, Herbert; Mutter, Ryan; Characteristics of Homeless and Non-Homeless Individuals Using Inpatient and Emergency Department Services, 2008. Statistical Brief #152. March 2013. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 21 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
    • Aday, Lu Ann (1994). "Health status of vulnerable populations". Annual Review of Public Health. 15: 487–509. doi:10.1146/annurev.pu.15.050194.002415. PMID 8054096.
    • . Homeless Healthcare-Houston. Archived from the original on 14 October 2007. Retrieved 19 July 2006.
    • United States Department of Health and Human Services, "Healthcare for the Homeless". 15 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine
    • Ferguson, M. "Shelter for the Homeless". American Journal of Nursing. 1989: 1061–1062.
    • Lenehan, G.; McInnis, B.; O'Donnell; Hennessey, M. (1985). "A Nurses' Clinic for the Homeless". American Journal of Nursing. 1985 (11): 1237–1240. PMID 3851624.
    • Martin-Ashley, J., "In Celebration of Thirty Years of Caring: Pine Street Inn Nurses Clinic", Unpublished.
    • Homeless Health Concerns – National Library of Medicine
    • Wood, David, (editor), Delivering Health Care to Homeless Persons: The Diagnosis and Management of Medical and Mental Health Conditions, Springer Publishing Company, 1992, ISBN 0826177808
    • Lee, Tony, "City launches homeless healthcare facility" 25 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Boston Metro, 29 May 2008.
    • Zezima, Katie, "In Boston, House Calls for the Homeless", The New York Times, 10 November 2008
    • Gelberg L, Gallagher TC, Andersen RM, Koegel P (February 1997). "Competing priorities as a barrier to medical care among homeless adults in Los Angeles". Am J Public Health. 87 (2): 217–220. doi:10.2105/AJPH.87.2.217. PMC 1380797. PMID 9103100.
    • National Health Care for the Homeless Council
91. Tsai, Jack; Rosenheck, Robert A. (2013). "Obesity among chronically homeless adults: Is it a problem?". Public Health Reports. 128 (1): 29–36. doi:10.1177/003335491312800105. PMC 3514718. PMID 23277657.
92. "Health Care and Homelessness". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
93. McQuistion, Hunter L.; Finnerty, Molly; Hirschowitz, Jack; Susser, Ezra S., "Challenges for Psychiatry in Serving Homeless People With Psychiatric Disorders", Psychiatric Services 54:669–676, May 2003
94. Henry, Jean-Marc; Boyer, Laurent; Belzeaux, Raoul; Baumstarck-Barrau, Karine; Samuelian, Jean-Claude, "Mental Disorders Among Homeless People Admitted to a French Psychiatric Emergency Service", Psychiatric Services 61:264–271, March 2010
95. Beth Haysom (December 2007). . The Ring: The University of Victoria's community newspaper. Archived from the original on 26 December 2007. Many of the homeless have "street feet", which, Bell explains, are really sore feet, blistered and damaged from walking around all day with no means to change socks and shoes or care for their feet.
96. Dentistry, University of Hong Kong Faculty of (2005). "An oral health survey of homeless people in Hong Kong (2005) – University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, Community Health Project". Lookup.lib.hku.hk. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
97. Joslyn, Matthew I., M.D., et al., "Adapting Your Practice: Treatment and Recommendations for Homeless Patients with Diabetes Mellitus" 26 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine, June 2007, HCH Clinicians' Network.
98. O'Connell, James, J; et al., eds. (2004). "The Health Care of Homeless Persons: a Manual of Communicable Diseases & Common Problems in Shelters & On the Streets", Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program". Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program.
99. Collet Marc, Menahem, Georges, Picard, Hervé, "Why patients attending free health centres seek care: Precalog Survey 1999–2000", Health Economics Letter, Issues in health economics, IRDES (Institute for Research and Information in Health Economics), Paris, France. n° 113 – October 2006
100. Watson, Dennis P.; George, Christine; Walker, Christopher, "Falling through the cracks: health care needs of the older homeless population and their implications", in Kronenfeld, Jennie Jacobs, Care for Major Health Problems and Population Health Concerns: Impacts on Patients, Providers and Policy, Research in the Sociology of Health Care series, 2008, v. 26, pp. 187–204, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
101. Cohen Carl I (1999). "Aging and Homelessness". The Gerontologist. 39 (1): 5–15. doi:10.1093/geront/39.1.5. PMID 10028766.
102. "Boston's Elderly Homeless Sicker Than Others, Research Finds". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
103. "Homelessness Resources on the Web". National Health Care for the Homeless Council. 26 October 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
104. "Health Center Data". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
105. "Detroit cuts funding for homeless warming centers". wsws.org. 29 January 2011.
106. Hendricks, Mike (2011). "After judge's warning, homeless camp with TV, Christmas lights is taken apart". The Kansas City Star. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
107. Barrow SM, Herman DB, Córdova P, Struening EL (April 1999). "Mortality among homeless shelter residents in New York City". Am J Public Health. 89 (4): 529–534. doi:10.2105/AJPH.89.4.529. PMC 1508869. PMID 10191796.
108. "Homeless people die 30 years younger, study suggests". BBC News. 21 December 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
109. McMichael, T; Montgomery, H; Costello, A (2012). "Health risks from climate change". British Medical Journal. 344 (7849): 26–29. doi:10.1136/bmj.e1359. PMID 22431661.
110. Ramin, B; Svoboda, T (2009). "Health of the Homeless and Climate Change". Journal of Urban Health. 86 (4): 654–664. doi:10.1007/s11524-009-9354-7. PMC 2704276. PMID 19444615.
111. Cusak, L; van Loon, A; Kralik, D; Arbon, P; Gilbert, S (2013). "Extreme-weather related health needs of people who are homeless". Australian Journal of Primary Health. 19 (3): 250–255. doi:10.1071/PY12048. PMID 22950903.
112. Madhumathi, A; Subhashini, S; Vishnupriya, J (2017). "The urban heat island effect, its causes, and mitigation, with reference to the thermal properties of roof coverings". Journal of Environmental Management. 197: 522–538. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.095. PMID 28412623.
113. Pendrey, CG; Carey, M; Stanley, J (2014). "Impacts of extreme weather on the health and well-being of people who are homeless". Australian Journal of Primary Health. 20 (1): 2–3. doi:10.1071/PY13136. PMID 24290233.
114. Bouchama, A; Dehbi, M; Mohammed, G; Matthies, F; Shoukri, M; Menne, B (2007). "Prognostive factors in heat-wave related deaths: a meta-analysis". Arch Intern Med. 167 (20): 2170–2176. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.20.ira70009. PMID 17698676.
115. National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, "Photo Identification Barriers Faced by Homeless Persons" 22 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
116. Moore, Grace Elizabeth. (PDF). Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard Divinity School. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2011.
117. Lewan, Todd, "Unprovoked Beatings of Homeless Soaring", Associated Press, 8 April 2007.
118. Dichter, ME; Wagner, C; Borrero, S; Broyles, L; Montgomery, AE (2017). "Intimate partner violence, unhealthy alcohol use, and housing instability among women veterans in the Veterans Health Administration". Psychological Services. 14 (2): 246–249. doi:10.1037/ser0000132. PMID 28481611.
119. Pascale, Celine-Marie (1 May 2005). "There's No Place Like Home: The Discursive Creation of Homelessness". Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies. 5 (2): 250–268. doi:10.1177/1532708605274558. S2CID 143284882.
120. Knecht, Tom; Martinez, Lisa M. (2009). "Humanizing the homeless: Does contact erode stereotypes?". Social Science Research. 38 (3): 521–534. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.01.009. PMID 19856699.
121. Magallanes-Blanco, Claudia; Pérez-Bermúdez, Juan Antonio (2009). "Citizens' Publications That Empower: Social Change for the Homeless". Development in Practice. 19 (4/5): 654–664. doi:10.1080/09614520902866306. JSTOR 27752103. S2CID 143571157.
122. Lee, Barrett A.; Farrell, Chad R.; Link, Bruce G. (2004). "Revisiting the Contact Hypothesis: The Case of Public Exposure to Homelessness". American Sociological Review. 69 (1): 40–63. doi:10.1177/000312240406900104. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 3593074. S2CID 145302246.
123. Clifford, Scott; Piston, Spencer (1 June 2017). "Explaining Public Support for Counterproductive Homelessness Policy: The Role of Disgust". Political Behavior. 39 (2): 503–525. doi:10.1007/s11109-016-9366-4. ISSN 1573-6687. S2CID 151539353.
124. Amster, Randall (2003). "Patterns of Exclusion: Sanitizing Space, Criminalizing Homelessness". Social Justice. 30 (1 (91)): 195–221. ISSN 1043-1578. JSTOR 29768172.
125. Tsai, Jack; Lee, Crystal Y. S.; Shen, Jianxun; Southwick, Steven M.; Pietrzak, Robert H. (January 2019). "Public exposure and attitudes about homelessness". Journal of Community Psychology. 47 (1): 76–92. doi:10.1002/jcop.22100. ISSN 0090-4392. PMID 30506933. S2CID 54570711.
126. Allport, Gordon W. (1954). "The nature of prejudice". The Nature of Prejudice: 537.
127. Gross, Kimberly (April 2008). "Framing Persuasive Appeals: Episodic and Thematic Framing, Emotional Response, and Policy Opinion". Political Psychology. 29 (2): 169–192. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00622.x.
128. Roleff, Tamara L. (1996). The Homeless: Opposing Viewpoints. Greenhaven Press. ISBN 978-1565103603 – via Google Books.
129. . Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
130. Cortese, Anthony J. (2003). Walls and Bridges: Social Justice and Public Policy. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0791459072 – via Google Books.
131. Capdevila, Gustavo, "Human Rights: More Than 100 Million Homeless Worldwide" 22 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine, IPS, Geneva.
132. "Statutory Homelessness Annual Report 2020–21, England" (PDF). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
133. "Homelessness in Scotland: 2020 to 2021". www.gov.scot.
134. Laird, Gordon (2007). "Shelter-Homelessness in a growth economy: Canada's 21st century paradox. – A Report for the Sheldon Chumir Foundation for Ethics in Leadership" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2016.
135. "Australian Bureau of Statistics, Media Release "Homelessness in Australia"". 4 September 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
136. (PDF). The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. August 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
137. The 2018 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress. HUD. p. 1.
138. . Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
139. Roman, Nan, "Tracking the Homeless: An Overview of HMIS" 13 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, ShelterForce Magazine, Issue No. 132, November/December 2003, National Housing Institute.
140. . Hud.gov. Archived from the original on 25 September 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
141. Perl, Libby, "The Home Management Information System", Congressional Research Service, CRS Report RS22328, November 2005.
142. "EPIC page on HMIS privacy". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
143. . U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Archived from the original on 6 August 2008. , 2007 data
144. Karash, Robert L., "Who is Homeless? The HUD Annual Report to Congress and Homelessness Pulse Project" 24 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Spare Change News, Boston, 18 June 2010
145. Hewitt, Christopher, "Estimating the Number of Homeless: Media Misrepresentation of an Urban Problem", Journal of Urban Affairs, Wiley InterScience publishing, Volume 18 Issue 4, pp. 431–447, 28 June 2008
146. Freeman Richard B.; Hall Brian (1987). "Permanent Homelessness in America?". Population Research and Policy Review. 6: 3–27. doi:10.1007/bf00124800. S2CID 153967981.
147. (PDF). Shelterpartnership.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
148. "Emergency Shelter Commission, City of Boston". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
149. . Archived from the original on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
150. Nuss, Jeannie, "Out on street, Hub tallies its homeless: Increase expected in annual census", The Boston Globe, 15 December 2009
151. "LAHSA – Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority". Lahsa.org. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
152. Martin, Melissa, "One, Two... 664,414: Calculating Homelessness in America" 2 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine, US SAMHSA, Homelessness Resource Center.
153. ""In pictures: Japan's homeless", BBC News". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
154. Ezawa, Aya, "Japan's New Homeless", Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, Springer Netherlands, Volume 11, Number 4, October 2002, pp. 279–291
155. . Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
156. Zarocostas, John, "Homelessness increasing all over the world", The Washington Times, 11 April 2005
157. Capdevila, Gustavo, "Human Rights: More Than 100 Million Homeless Worldwide" 22 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine, IPS (Inter Press Service), 30 March 2005.
158. The Urban Poverty Group, "Urban Poverty Group submission to the Commission for Africa" 4 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Homeless International, December 2004
159. UN-HABITAT, "The Challenge of Slums – UN-HABITAT's new Global Report on Human Settlements" 21 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, 10 January 2003.
160. . youthXchange. UNEP/UNESCO. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Homelessness has also become a problem in the cities of China, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines despite their growing prosperity, mainly due to migrant workers who have trouble finding permanent homes and to rising income inequality between social classes.
161. Tipple, Graham; Speak, Suzanne (2005). "Definitions of Homelessness in Developing Countries". Habitat International. 29 (2): 337–352. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2003.11.002.
162. Kassam, A., & Nanji, A. (2006). Mental health of Afghan refugees in Pakistan: A qualitative rapid reconnaissance field study. Intervention, 4, 58–66.
163. Springer, Sabine (2000). "Homelessness: A Proposal for a Global Definition and Classification". Habitat International. 24 (4): 475–484. doi:10.1016/s0197-3975(00)00010-2.
164. Moore, Jeanne (2007). "Polarity or Integration? Towards a Fuller Understanding of Home and Homelessness". Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. 24 (2): 143–159.
165. Saunders, Peter. A Nation of Home Owners. London: Unwin Hyman, 1990. Print.
166. Casavant, Lyne. "Definition of Homelessness." Definition of Homelessness (PRB99-1E). Parliamentary Research Branch, Jan. 1999. Web. 19 September 2013.
167. Meghan, Morris D.; Popper, Steve T.; Rodwell, Timothy C.; Brodine, Stephanie K.; Brouwer, Kimberly C. (2009). "Healthcare Barriers of Refugees Post-resettlement". Journal of Community Health. 34 (6): 529–538. doi:10.1007/s10900-009-9175-3. PMC 2778771. PMID 19705264.
168. Osborn A (June 2005). "Russia's youth faces worst crisis of homelessness and substance misuse since second world war". BMJ. 330 (7504): 1348. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1348-b. PMC 558316. PMID 15947386.
169. (2010) "The world youth report; youth and climate change", New York: United Nations
170. United Nations, "United Nations: Global Report on Human Settlements"
171. United Nations, UN-HABITAT, "State of the World's Cities Report 2008/2009" 2008-10-26 at the Wayback Machine. ISBN 978-9211320107
172. United Nations, "UN-HABITAT unveils State of the World's Cities report" 26 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, 23 October 2008, London
173. Justin McCurry (28 September 2007). "Tokyo dreaming". The Guardian.
174. Lam, Evangeline (13 January 2016). "The lives of others: where Hong Kong's wealth abandons those without shelter". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
175. O'Neill, Susan, "Homeless advocates urge council to remember 'couch surfers'", Inside Toronto, Canada, 7 July 2006
176. "How We Survive: The Deepening Homeless Crisis". Making Contact Radio: Media that helps build movements. 18 February 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
177. Stokes, Paul (12 September 2007). . News. London: telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 14 September 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2007. Pensioners David and Jean Davidson found living in a Travelodge hotel was a cheaper option than an old people's home and have never looked back.
178. Kleinig, John (October 1993). "Policing the Homeless: an ethical dilemma". Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless. 2 (4): 289–303. doi:10.1007/BF01065524. S2CID 144660608.
179. Brandt, David E. (October 1993). "Social distress and the police". Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless. 2 (4): 305–313. doi:10.1007/BF01065525. S2CID 143664381.
180. Levander, Caroline Field and Guterl, Matthew Pratt. Hotel Life: The Story of a Place Where Anything Can Happen. UNC Press Books, 2015. p. 130
181. . Law Insider. Archived from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
182. Morton, Margaret, The Tunnel: The Underground Homeless of New York City (Architecture of Despair), Yale University Press, 1995. ISBN 0300065590
183. Toth, Jennifer, "The Mole People: Life in the Tunnels Beneath New York City", Chicago Review Press, 1 October 1995. ISBN 1556521901
184. Brenoff, Ann (3 May 2014). "7 Myths About Homeless People Debunked". Huffington Post. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
185. Burt, Martha R., "Characteristics of Transitional Housing for Homeless Families Final Report", Urban Institute, Washington, DC, 7 September 2006,
186. Dordick, Gwendolyn A., "Recovering from Homelessness: Determining the 'Quality of Sobriety' in a Transitional Housing Program", Journal Qualitative Sociology, Volume 25, Number 1 / March 2002, Springer Netherlands.
187. Karash, Robert L., "The Graduate" 24 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Spare Change News, Boston, 11 March 2010
188. Keenan, Ciara; Miller, Sarah; Hanratty, Jennifer; Pigott, Terri; Hamilton, Jayne; Coughlan, Christopher; Mackie, Peter; Fitzpatrick, Suzanne; Cowman, John (June 2021). "Accommodation‐based interventions for individuals experiencing, or at risk of experiencing, homelessness". Campbell Systematic Reviews. 17 (2). doi:10.1002/cl2.1165. ISSN 1891-1803. S2CID 204367475.
189. . Archived from the original on 19 February 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
190. Homelessness Australia's White Paper Report Card 2012 (PDF) (Report). Homelessness Australia. May 2012. pp. 29–56. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
191. Schoeni, Robert F.; Koegel, Paul (1998). "Economic Resources of the Homeless: Evidence from Los Angeles". Contemporary Economic Policy. 16 (3): 295–308. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7287.1998.tb00520.x.
192. Wagner, David 11 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Checkerboard Square: Culture and Resistance in a Homeless Community (Boulder: Westview Press), 1993. ISBN 0813315859
193. Snow, David A.; Anderson, Leon (1993). Down on their Luck: A Study of Homeless Street People. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520079892.
194. . 2013. Archived from the original on 19 March 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
195. "United States Interagency Council on Homelessness". 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
196. "Homeless people collecting litter". Gov You. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
197. Harman, Dana, "Read all about it: street papers flourish across the US", The Christian Science Monitor, 17 November 2003. csmonitor.com
198. Tsai, Jack; Rosenheck, Robert A.; Culhane, Dennis; Artiga, Samantha (September 2013). "Medicaid expansion: Chronically homeless adults will need targeted enrollment and access to a broad range of services". Health Affairs. 32 (9): 1552–1559. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2013.0228. PMID 24019359.
199. "History: Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program" 22 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, bhchp.org
200. O'Connell, James, M.D., Stories from the Shadows, 2015, ISBN 978-0692412343
201. O'Connell, James J., M.D. [editor], The Health Care of Homeless Persons, Boston Health Care for the Homeless & the National Health Care for the Homeless Council, 2004
202. Jean Yawkey Place 9 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine – Boston Health Care for the Homeless
203. Cromer, Janet M., R.N., "Moving with Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program: The new home for BHCHP's Barbara McInnis House is a place of healing, trust, and hope", On Call magazine, 7 August 2008
204. Ryan, Andrew, "Old morgue finds new life as a clinic for homeless", The Boston Globe, 31 May 2008
205. "Comprehensive, Shelter-Based Clinic Enhances Access to Oral Health Services for Homeless in Los Angeles". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 27 March 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
206. Moledina, Aliza; Magwood, Olivia; Agbata, Eric; Hung, Jui-Hsia; Saad, Ammar; Thavorn, Kednapa; Pottie, Kevin (2021). "A comprehensive review of prioritised interventions to improve the health and wellbeing of persons with lived experience of homelessness". Campbell Systematic Reviews. 17 (2): e1154. doi:10.1002/cl2.1154. ISSN 1891-1803. S2CID 242438444.
207. Moledina, Aliza; Magwood, Olivia; Agbata, Eric; Hung, Jui‐Hsia; Saad, Ammar; Thavorn, Kednapa; Pottie, Kevin (2021). "A comprehensive review of prioritised interventions to improve the health and wellbeing of persons with lived experience of homelessness". Campbell Systematic Reviews. 17 (2). doi:10.1002/cl2.1154. S2CID 242438444. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
208. . The Orlando Sentinel. 21 May 2014. Archived from the original on 11 February 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
209. "Leaving Homeless Person on the Streets: $31,065. Giving Them Housing: $10,051". ThinkProgress. 27 May 2014.
210. Smith, Doug (16 February 2019). "Five winning ideas to build housing more quickly and cheaply for L.A.'s homeless community". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
211. Matthew, Zoie (18 May 2018). "Here's How You Turn Shipping Containers into Housing for the Homeless". www.lamag.com. LA Magazine. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
212. Anker, J. (1 February 2008). "Organizing homeless people: Exploring the emergence of a user organization in Denmark". Critical Social Policy. 28 (1): 27–50. doi:10.1177/0261018307085506. S2CID 145187424.
213. "English". HSandudvalg.dk. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
214. "SOAR – SSI/SSDI Outreach, Access and Recovery for people who are homeless". Retrieved 17 September 2014.
215. The Department of Housing and Urban Development and VA's Supported Housing (HUD-VASH) Program 14 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
216. Tsai, Jack; Rosenheck, Robert A. (November 2013). "Homeless veterans in supported housing: Exploring the impact of criminal history". Psychological Services. 10 (4): 452–458. doi:10.1037/a0032775. PMID 24079354.
217. Wilding, Mark. (2020). The Challenges of Measuring Homelessness among Armed Forces Veterans: Service Provider Experiences in England, European Journal of Homelessness, 14(1): 107–122.
218. "United States Department of Labor". Find It! By Audience-Homeless & Service Providers to the Homeless. 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
219. "Egypt's large homeless population suffering". Al Monitor. 25 January 2015.
220. "Egypt – Homeless World Cup". Homeless World Cup.
221. El-Sheikh, Tarek A. "Homelessness in Temporary/Permanent Housing Concepts: Questioning Sustainability."
222. . UNICEF. Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
223. "Study: 3 million children living on Egypt's streets – Egypt Independent". 11 August 2011.
224. . Street Children Program information, Plan Egypt. Archived from the original on 4 August 2021.
225. Olufemi, Olusola. "Street homelessness in Johannesburg inner-city: a preliminary survey." Environment and Urbanization 10, no. 2 (1998): 223–234.
226. Mji, Gubela. "Disability and homelessness: a personal journey from the margins to the centre and back." a south african agenda (2006): 350.
227. Nussbaum, Martha C. "Introduction to comparative constitutionalism." Chi. J. Int'l L. 3 (2002): 429.
228. Speak, Suzanne. "Relationship between children's homelessness in developing countries and the failure of women's rights legislation." Housing, Theory and Society 22, no. 3 (2005): 129–146.
229. "Homelessness in South Africa". wp.wpi.edu. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
230. Du Toit, Jacques Louis. "Local metropolitan government responses to homelessness in South Africa." Development Southern Africa 27, no. 1 (2010): 111–128.
231. Hammond, Jenny. "Homelessness in China". GB Times. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
232. "There Are One Million Children Living On The Streets In China, And They're Totally Alone". Business Insider. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
233. "2019年农民工监测调查报告". www.stats.gov.cn (in Chinese). National Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
234. He, Huili; Su, Zhihao; Zhao, Jianjun; Pang, Yihui; Wang, Zhihe (16 April 2020). "Homelessness and the Universal Family in China". American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 79 (2): 453–474. doi:10.1111/ajes.12324. ISSN 1536-7150. S2CID 218851018. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
235. Pinghui, Zhuang (25 November 2017). "Beijing's migrant workers forced out in deadly fire's aftermath". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 22 June 2020.
236. Pinghui, Zhuang (3 October 2017). "Beijing's population set to fall as migrant workers forced out". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 22 June 2020.
237. "Today In Earthquake History: January 14". USGS. 16 July 2008. Retrieved 5 November 2008.
238. Jinliang, C. H. E. N., et al. "Comparisons of family environment between homeless and non-homeless individuals with schizophrenia in Xiangtan, Hunan." Shanghai archives of psychiatry 27.3 (2015): 175.
239. Meng, Liu, and Zhu Kai. "Orphan care in China." Social Work & Society 7.1 (2009): 43–57.
240. Menglu, Sheng (16 November 2015). "China Can't Help Its Homeless Alone". Slate. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
241. "广东深入开展长期滞留流浪乞讨人员寻亲送返专项行动 两年共帮助5388名滞留流浪乞讨人员成功寻亲". Department of Civil Affairs of Guangdong Province (in Chinese). Retrieved 21 June 2020.
242. "全国生活无着的流浪乞讨人员救助管理服务质量大提升专项行动动员部署电视电话会议在京召开_部门政务_中国政府网". Government of China (in Chinese). Retrieved 22 June 2020.
243. Lei, Li (19 March 2020). "Homeless at higher risk during coronavirus outbreak". www.chinadaily.com.cn. China Daily. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
244. Goel, Geetika; Ghosh, Piyali; Ojha, Mohit Kumar; Shukla, Akanksha (2017). "Urban homeless shelters in India: Miseries untold and promises unmet". Cities. 71: 88–96. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2017.07.006.
245. Zufferey, Carole, and Nilan Yu. "Faces of Homelessness in the Asia Pacific." Taylor & Francis, Routledge , 20 July 2017, www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315475257.
246. Jha, Somesh. "1.77 million people live without shelter, albeit the number decline over a decade". Business Standard. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
247. Kelly, BrendanD (1 December 2016). "Mental health, mental illness, and human rights in India and elsewhere: What are we aiming for?". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 58 (6): S168–S174. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.196822. PMC 5282611. PMID 28216765.
248. Nath, Ronita; Sword, Wendy; Georgiades, Kathy; Raina, Parminder; Shannon, Harry (2016). "The impact of drop-in centres on the health of street boys in New Delhi: An interpretive descriptive study". Children and Youth Services Review. 68: 202–208. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.07.017.
249. Mathur, Meena; Rathore, Prachi; Mathur, Monika (2009). "Incidence, type and intensity of abuse in street children in India". Child Abuse & Neglect. 33 (12): 907–913. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.01.003. PMID 19897246.
250. . Jaffamood.com. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012.
251. "5.3 lakh families in the country are homeless". Indian Express. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
252. Page, Jeremy (18 May 2007). "Indian slum population doubles in two decades". The Times. London. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
253. . Homelessworldcup.org. Archived from the original on 8 March 2015. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
254. "Slum Tourism: A Trip into the Controversy". March 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
255. "Homelessness statistics". homlessworldcup.org.
256. Levinson, David. Encyclopedia of homelessness. Vol. 1. Sage, 2004.
257. Tipple, Graham, and Suzanne Speak. "Attitudes to and interventions in Homelessness: Insights from an International Study." In paper delivered to International Conference Adequate and Affordable Housing for All, June, pp. 24-27. 2004.
258. "Badan Pusat Statistik". www.bps.go.id. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
259. Rahardjo, Tjahjono. "Forced eviction, homelessness and the right to housing in Indonesia." In conference on Homelessness: A Global Perspective, New Delhi, pp. 9–13. 2006.
260. Willem Van Vliet (1990). International Handbook of Housing Policies and Practices. Greenwood Press. p. 529. ISBN 978-0313254277.
261. "Uncovering Israel". ISRAEL21c.
262. Yael Branovsky (5 May 2009). "Report: Israel fails to care for homeless". Ynetnews.
263. . ynetnews. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
264. Eglash, Ruth (15 April 2008). "Number of homeless female teenagers soar". The Jerusalem Post.
265. "p. 97".
266. "Over 800 homeless people living in Israel". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com.
267. "Study: 2,300 homeless in Israel, half from former USSR". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com.
268. Toby Appleton Perl (11 May 2007). "Israeli Artists Zoom In on Commercial Success". The Jewish Daily Forward.
269. "ホームレスの自立の支援等に関する特別措置法." e-Gov, 7 August 2002, elaws.e-gov.go.jp/search/elawsSearch/elaws_search/lsg0500/detail?lawId=414AC1000000105.
270. Marr, Matthew D. "Japan." Encyclopedia of Homelessness, edited by David Levinson, vol. 1, Sage Reference, 2004, pp. 325–327. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3452400093/GVRL?u=umuser&sid=GVRL&xid=48e11c9a. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020.
271. "Manila's homeless set to move into more empty homes if official handover delayed". Reuters. 28 March 2018.
272. "Global Homelessness Statistics". Homeless World Cup.
273. Bond, Kate (22 October 2014). "New cold war: the Geneva fallout bunkers doubling as homeless shelters" – via The Guardian.
274. Lauber, Christoph; Lay, Barbara; Rössler, Wulf (22 January 2005). "Homelessness among people with severe mental illness in Switzerland". Swiss Med Wkly. 135 (3–4): 50–56. doi:10.4414/smw.2005.10815. PMID 15729607. S2CID 6756192.
275. swissinfo.ch, Luigi Jorio. "Broke and homeless on the streets of Zurich".
276. "Statutory Homelessness: July to September Quarter 2015 England" (PDF). GOV.UK. Department for Communities and Local Government. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
277. "Statutory Homelessness Annual Report, 2019-20, England" (PDF). GOV.UK. Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
278. "Statutory Homelessness October to December (Q4) 2020: England" (PDF). GOV.UK. Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
279. "Live Tables on Homelessness". GOV.UK.
280. "Homelessness Statistics September 2007 and Rough Sleeping – 10 Years on from the Target". Department for Communities and Local Government. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
281. McVeigh, Tracy (4 December 2016). "Growing crisis on UK streets as rough sleeper numbers soar". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
282. "Rough sleeping in England: autumn 2017 – GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
283. "Homeless rise 'driven by welfare reforms'". BBC News. 13 September 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
284. Butler, Patrick (25 January 2018). "Rough sleeper numbers in England rise for seventh year running". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
285. Richardson, Hannah (1 December 2016). "'Quarter of a million homeless' in England". BBC News. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
286. "Homelessness Reduction Bill to become law". BBC News. 23 March 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
287. "Statutory Homelessness, April to June (Q2) 2018: England" (PDF). GOV.UK. Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
288. "Housing (Scotland) Act 1987".
289. "Homelessness and Rough Sleeping Action Group: tackling homelessness following coronavirus". www.gov.scot.
290. "Supporting documents". www.gov.scot.
291. "Ending homelessness together: updated action plan - October 2020". www.gov.scot.
292. Hulchanski, J.D. (18 February 2009). Keynote address (PDF). Growing Home: Housing and Homelessness in Canada. University of Calgary.
293. Gaetz, Stephen; Tarasuk, Valerie; Dachner, Naomi; Kirkpatrick, Sharon (June 2006), "'Managing' homeless youth in Toronto: Mismanaging food access and nutritional well-being", Canadian Review of Social Policy, 58 (43): 1–19
294. Laird, Gordon; Sheldon Chumir Foundation for Ethics in Leadership (2007). Canada's 21st century paradox : a report for the Sheldon Chumir Foundation for Ethnics in Leadership (PDF) (Report). Shelter: homelessness in a growth economy. Calgary, Alta.: Sheldon Chumir Foundation for Ethics in Leadership. ISBN 978-0-9730197-3-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
295. Joint Hearing op. cit., May 1984, p. 32 IUD Office for Policy Development and Research, A Report to the Secretary on the Homeless and Emergency Shelters, 1 May 1986.
296. Nunez, Ralph, "Family Homelessness in New York City: A Case Study", Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 116, No. 3 (Autumn, 2001), pp. 367–379, The Academy of Political Science.
297. OECD Affordable Housing Database (2017). "HC3.1 Homeless Population" (PDF).
298. Graves, Florence; Sayfan, Hadar, "First things first: 'Housing first,' a radical new approach to ending chronic homelessness, is gaining ground in Boston", Boston Globe, Sunday, 24 June 2007.
299. Roncarati, Jill, "Homeless, housed, and homeless again"

January 13, 2023