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Trans–New Guinea languages

May 03, 2024

Trans–New Guinea (TNG) is an extensive family of Papuan languages spoken on the island of New Guinea and neighboring islands, a region corresponding to the country Papua New Guinea as well as parts of Indonesia.

Trans–New Guinea
Geographic
distribution		New Guinea, East Timor, East Nusa Tenggara (Alor, Pantar)
Linguistic classificationOne of the world's primary language families
Proto-languageProto-Trans–New Guinea
Subdivisions
ISO 639-5ngf
GlottologNone
nucl1709  (Nuclear Trans–New Guinea,
partial overlap)
The extent of various proposals for Trans–New Guinea.
  Families accepted by Usher[1]
  Other families proposed by Ross (2005)
  Other Papuan languages
  Austronesian languages
  Uninhabited

Trans–New Guinea is perhaps the third-largest language family in the world by number of languages. The core of the family is considered to be established, but its boundaries and overall membership are uncertain. The languages are spoken by around 3 million people.[2] There have been several main proposals as to its internal classification.

History of the proposal edit

Although Papuan languages for the most part are poorly documented, several of the branches of Trans–New Guinea have been recognized for some time. The Eleman languages were first proposed by S. Ray in 1907, parts of Marind were recognized by Ray and JHP Murray in 1918, and the Rai Coast languages in 1919, again by Ray.

The precursor of the Trans–New Guinea family was Stephen Wurm's 1960 proposal of an East New Guinea Highlands family. Although broken up by Malcolm Ross in 2005, it united different branches of what became TNG for the first time, linking Engan, Chimbu–Wahgi, Goroka, and Kainantu. (Duna and Kalam were added in 1971.) Then in 1970, Clemens Voorhoeve and Kenneth McElhanon noted 91 lexical resemblances between the Central and South New Guinea (CSNG) and Finisterre–Huon families, which they had respectively established a few years earlier. Although they did not work out regular sound correspondences, and so could not distinguish between cognates due to genealogical relationship, cognates due to borrowing, and chance resemblances, their research was taken seriously. They chose the name Trans–New Guinea because this new family was the first to span New Guinea, from the Bomberai Peninsula of western West Irian to the Huon Peninsula of eastern PNG. They also noted possible cognates in other families Wurm would later add to TNG: Wurm's East New Guinea Highlands, Binandere in the 'Bird's Tail' of PNG, and two families that John Z'graggen would later (1971, 1975) unite in his 100-language Madang–Adelbert Range family.

In 1975, Wurm accepted Voorhoeve and McElhanon's suspicions about further connections, as well as Z'graggen's work, and postulated additional links to, among others, the languages of the island of Timor to the west of New Guinea, Angan, Goilalan, Koiarian, Dagan, Eleman, Wissel Lakes, the erstwhile Dani-Kwerba family, and the erstwhile Trans-Fly–Bulaka River family (which he had established in 1970), expanding TNG into an enormous language phylum that covered most of the island of New Guinea, as well as Timor and neighboring islands, and included over 500 languages spoken by some 2,300,000 people. However, part of the evidence for this was typological, and Wurm stated that he did not expect it to stand up well to scrutiny. Although he based the phylum on characteristic personal pronouns, several of the branches had no pronouns in common with the rest of the family, or even had pronouns related to non-TNG families, but were included because they were grammatically similar to TNG. Other families that had typical TNG pronouns were excluded because they did not resemble other TNG families in their grammatical structure.

Because grammatical typology is readily borrowed—many of the Austronesian languages in New Guinea have grammatical structures similar to their Papuan neighbors, for example, and conversely many Papuan languages resemble typical Austronesian languages typologically—other linguists were skeptical. William A. Foley rejected Wurm's and even some of Voorhoeve's results, and he broke much of TNG into its constituent parts: several dozen small but clearly valid families, plus a number of apparent isolates.

In 2005, Malcolm Ross published a draft proposal re-evaluating Trans–New Guinea, and found what he believed to be overwhelming evidence for a reduced version of the phylum, based solely on lexical resemblances, which retained as much as 85% of Wurm's hypothesis, though some of it tentatively.

The strongest lexical evidence for any language family is shared morphological paradigms, especially highly irregular or suppletive paradigms with bound morphology, because these are extremely resistant to borrowing. For example, the fact that German words gut "good" and besser "better" resemble their English counterparts would be stronger evidence that German is related to English than the mere lexical correspondence between German rot and English red for the color. However, because of the great morphological complexity of many Papuan languages, and the poor state of documentation of nearly all, in New Guinea this approach is essentially restricted to comparing pronouns. Ross reconstructed pronouns sets for Foley's basic families and compared these reconstructions, rather than using a direct mass comparison of all Papuan languages; attempted to then reconstruct the ancestral pronouns of the proto-Trans–New Guinea language, such as *ni "we", *ŋgi "you", *i "they"; and then compared poorly supported branches directly to this reconstruction. Families required two apparent cognates to be included. However, if any language in a family was a match, the family was considered a match, greatly increasing the likelihood of coincidental resemblances, and because the plural forms are related to the singular forms, a match of 1sg and 1pl, although satisfying Ross's requirement of two matches, is not actually two independent matches, again increasing the likelihood of spurious matches. In addition, Ross counted forms like *a as a match to 2sg *ga, so that /ɡV, kV, ŋɡV, V/ all counted as matches to *ga. And although /n/ and /ɡ/ occur in Papuan pronouns at twice the level expected by their occurrence in pronouns elsewhere in the world, they do not correlate with each other as they would if they reflected a language family. That is, it is argued that Ross's pronouns do not support the validity of Trans–New Guinea, and do not reveal which families might belong to it.[3]

Ross also included in his proposal several better-attested families for non-pronominal evidence, despite a lack of pronouns common to other branches of TNG, and he suggested that there may be other families that would have been included if they had been better attested. Several additional families are only tentatively linked to TNG. Because the boundaries of Ross's proposal are based primarily on a single parameter, the pronouns, all internal structure remains tentative.

The languages edit

 
TNG is strongly associated with the New Guinea Highlands (red), and may have spread with the spread of highland agriculture starting c. 10,000 BP, probably in the east, and only more recently south of the highlands.

Most TNG languages are spoken by only a few thousand people, with only seven (Melpa, Kuman, Enga, Huli, Western Dani, Makasae, and Ekari) being spoken by more than 100,000.[4] The most populous language outside of mainland New Guinea is Makasae of East Timor, with 100,000 speakers throughout the eastern part of the country. Enga is the most populous Trans-New Guinea language spoken in New Guinea, with more than 200,000 speakers. Golin, Sinasina, Mid Grand Valley Dani, Kamano, and Bunaq have between 50,000 and 100,000 speakers (Galela of Halmahera, usually not classified as Trans-New Guinea, also has between 50,000 and 100,000 speakers.) All other Trans–New Guinea languages have fewer than 50,000 speakers.[4]

The greatest linguistic diversity in Ross's Trans–New Guinea proposal, and therefore perhaps the location of the proto-Trans–New Guinea homeland, is in the interior highlands of Papua New Guinea, in the central-to-eastern New Guinea cordillera where Wurm first posited his East New Guinea Highlands family. Indonesian Papua and the Papuan Peninsula of Papua New Guinea (the "bird's tail") have fewer and more widely extended branches of TNG, and were therefore likely settled by TNG speakers after the proto-language broke up.

Ross speculates that the TNG family may have spread with the high population densities that resulted from the domestication of taro, settling quickly in the highland valleys along the length of the cordillera but spreading much more slowly into the malarial lowlands, and not at all into areas such as the Sepik River valley where the people already had yam agriculture, which thus supported high population densities. Ross suggests that TNG may have arrived at its western limit, the islands near Timor, perhaps four to 4.5 thousand years ago, before the expansion of Austronesian into this area. Roger Blench associates the spread of Trans–New Guinea languages with the domestication of the banana.[5]

Classification edit

Wurm (1975) edit

The classification here follows Wurm and includes some later modifications to his 1975 proposal.[6] Wurm identifies the subdivisions of his Papuan classification as families (on the order of relatedness of the Germanic languages), stocks (on the order of the Indo-European languages), and phyla (on the order of the Nostratic hypothesis). Trans-New Guinea is a phylum in this terminology. A language that is not related to any other at a family level or below is called an isolate in this scheme.

Trans-New Guinea phylum (Wurm 1975)

('Family-level' groups are listed in boldface)

Foley (2003) edit

As of 2003, William A. Foley accepted the core of TNG: "The fact, for example, that a great swath of languages in New Guinea from the Huon Peninsula to the highlands of Irian Jaya mark the object of a transitive verb with a set of verbal prefixes, a first person singular in /n/ and second person singular in a velar stop, is overwhelming evidence that these languages are all genetically related; the likelihood of such a system being borrowed vanishingly small."[7] He considered the relationship between the Finisterre–Huon, Eastern Highlands (Kainantu–Gorokan), and Irian Highlands (Dani – Paniai Lakes) families (and presumably some other smaller ones) to be established, and he said that it is "highly likely" that the Madang family belongs as well. He considered it possible, but not yet demonstrated, that the Enga, Chimbu, Binandere, Angan, Ok, Awyu, Asmat (perhaps closest to Ok and Awyu), Mek, Sentani, and the seven small language families of the tail of Papua New Guinea (Koiarian, Goilalan, etc., which he maintains have not been shown to be closely related to each other) may belong to TNG as well.

Ross (2005) edit

 
The various families constituting Malcolm Ross' conception of Trans–New Guinea. The greatest TNG diversity is in the eastern highlands. (After Ross 2005.)
  * Mor, Tanah Merah, Dem, Uhunduni, Oksapmin, Wiru, Pawaia, Kamula, Moraori, Mombum

Ross does not use specialized terms for different levels of classification as Donald Laycock and Stephen Wurm did. In the list given here, the uncontroversial families that are accepted by Foley and other Papuanists and that are the building blocks of Ross's TNG are printed in boldface. Language isolates are printed in italics.

Ross removed about 100 languages from Wurm's proposal, and only tentatively retained a few dozen more, but in one instance he added a language, the isolate Porome.

Ross did not have sufficient evidence to classify all Papuan groups. In addition, the classification is based on a single feature – shared pronouns, especially 1sg and 2sg – and thus is subject to false positives as well as to missing branches that have undergone significant sound changes, since he does not have the data to establish regular sound correspondences.

Unclassified Wurmian languages

Although Ross based his classification on pronoun systems, many languages in New Guinea are too poorly documented for even this to work. Thus there are several isolates that were placed in TNG by Wurm but that cannot be addressed by Ross's classification. A few of them (Komyandaret, Samarokena, and maybe Kenati) have since been assigned to existing branches (or ex-branches) of TNG, whereas others (Massep, Momuna) continue to defy classification.

Reclassified Wurmian languages

Ross removed 95 languages from TNG. These are small families with no pronouns in common with TNG languages, but that are typologically similar, perhaps due to long periods of contact with TNG languages.

  • Border and Morwap (Elseng), as an independent Border family (15 languages)
  • Isirawa (Saberi), as a language isolate (though classified as Kwerba by Clouse, Donohue & Ma 2002)[8]
  • Lakes Plain, as an independent Lakes Plain family (19)
  • Mairasi, as an independent Mairasi family (4)
  • Nimboran, as an independent Nimboran family (5)
  • Piawi, as an independent Piawi family (2)
  • Senagi, as an independent Senagi family (2)
  • Sentani (4 languages), within an East Bird's Head – Sentani family
  • Tor and Kwerba, joined as a Tor–Kwerba family (17)
  • Trans-Fly – Bulaka River is broken into five groups: three remaining (tentatively) in TNG (Kiwaian, Moraori, Tirio), plus the independent South-Central Papuan and Eastern Trans-Fly families (22 and 4 languages).
Trans–New Guinea phylum (Ross 2005)

Pawley and Hammarström (2018) edit

 
Languages accepted by both Pawley and Hammarström (2018) and Usher (2018).

Andrew Pawley and Harald Hammarström (2018) accept 35 subgroups as members of Trans-New Guinea.[9][4]

Trans–New Guinea phylum (Pawley and Hammarström 2018)

Groups and isolates considered by Pawley and Hammarström (2018) as having weaker or disputed claims to membership in Trans-New Guinea (some of which they suggest may ultimately turn out to be Trans-New Guinea, but further evidence is needed):[9]

Groups and isolates sometimes classified as Trans-New Guinea, but rejected by Pawley and Hammarström (2018) as Trans-New Guinea:[9]

Glottolog 4.0 (2019) edit

Glottolog 4.0 (2019), of which Hammarström is one of the editors, accepts 10 groups as part of the Nuclear Trans–New Guinea family.[10]

Usher (2020) edit

 
The established Trans–New Guinea families according to Usher (2020). Additional families may eventually prove to belong as well, as Usher has initially excluded any that don't have a regular reflex of the 2sg pronoun.

Timothy Usher has reconstructed lower-level constituents of Trans–New Guinea to verify, through the establishment of regular sound changes, which purported members truly belong to it, and to determine their subclassification. In many cases Usher has created new names for the member families to reflect their geographic location. Much of his classification is accepted by Glottolog (though his names are not, as Glottolog invents its own names). As of 2020, his classification is as follows, including correspondences to the names in earlier classifications. He expects to expand the membership of the family as reconstruction proceeds.[11]

Trans–New Guinea phylum (Usher 2020)

These branches may cluster together (the southwestern branches, for example, may group together), but the details are as yet unclear.

 
The primary branches of the Trans–New Guinea family of languages, per Usher (2018).

The families from the Ross and Glottolog classifications that are not included are Kaure, Pauwasi, Engan, Chimbu–Wahgi, Madang, Eleman, Kiwaian, Binanderean, Goilalan, and the several Papuan Gulf families. Usher only includes families that have a regular reflex of the 2sg pronoun, so there may be additional TNG families that have changed their pronouns.

Dryer (2022) edit

According to Dryer (2022), evidence for membership in Trans-New Guinea based solely on pronouns and 'louse' is not considered to be sufficient, since they are more likely to be widespread areal lexical forms (Wanderworts).[12]

Matthew Dryer's (2022) preliminary evaluation of Pawley and Hammarström (2018), which he had based on his preliminary quantitative analysis of data from the ASJP database, suggests that the following language groups are likely to be Trans–New Guinea (listed in order of highest to lowest score, i.e. starting from the most likely group):

On the other hand, Pawley and Hammarström (2018) do not consider Bayono–Awbono and Damal to be Trans–New Guinea subgroups.


"Borderline" groups that show somewhat more similarities with "Trans–New Guinea" than other non-Trans–New Guinea groups:

South Bird's Head, Timor–Alor–Pantar, and Teberan are not considered by Pawley and Hammarström (2018) to be Trans–New Guinea subgroups.


The following groups display few Trans–New Guinea basic vocabulary items and are hence less likely to be Trans–New Guinea:

However, Dryer (2022) notes that this preliminary quantitative analysis only gives a rough estimate of the groups that may or may not belong within Trans–New Guinea, and that similarities may be due to loanwords, areal influences, and so forth.

Lexical semantics edit

A number of colexification patterns (called 'semantic conflations' by Donald Laycock), particularly in the nominal domain, are commonly found among Trans–New Guinea languages:[9]

  • [man, husband]
  • [woman, wife]
  • [bird, bat]
  • [hair, fur, feather, leaf]
  • [tree, firewood, fire]
  • [water, river]
  • [bark, skin of animal, peel or skin of fruit]
  • [bark, skin, body]
  • [egg, fruit, seed; some other round objects, e.g. kidney, eye, heart]
  • [hand, foreleg of quadruped, wing]
  • [heart, seat of emotions]
  • [blood, red]
  • [garden, work], [to make gardens, to work]
  • [joint, elbow, knee]
  • [milk, sap, semen, white of egg, bone marrow]
  • [nose, face]
  • [teeth, internal mouth]
  • [leg, foot, hindleg]
  • [finger, toe]
  • [father, owner; mother, owner]

Proto-language edit

Main article: Proto-Trans–New Guinea language

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ NewGuineaWorld Trans–New Guinea 6 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ^ "Papuan". www.languagesgulper.com. Retrieved 2017-10-15.
  3. ^ Harald Hammarström (2012) "Pronouns and the (Preliminary) Classification of Papuan languages", Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea
  4. ^ a b c Palmer, Bill (2018). "Language families of the New Guinea Area". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1–20. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
  5. ^ Roger Blench (2017) "Things your classics master never told you: a borrowing from Trans New Guinea languages into Latin", McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
  6. ^ Wurm's classification at MultiTree
  7. ^ DELP: Papuan languages
  8. ^ Clouse, Duane; Donohue, Mark; Ma, Felix (2002). "Survey report of the north coast of Irian Jaya". SIL Electronic Survey Reports. 078.
  9. ^ a b c d Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
  10. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2019). "Glottolog". 4.0. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  11. ^ . Archived from the original on 2016-09-09. Retrieved 2017-12-10.
  12. ^ Dryer, Matthew S. (2022). Trans-New Guinea IV.2: Evaluating Membership in Trans-New Guinea.

Bibliography edit

  • Pawley, Andrew (1998). "The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis: A reassessment". In Jelle Miedema; Cecilia Odé; Rien A.C. Dam (eds.). Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Amsterdam: Rodopi. pp. 655–90. ISBN 978-90-420-0644-7. OCLC 41025250.
  • Pawley, Andrew (2005). "The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis: recent research and its implications". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 67–107. ISBN 0-85883-562-2. OCLC 67292782.
  • Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
  • Wurm, Stephen (1975). . Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. OCLC 37096514. Archived from the original on 2010-06-20. Retrieved 2009-08-13.

External links edit

  • TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea (by Simon Greenhill)
  • Timothy Usher's Newguineaworld site 2021-11-18 at the Wayback Machine

May 03, 2024
trans, guinea, languages, trans, guinea, extensive, family, papuan, languages, spoken, island, guinea, neighboring, islands, region, corresponding, country, papua, guinea, well, parts, indonesia, trans, guineageographicdistributionnew, guinea, east, timor, eas. Trans New Guinea TNG is an extensive family of Papuan languages spoken on the island of New Guinea and neighboring islands a region corresponding to the country Papua New Guinea as well as parts of Indonesia Trans New GuineaGeographicdistributionNew Guinea East Timor East Nusa Tenggara Alor Pantar Linguistic classificationOne of the world s primary language familiesProto languageProto Trans New GuineaSubdivisionsBerau Gulf Sumeri Irian Highlands Asmat Mombum Kayagar Kolopom Central West New Guinea Oksapmin Bosavi Duna Pogaya Anim Abom Morobe Eastern Highlands Southeast PapuanISO 639 5ngfGlottologNonenucl1709 Nuclear Trans New Guinea partial overlap The extent of various proposals for Trans New Guinea Families accepted by Usher 1 Other families proposed by Ross 2005 Other Papuan languages Austronesian languages Uninhabited Trans New Guinea is perhaps the third largest language family in the world by number of languages The core of the family is considered to be established but its boundaries and overall membership are uncertain The languages are spoken by around 3 million people 2 There have been several main proposals as to its internal classification Contents 1 History of the proposal 2 The languages 3 Classification 3 1 Wurm 1975 3 2 Foley 2003 3 3 Ross 2005 3 4 Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 3 5 Glottolog 4 0 2019 3 6 Usher 2020 3 7 Dryer 2022 4 Lexical semantics 5 Proto language 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External linksHistory of the proposal editAlthough Papuan languages for the most part are poorly documented several of the branches of Trans New Guinea have been recognized for some time The Eleman languages were first proposed by S Ray in 1907 parts of Marind were recognized by Ray and JHP Murray in 1918 and the Rai Coast languages in 1919 again by Ray The precursor of the Trans New Guinea family was Stephen Wurm s 1960 proposal of an East New Guinea Highlands family Although broken up by Malcolm Ross in 2005 it united different branches of what became TNG for the first time linking Engan Chimbu Wahgi Goroka and Kainantu Duna and Kalam were added in 1971 Then in 1970 Clemens Voorhoeve and Kenneth McElhanon noted 91 lexical resemblances between the Central and South New Guinea CSNG and Finisterre Huon families which they had respectively established a few years earlier Although they did not work out regular sound correspondences and so could not distinguish between cognates due to genealogical relationship cognates due to borrowing and chance resemblances their research was taken seriously They chose the name Trans New Guinea because this new family was the first to span New Guinea from the Bomberai Peninsula of western West Irian to the Huon Peninsula of eastern PNG They also noted possible cognates in other families Wurm would later add to TNG Wurm s East New Guinea Highlands Binandere in the Bird s Tail of PNG and two families that John Z graggen would later 1971 1975 unite in his 100 language Madang Adelbert Range family In 1975 Wurm accepted Voorhoeve and McElhanon s suspicions about further connections as well as Z graggen s work and postulated additional links to among others the languages of the island of Timor to the west of New Guinea Angan Goilalan Koiarian Dagan Eleman Wissel Lakes the erstwhile Dani Kwerba family and the erstwhile Trans Fly Bulaka River family which he had established in 1970 expanding TNG into an enormous language phylum that covered most of the island of New Guinea as well as Timor and neighboring islands and included over 500 languages spoken by some 2 300 000 people However part of the evidence for this was typological and Wurm stated that he did not expect it to stand up well to scrutiny Although he based the phylum on characteristic personal pronouns several of the branches had no pronouns in common with the rest of the family or even had pronouns related to non TNG families but were included because they were grammatically similar to TNG Other families that had typical TNG pronouns were excluded because they did not resemble other TNG families in their grammatical structure Because grammatical typology is readily borrowed many of the Austronesian languages in New Guinea have grammatical structures similar to their Papuan neighbors for example and conversely many Papuan languages resemble typical Austronesian languages typologically other linguists were skeptical William A Foley rejected Wurm s and even some of Voorhoeve s results and he broke much of TNG into its constituent parts several dozen small but clearly valid families plus a number of apparent isolates In 2005 Malcolm Ross published a draft proposal re evaluating Trans New Guinea and found what he believed to be overwhelming evidence for a reduced version of the phylum based solely on lexical resemblances which retained as much as 85 of Wurm s hypothesis though some of it tentatively The strongest lexical evidence for any language family is shared morphological paradigms especially highly irregular or suppletive paradigms with bound morphology because these are extremely resistant to borrowing For example the fact that German words gut good and besser better resemble their English counterparts would be stronger evidence that German is related to English than the mere lexical correspondence between German rot and English red for the color However because of the great morphological complexity of many Papuan languages and the poor state of documentation of nearly all in New Guinea this approach is essentially restricted to comparing pronouns Ross reconstructed pronouns sets for Foley s basic families and compared these reconstructions rather than using a direct mass comparison of all Papuan languages attempted to then reconstruct the ancestral pronouns of the proto Trans New Guinea language such as ni we ŋgi you i they and then compared poorly supported branches directly to this reconstruction Families required two apparent cognates to be included However if any language in a family was a match the family was considered a match greatly increasing the likelihood of coincidental resemblances and because the plural forms are related to the singular forms a match of 1sg and 1pl although satisfying Ross s requirement of two matches is not actually two independent matches again increasing the likelihood of spurious matches In addition Ross counted forms like a as a match to 2sg ga so that ɡV kV ŋɡV V all counted as matches to ga And although n and ɡ occur in Papuan pronouns at twice the level expected by their occurrence in pronouns elsewhere in the world they do not correlate with each other as they would if they reflected a language family That is it is argued that Ross s pronouns do not support the validity of Trans New Guinea and do not reveal which families might belong to it 3 Ross also included in his proposal several better attested families for non pronominal evidence despite a lack of pronouns common to other branches of TNG and he suggested that there may be other families that would have been included if they had been better attested Several additional families are only tentatively linked to TNG Because the boundaries of Ross s proposal are based primarily on a single parameter the pronouns all internal structure remains tentative The languages edit nbsp TNG is strongly associated with the New Guinea Highlands red and may have spread with the spread of highland agriculture starting c 10 000 BP probably in the east and only more recently south of the highlands Most TNG languages are spoken by only a few thousand people with only seven Melpa Kuman Enga Huli Western Dani Makasae and Ekari being spoken by more than 100 000 4 The most populous language outside of mainland New Guinea is Makasae of East Timor with 100 000 speakers throughout the eastern part of the country Enga is the most populous Trans New Guinea language spoken in New Guinea with more than 200 000 speakers Golin Sinasina Mid Grand Valley Dani Kamano and Bunaq have between 50 000 and 100 000 speakers Galela of Halmahera usually not classified as Trans New Guinea also has between 50 000 and 100 000 speakers All other Trans New Guinea languages have fewer than 50 000 speakers 4 The greatest linguistic diversity in Ross s Trans New Guinea proposal and therefore perhaps the location of the proto Trans New Guinea homeland is in the interior highlands of Papua New Guinea in the central to eastern New Guinea cordillera where Wurm first posited his East New Guinea Highlands family Indonesian Papua and the Papuan Peninsula of Papua New Guinea the bird s tail have fewer and more widely extended branches of TNG and were therefore likely settled by TNG speakers after the proto language broke up Ross speculates that the TNG family may have spread with the high population densities that resulted from the domestication of taro settling quickly in the highland valleys along the length of the cordillera but spreading much more slowly into the malarial lowlands and not at all into areas such as the Sepik River valley where the people already had yam agriculture which thus supported high population densities Ross suggests that TNG may have arrived at its western limit the islands near Timor perhaps four to 4 5 thousand years ago before the expansion of Austronesian into this area Roger Blench associates the spread of Trans New Guinea languages with the domestication of the banana 5 Classification editWurm 1975 edit The classification here follows Wurm and includes some later modifications to his 1975 proposal 6 Wurm identifies the subdivisions of his Papuan classification as families on the order of relatedness of the Germanic languages stocks on the order of the Indo European languages and phyla on the order of the Nostratic hypothesis Trans New Guinea is a phylum in this terminology A language that is not related to any other at a family level or below is called an isolate in this scheme Trans New Guinea phylum Wurm 1975 Family level groups are listed in boldface Oksapmin isolate Morwap Elseng isolate Molof isolate Usku isolate Tofamna isolate Eleman stock Purari isolate Kaki Ae Tate isolate Eastern Eleman family Toaripi Tairuma Western Eleman family Opao Orokolo Keuru Inland Gulf family Ipiko language Minanibai branch Minanibai Tao Mubami Karami Mahigi Kaure stock Kapori isolate Kaure family Kaure Kosadle Narau Kopolom family Kimaama Kimaghana Riantana Ndom Nimboran family Gresi Mlap Kemtuik Mekwei Nimboran Mek family Western branch Ketengban Sirkai Kinome Eastern branch Una Goliath Eipomek Kosarek Yale Korupun Dagi Sisibna Deibula Sela Nalca Nipsan Northern TNG subphylum Border stock Waris family Waris Manem Senggi Punda Umeda Waina Daonda Auwe Simog Amanab Taikat family Awyi Taikat Bewani family Ainbai Umeda Kilmeri Ningera Pagi Tor stock Sause isolate classification uncertain Mawes isolate Orya isolate Tor family Berike Bonerif Dabe Mander Itik Keder Kwesten Maremgi Wares Pauwasi stock Eastern Pauwasi family Yafi Emumu Western Pauwasi family Dubu Towei Senagi family Angor Dera South Bird s Head stock perhaps closest to the Timor Alor Pantar stock South Bird s Head family Barau Weriagar Kemberano Arandai Kokoda Tarof Kais Kampong Baru Puragi Kaburi Kasuweri Inanwatan family Duriankere Suabo Inanwatan Konda Yahadian family Konda Yahadian Timor Alor Pantar stock perhaps closest to the South Bird s Head stock Adabe isolate Bunak isolate Fataluku isolate Kolana isolate Oirata isolate Maku a Lovaea isolate Tanglapui family Sawila Kula Alor Pantar family level clade Some on Timor Makasai isolate Alor branch Kamang Woisika Abui Adang Hamap Kabola Kafoa Kui Kelon Pantar branch Blagar Tewa Lamma Nedebang Retta Tereweng Trans Murray superstock Pawaia isolate Teberan family Dadibi Folopa Podopa East Kutubuan family Fiwaga Foi Turama Kikorian stock Rumu Kairi isolate Turama Omatian family Omati Ikobi Mena Trans Fly Bulaka River superstock Bulaka River family Yelmek Maklew Trans Fly stock Moraori isolate Kiwaian family Northeastern Kiwai Arigibi Southern Kiwai Bamu Morigi Kerewo Waboda Tirio family Tirio Makayam Aturu Bitur Mutum Baramu Were Eastern Trans Fly family Bine Wipii Gidra Gizra Meriam in Torres Strait Australia Pahoturi family Agob Dabu Idi Waia Morehead amp Upper Maro Rivers family Yey language Nambu branch Namo Dorro Nambo Nambu Neme Namat Nama Nen Tonda branch Blafe Tonda Rema Guntai Kunja Arammba Wara Ngkalmpw Kanum Badi Kanum Sota Kanum Smarky Kanum Madang Adelbert Range subphylum Madang superstock Rai Coast stock Evapia family Asas Dumpu Kesawai Sausi Sinsauru Mindjim family Anjam Bom Bongu Male Sam Songum Kabenau family Arawum Kolom Siroi Lemio Pulabu Yaganon family Yabong Ganglau Dumun Saep Peka family Sop Usino Sumau Urigina Danaru Nuru family Uya Usu Ogea Erima Duduela Kwato Rerau Jilim Yangulam Mabuso stock Kare isolate Kokon family Girawa Munit Kein Bemal Gum family Amele Bau Gumalu Isebe Panim Sihan Hanseman family Baimak Bagupi Gal Nobonob Garuh Garus Mawan Matepi Mosimo Murupi Nake Rempi Rapting Saruga Samosa Utu Wamas Silopi Yoidik Wagi Kamba Adelbert Range superstock Pihom Isumrud Mugil Bargam Mugil isolate Pihom stock Amaimon isolate Wasembo isolate Kaukombaran family Mala Pay Miani Tani Maia Pila Saki Kumilan family Bepour Mauwake Ulingan Moere Numagenan family Bilakura Parawen Ukuriguma Usan Wanuma Yaben Yarawata Omosan family Pal Abasakur Kobol Koguman Tiboran family Kowaki Mawak Musar Pamosu Hinihon Wanambre Isumrud stock Dimir isolate Kowan family Korak Waskia Mabuan family Malas Brem Bunabun Josephstaal Wanang Josephstaal stock Osum Utarmbung isolate Wadaginam isolate Sikan family Mum Katiati Sileibi Pomoikan family Anam Pondoma Anamgura Ikundun Moresada Wanang stock Paynamar isolate Atan family Atemble Nend Angaua Emuan family Apali Emerum Musak Brahman family Biyom Faita Isabi Tauya Main Section Eastern TNG subphylum Binanderean stock Guhu Semane isolate Binandere family Ambasi Aeka Binandere Baruga Doghoro Ewage Notu Gaina Hunjara Korafe Mawae Orokaiva Suena Yega Yekora Zia Coral Sea Coast stock Dagan family Daga Ginuman Dima Jimajima Mapena Maiwa Onjob Kanasi Sona Turaka Umanakaina Gwedena Goilalan family Fuyug Tauade Biangai Kunimaipa Weri Koiarian family Koiaric branch Grass Koiari Mountain Koiari Koitabu Baraic branch Barai Ese Managalasi Namiae Omie Kwalean family Humene Uare Kwale Mulaha Manubaran family Doromu Maria Mailuan family Bauwaki Binahari Domu Laua Mailu Magi Morawa Yareban family Aneme Wake Abia Bariji Moikodi Doriri Nawaru Sirio Yareba Piawi family Hagahai Pinai Haruai Waibuk Central and Western TNG subphylum Dem isolate Mor isolate Gogodala Suki stock Suki isolate Gogodala family Gogodala Ari Waruna Kayagar family Atohwaim Kaugat Kayagar Kaygir Tamagario Mairasi Tanahmerah stock Tanahmerah isolate Mairasi family Semimi Mer Mairasi Northeastern Mairasi West Bomberai stock Karas isolate West Bomberai family Baham Iha Sentani family Demta Sentani proper Sentani Nafri Tabla Tanah Merah2 Wissel Lakes Kemandoga stock Damal Uhunduni isolate Ekagi family Wolani Moni Ekari Auye Dao Marind stock Boazi family Kuni Boazi Zimakani Marind family Bian Marind Marind Yaqay family Warkay Bipim Yaqay Angan family Angaatiha language Angan proper Simbari Baruya Safeyoka Susuami Tainae Ivori Hamtai Kawacha Kamasa Menya Akoye Lohiki Yagwoia Dani Kwerba stock Lowlands north Kwerba Massep Isirawa Saberi isolate Massep isolate Samarokena isolate Kwerba family Airoran Bagusa Kwerba Sasawa Trimuris Kauwera Kwerba Mamberamo Highlands south Dani Ngalik Wano isolate Dani family Hupla Nggem Walak Upper Grand Valley Dani Lower Grand Valley Dani Mid Grand Valley Dani Western Dani Ngalik family Nduga Silimo Ninia Yali Pass Valley Ninia Angguruk Ninia Finisterre Huon stock note classification levels needed Huon Kovai Eastern Huon Dedua Kube Kate Borong Kosorong Mape Migabac Momare Sene Western Huon Burum Mindik Kinalakna Komba Kumokio Mese Nabak Nomu Ono Sialum Selepet Timbe Tobo Finisterre Abaga Erap Finongan Gusan Mamaa Munkip Nakama Nimi Nuk Nek Numanggang Sauk Uri Gusap Mot Madi Gira Iyo Nahu Neko Nekgini Ngaing Rawa Ufim Uruwa Nukna Komutu Sakam Som Weliki Yau Wantoat Awara Tuma Irumu Wantoat Yagawak Bam Warup Asaro o Morafa Bulgebi Degenan Forak Guya Guiarak Gwahatike Dahating Muratayak Asat Yagomi Yupna Bonkiman Domung Gabutamon Ma Mebu Nankina Yopno Kewieng Wandabong Nokopo Isan East New Guinea Highlands stock Wiru isolate Kenati isolate Kalam family Gants Kalam Kobon Tai Eastern Kainantu family Owenia language Kambaira language Tairora branch Binumarien South Tairoa North Tairoa Waffa Gapsup branch Agarabi Awiyaana Awa Gadsup Kosena Ontenu Usarufa Central family Chimbu branch Chuave Dom Golin Kuman Nomane Salt Yui Sinasina Hagen branch Melpa Medlpa language Kaugel languages Imbongu Mbo Ung Umbu Ungu Jimi branch Maring Narak Kandawo Wahgi branch Nii Wahgi North Wahgi East Central Goroka family Gende language Fore branch Fore Gimi Gahuku branch Dano Upper Asaro Benabena Alekano Gahuku Tokano Lower Asaro Siane branch Siane Yaweyuha Kamono Yagaria branch Kamono Inoke Yate Kanite Keyagana Yagaria West Central family Huli language Enga branch Enga Nete Ipili Lembena Bisorio Angal Kewa branch Kyaka Angal Angal Heneng Katinja Angal Enen Samberigi Sau West Kewa East Kewa Erave Central and South New Guinea Kutubuan superstock Fasu isolate Central and South New Guinea stock Central Highlands amp Arafura Coast Komyandaret language unclassified Asmat Kamoro family Casuarina Coast Asmat Yaosakor Asmat Central Asmat North Asmat Buruwai Asienara Citak Tamnim Citak Diuwe Kamberau Iria Kamoro Sempan Awin Pa family Aekyowm Awin Kamula Pare Pa Awyu Dumut family Sawi Sawuy language Awyu branch Aghu Tsakwambo Kotogut South Awyu Siagha Central Awyu Jair Awyu Edera Awyu Asue Awyu Pisa North Awyu Dumut branch Atas Mandobo Kaeti Bawah Mandobo Kombai Wambon Wanggom unclassified Korowai North Korowai Ketum Bosavi family Aimele Kware Kaluli Beami Dibiyaso Bainapi Edolo Kasua Onobasulu Sonia Duna Bogaya family Bogaya Duna East Strickland family Fembe Agala Gobasi Nomad Kubo Odoodee Tomu Konai Samo Mombum family Koneraw Mombum Momuna family Momina Momuna Somahai Ok family Tangko language Western branch Burumakok Kwer Kopkaka Lowland branch Iwur North Muyu Northern Kati South Muyu Southern Kati Ninggerum Yonggom Mountain branch Bimin Faiwol Kauwol Mian Nakai Setaman Suganga Ngalum Tifal Telefol Urapmin Foley 2003 edit As of 2003 William A Foley accepted the core of TNG The fact for example that a great swath of languages in New Guinea from the Huon Peninsula to the highlands of Irian Jaya mark the object of a transitive verb with a set of verbal prefixes a first person singular in n and second person singular in a velar stop is overwhelming evidence that these languages are all genetically related the likelihood of such a system being borrowed vanishingly small 7 He considered the relationship between the Finisterre Huon Eastern Highlands Kainantu Gorokan and Irian Highlands Dani Paniai Lakes families and presumably some other smaller ones to be established and he said that it is highly likely that the Madang family belongs as well He considered it possible but not yet demonstrated that the Enga Chimbu Binandere Angan Ok Awyu Asmat perhaps closest to Ok and Awyu Mek Sentani and the seven small language families of the tail of Papua New Guinea Koiarian Goilalan etc which he maintains have not been shown to be closely related to each other may belong to TNG as well Ross 2005 edit nbsp The various families constituting Malcolm Ross conception of Trans New Guinea The greatest TNG diversity is in the eastern highlands After Ross 2005 Irian Jaya W to E South Bird s Head West Trans New Guinea Kaure Kapori Pauwasi Mek Asmat Kamoro Awyu Dumut Ok Kayagar Marind Kolopom PNG highlands W to E Awin Pa East Strickland Duna Bosavi Engan West Kutubuan East Kutubuan Chimbu Wahgi Kainantu Goroka Madang Finisterre Huon Southern PNG E to W Binanderean Southeast Papuan Angan Eleman Teberan Turama Kikorian Kiwai Porome Inland Gulf Gogodala Suki Tirio isolates Mor Tanah Merah Dem Uhunduni Oksapmin Wiru Pawaia Kamula Moraori Mombum Ross does not use specialized terms for different levels of classification as Donald Laycock and Stephen Wurm did In the list given here the uncontroversial families that are accepted by Foley and other Papuanists and that are the building blocks of Ross s TNG are printed in boldface Language isolates are printed in italics Ross removed about 100 languages from Wurm s proposal and only tentatively retained a few dozen more but in one instance he added a language the isolate Porome Ross did not have sufficient evidence to classify all Papuan groups In addition the classification is based on a single feature shared pronouns especially 1sg and 2sg and thus is subject to false positives as well as to missing branches that have undergone significant sound changes since he does not have the data to establish regular sound correspondences Unclassified Wurmian languages Although Ross based his classification on pronoun systems many languages in New Guinea are too poorly documented for even this to work Thus there are several isolates that were placed in TNG by Wurm but that cannot be addressed by Ross s classification A few of them Komyandaret Samarokena and maybe Kenati have since been assigned to existing branches or ex branches of TNG whereas others Massep Momuna continue to defy classification Kenati Kainantu Komyandaret Greater Awyu Massep isolate Molof isolate Momuna family 2 Samarokena Kwerba Tofamna isolate Usku isolate Reclassified Wurmian languages Ross removed 95 languages from TNG These are small families with no pronouns in common with TNG languages but that are typologically similar perhaps due to long periods of contact with TNG languages Border and Morwap Elseng as an independent Border family 15 languages Isirawa Saberi as a language isolate though classified as Kwerba by Clouse Donohue amp Ma 2002 8 Lakes Plain as an independent Lakes Plain family 19 Mairasi as an independent Mairasi family 4 Nimboran as an independent Nimboran family 5 Piawi as an independent Piawi family 2 Senagi as an independent Senagi family 2 Sentani 4 languages within an East Bird s Head Sentani family Tor and Kwerba joined as a Tor Kwerba family 17 Trans Fly Bulaka River is broken into five groups three remaining tentatively in TNG Kiwaian Moraori Tirio plus the independent South Central Papuan and Eastern Trans Fly families 22 and 4 languages Trans New Guinea phylum Ross 2005 West Trans New Guinea linkage a suspected old dialect continuum West Bomberai Timor Alor Pantar Timor Alor Pantar families 22 West Bomberai family 2 Paniai Lakes Wissel Lakes family 5 Dani family 13 South Bird s Head South Doberai family 12 Tanah Merah Sumeri isolate Mor isolate Dem isolate Uhunduni Damal Amungme isolate Mek family 13 Kaure Kapori 4 Inclusion in TNG tentative No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data Kapori isolate Kaure family 3 Pauwasi family 4 Inclusion in TNG tentative No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data Since linked to Karkar which is well attested and not TNG Kayagar family 3 Kolopom family 3 Moraori isolate Kiwai Porome 8 TNG identity of pronouns suspect Kiwaian family 7 Porome Kibiri isolate Marind family 6 Central and South New Guinea 49 reduced Part of the original TNG proposal Not clear if these four families form a single branch of TNG Voorhoeve argues independently for an Awyu Ok relationship Asmat Kamoro family 11 Awyu Dumut family 8 16 Mombum family 2 Ok family 20 Oksapmin isolate now linked to the Ok family Gogodala Suki family 4 Tirio family 4 Eleman family 7 Inland Gulf family 6 Turama Kikorian family 4 Teberan family inclusion in TNG tentative 2 Pawaia isolate has proto TNG vocabulary but inclusion questionable Angan family 12 Fasu West Kutubuan family 1 3 has proto TNG vocabulary but inclusion somewhat questionable East Kutubuan family 2 has proto TNG vocabulary but inclusion somewhat questionable Duna Pogaya family 2 Awin Pa family 2 East Strickland family 6 Bosavi family 8 Kamula isolate Engan family 9 Wiru isolate lexical similarities with Engan Chimbu Wahgi family 17 Kainantu Goroka 22 also known as East Highlands first noticed by Capell 1948 Goroka family 14 Kainantu family 8 Madang 103 Southern Adelbert Range Kowan Kowan family 2 Southern Adelbert Range Josephstaal 7 Osum Utarmbung isolate Wadaginam isolate Sikan family 2 Pomoikan family 3 Wanang 5 Paynamar isolate Atan family 2 Emuan family 2 Faita isolate Rai Coast Kalam Rai Coast family 31 Kalam family 4 perhaps part of Rai Coast Croisilles linkage Dimir Malas 2 Kaukombar 4 Kumil 5 Tibor Omosa 6 Amaimon isolate Numugen Mabuso Numugen family 6 Mabuso family 29 Finisterre Huon 62 part of the original TNG proposal Has verbs that are suppletive per the person and number of the object Finisterre family 41 Huon family 21 Goilalan family 6 inclusion in TNG tentative Southeast Papuan Bird s Tail these families have not been demonstrated to be related to each other but have in common ya for you plural instead of proto TNG gi Koiarian family 7 Kwalean family 3 Manubaran family 2 Yareban family 5 Mailuan family 6 Dagan family 9 Binanderean 16 Guhu Samane isolate Binandere family 15 a recent expansion from the north Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 edit nbsp Languages accepted by both Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 and Usher 2018 Andrew Pawley and Harald Hammarstrom 2018 accept 35 subgroups as members of Trans New Guinea 9 4 Trans New Guinea phylum Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 Trans New Guinea subgroups strong evidence 35 subgroups 431 languages Madang 107 Finisterre Huon 62 Kainantu Goroka 29 Ok Oksapmin 20 Anim 17 Chimbu Wahgi 17 Greater Awyu 17 Enga Kewa Huli 14 Angan 13 Dani 13 Greater Binanderean 13 Asmat Kamoro 11 Dagan 9 Mailuan 8 Bosavi 7 Koiarian 7 Mek 7 East Strickland 6 Kiwaian 6 Goilalan 5 Paniai Lakes 5 Yareban 5 Gogodala Suki 4 Turama Kikori 4 Kayagaric 3 Kolopom 3 Kutubu 3 Kwalean 3 West Bomberai 3 Awin Pa 2 Duna Bogaya 2 Manubaran 2 Somahai 2 Marori isolate Wiru isolate Groups and isolates considered by Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 as having weaker or disputed claims to membership in Trans New Guinea some of which they suggest may ultimately turn out to be Trans New Guinea but further evidence is needed 9 Bayono Awbono 2 Komolom Mombum 2 Mairasi 3 Pauwasi 5 Pawaian isolate Sentanic 4 South Bird s Head 12 Tanah Merah isolate Teberan 2 Timor Alor Pantar 20 Uhunduni Damal isolate Groups and isolates sometimes classified as Trans New Guinea but rejected by Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 as Trans New Guinea 9 Dem isolate Eleman 5 Kaki Ae isolate Kamula isolate Kaure Narau 2 Mor isolate Porome isolate Purari isolate Glottolog 4 0 2019 edit Glottolog 4 0 2019 of which Hammarstrom is one of the editors accepts 10 groups as part of the Nuclear Trans New Guinea family 10 Madang 106 Finisterre Huon 61 Asmat Awyu Ok 49 Kainantu Goroka 28 Chimbu Wahgi 17 Enga Kewa Huli 14 Dani 13 Greater Binanderean 13 Mek 8 Paniai Lakes 5 Usher 2020 edit nbsp The established Trans New Guinea families according to Usher 2020 Additional families may eventually prove to belong as well as Usher has initially excluded any that don t have a regular reflex of the 2sg pronoun Timothy Usher has reconstructed lower level constituents of Trans New Guinea to verify through the establishment of regular sound changes which purported members truly belong to it and to determine their subclassification In many cases Usher has created new names for the member families to reflect their geographic location Much of his classification is accepted by Glottolog though his names are not as Glottolog invents its own names As of 2020 his classification is as follows including correspondences to the names in earlier classifications He expects to expand the membership of the family as reconstruction proceeds 11 Trans New Guinea phylum Usher 2020 Berau Gulf Mor North Berau Gulf South Bird s Head Yabin South Bird s Head nuclear South Bird s Head plus Inanwatan West Bomberai incl Timor Alor Pantar Sumuri West Papuan Highlands Irian Highlands Amung Dem Amung Uhunduni Dem Balim Valley Dani Paniai Lakes Asmat Muli Strait Asmat Kamrau Bay Asmat Kamoro Muli Strait Mombum Cook River Kolopom Cook River Kayagar Kolopom incl Moraori Oksap Oksapmin Central West New Guinea Digul River Ok Digul River Greater Awyu incl Bayono Awbono Kamula Elevala River Awin Pa plus Kamula Ok Momuna Mek Mek Momuna Papuan Plateau Bosavi incl Dibiyaso Duna Bogaia Abom Fly River Anim Inland Gulf Lake Murray Boazi Lower Fly River Tirio Marind Yakhai Marind Morobe Eastern Highlands Eastern Highlands Kainantu Goroka Finisterre Huon Kratke Range Angan Papuan Peninsula Southeast Papuan Meneao Range Dagan Owen Stanley Range Koiari Managalas Plateau Koiarian Humene Uare Kwalean Mount Brown Manubaran Cloudy Bay Musa River Bauwaki Cloudy Bay Mailuan Musa River Yareban These branches may cluster together the southwestern branches for example may group together but the details are as yet unclear nbsp The primary branches of the Trans New Guinea family of languages per Usher 2018 The families from the Ross and Glottolog classifications that are not included are Kaure Pauwasi Engan Chimbu Wahgi Madang Eleman Kiwaian Binanderean Goilalan and the several Papuan Gulf families Usher only includes families that have a regular reflex of the 2sg pronoun so there may be additional TNG families that have changed their pronouns Dryer 2022 edit According to Dryer 2022 evidence for membership in Trans New Guinea based solely on pronouns and louse is not considered to be sufficient since they are more likely to be widespread areal lexical forms Wanderworts 12 Matthew Dryer s 2022 preliminary evaluation of Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 which he had based on his preliminary quantitative analysis of data from the ASJP database suggests that the following language groups are likely to be Trans New Guinea listed in order of highest to lowest score i e starting from the most likely group Madang Chimbu Wahgi Awyu Ok Enga Kewa Huli Kiwaian Finisterre Huon Dagan Yareban Wiru Bayono Awbono Paniai Lakes Turama Kikorian Kainantu Goroka Dani Angan Somahai East Strickland Koiarian Fuyug Fasu Gogodala Suki Damal Manubaran Anim Greater Binanderean On the other hand Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 do not consider Bayono Awbono and Damal to be Trans New Guinea subgroups Borderline groups that show somewhat more similarities with Trans New Guinea than other non Trans New Guinea groups Bosavi Goilalan South Bird s Head Timor Alor Pantar Fasu Bogaya Teberan South Bird s Head Timor Alor Pantar and Teberan are not considered by Pawley and Hammarstrom 2018 to be Trans New Guinea subgroups The following groups display few Trans New Guinea basic vocabulary items and are hence less likely to be Trans New Guinea Mailuan Duna Asmat Kamrau Bay Kwalean Kolopom West Bomberai Mek Elevala Moraori Kayagaric Mulaha However Dryer 2022 notes that this preliminary quantitative analysis only gives a rough estimate of the groups that may or may not belong within Trans New Guinea and that similarities may be due to loanwords areal influences and so forth Lexical semantics editA number of colexification patterns called semantic conflations by Donald Laycock particularly in the nominal domain are commonly found among Trans New Guinea languages 9 man husband woman wife bird bat hair fur feather leaf tree firewood fire water river bark skin of animal peel or skin of fruit bark skin body egg fruit seed some other round objects e g kidney eye heart hand foreleg of quadruped wing heart seat of emotions blood red garden work to make gardens to work joint elbow knee milk sap semen white of egg bone marrow nose face teeth internal mouth leg foot hindleg finger toe father owner mother owner Proto language editMain article Proto Trans New Guinea languageSee also edit nbsp New Guinea portal nbsp Language portal Indo Pacific languages Proto Trans New Guinea reconstructions Wiktionary References edit NewGuineaWorld Trans New Guinea Archived 6 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine Papuan www languagesgulper com Retrieved 2017 10 15 Harald Hammarstrom 2012 Pronouns and the Preliminary Classification of Papuan languages Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea a b c Palmer Bill 2018 Language families of the New Guinea Area In Palmer Bill ed The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area A Comprehensive Guide The World of Linguistics Vol 4 Berlin De Gruyter Mouton pp 1 20 ISBN 978 3 11 028642 7 Roger Blench 2017 Things your classics master never told you a borrowing from Trans New Guinea languages into Latin McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research Wurm s classification at MultiTree DELP Papuan languages Clouse Duane Donohue Mark Ma Felix 2002 Survey report of the north coast of Irian Jaya SIL Electronic Survey Reports 078 a b c d Pawley Andrew Hammarstrom Harald 2018 The Trans New Guinea family In Palmer Bill ed The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area A Comprehensive Guide The World of Linguistics Vol 4 Berlin De Gruyter Mouton pp 21 196 ISBN 978 3 11 028642 7 Hammarstrom Harald Forkel Robert Haspelmath Martin eds 2019 Glottolog 4 0 Jena Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History NewGuineaWorld Trans New Guinea Archived from the original on 2016 09 09 Retrieved 2017 12 10 Dryer Matthew S 2022 Trans New Guinea IV 2 Evaluating Membership in Trans New Guinea Bibliography editPawley Andrew 1998 The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis A reassessment In Jelle Miedema Cecilia Ode Rien A C Dam eds Perspectives on the Bird s Head of Irian Jaya Indonesia Amsterdam Rodopi pp 655 90 ISBN 978 90 420 0644 7 OCLC 41025250 Pawley Andrew 2005 The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis recent research and its implications In Andrew Pawley Robert Attenborough Robin Hide Jack Golson eds Papuan pasts cultural linguistic and biological histories of Papuan speaking peoples Canberra Pacific Linguistics pp 67 107 ISBN 0 85883 562 2 OCLC 67292782 Ross Malcolm 2005 Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages In Andrew Pawley Robert Attenborough Robin Hide Jack Golson eds Papuan pasts cultural linguistic and biological histories of Papuan speaking peoples Canberra Pacific Linguistics pp 15 66 ISBN 0858835622 OCLC 67292782 Wurm Stephen 1975 New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study Volume 1 Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene Canberra Dept of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies Australian National University OCLC 37096514 Archived from the original on 2010 06 20 Retrieved 2009 08 13 External links editTransNewGuinea org database of the languages of New Guinea by Simon Greenhill Timothy Usher s Newguineaworld site Archived 2021 11 18 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Trans New Guinea languages amp oldid 1216835218, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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