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Wikipedia

Climate communication

January 10, 2024

Climate communication or climate change communication is a field of environmental communication and science communication focused on the causes, nature and effects of anthropogenic climate change.

Ed Hawkins' warming stripes graphics portray global warming since 1850 as a series of color-coded stripes, purposely devoid of scientific notation to be quickly understandable by non-scientists.[1] Blue (= cool) progresses over time to red (= warm).

Research in the field emerged in the 1990s and has since grown and diversified to include studies concerning the media, conceptual framing, and public engagement and response. Since the late 2000s, a growing number of studies have been conducted in countries in the Global South and have been focused on climate communication with marginalized populations.

Most research focuses on raising public knowledge and awareness, understanding underlying cultural values and emotions, and bringing about public engagement and action. Major issues include familiarity with the audience, barriers to public understanding, creating change, audience segmentation, changing rhetoric, public health, storytelling, media coverage, and popular culture.

History edit

 
This 1902 article attributes to Swedish Nobel laureate (chemistry) Svante Arrhenius a theory that coal combustion could cause a degree of global warming that could eventually lead to human extinction.[2]
 
This 1912 article succinctly describes the greenhouse effect, focusing on how burning coal creates carbon dioxide that causes climate change.[3]

In "Climate Change Communication” (from Oxford's Communications Research Encyclopedia), communications scholar Amy E. Chadwick identifies Climate Change Communication as a new field of scholarship that truly emerged in the 1990s.[4] In the late 80s and early 90s, research in developed countries (e.g. the United States, New Zealand, and Sweden) was largely concerned with studying the public's perception and comprehension of climate change science, models, and risks and guiding further development of communication strategies.[4][5] These studies showed that while the public was aware of and beginning to notice climate change effects (increasing temperatures and changing precipitation patterns), the public's understanding of climate change was interlinked with ozone depletion and other environmental risks but not human-produced CO2 emissions.[5] This understanding was coupled with varied yet overall increased net concern that continued through the mid-2000s.[5]

In studies from the mid-2000s to the late 2000s, there is evidence of rising global skepticism despite growing consensus and evidence of increasingly polarized views due to climate change's growing use as a political "litmus test."[5] In 2010, researcher Susanne C. Moser viewed both the expansion of climate change communication's focus, which began to include subjects such as materialized evidence of climate change effects in addition to science and policy, as well as more prolific conversation/communication from a variety of voices as increasing climate change's relevance to society.[6] Surveys through the mid-2010s showed mixed concern for climate change depending on global region —notably consistent concern in developed Western countries but a trend towards global unconcern in countries such as China, Mexico, and Kenya.[5]

In 2016, Moser noted an increase in the total number of climate communication studies in both Westernized countries and the Global South and an increased focus on climate communication with indigenous peoples and other marginalized communities since 2010.[7] As of 2017, research remained focused on public understanding and had since begun to also analyze the relevance of the media, conceptual framing, public engagement and response, and persuasive strategies.[4][7] This expansion has legitimated climate change communication as its own academic field and has yielded a group of experts specific to it.[7]

Primary goals of climate communication edit

 
The Gateway Belief Model, which models the thought that communicating scientific consensus will impact belief in climate change and produce support for action

Most climate communication and research within the field is concerned with (1) the mechanisms related to the public's understanding/awareness of and perception of climate change which are intertwined with (2) personal cultural values and emotions related to social norms and (3) how these components can influence the engagement and action that may emerge as a response to communication.[4][6][8]

Within the academic field, there are debates over which is more important: knowledge-based communication or emotion-driven communication.[9] Though both are inherently linked to action, researchers often view increased understanding as leading to increased action.[9][10] A 2020 study by Kris De Meyer et al. attempts to push back against that notion and argues that action produces belief.[9]

Analyzing and increasing public understanding and perception edit

One line of climate communication study is concerned with analyzing public understanding and risk perception.[4] Understanding public perception of risk and its relevant influences, as well as public knowledge, concern, consensus, and imagery is thought to help policymakers better address the concerns of constituents and inform further climate communication.[4][10][11] This notion has opened the realm of climate communications to political communications, sociology, and psychology.[11]

Achieving increased public understanding is often associated with communicating levels of scientific consensus and other scientific facts or futures in order to spur action and address the "information-deficit" model but can also be related to connecting with values and emotions.[9][11] Perception is often related to personal recognition to impacted locations, times (the present vs. the future), weather events, or economics, which has placed emphasis on different methods of framing (linking concepts) and rhetoric when communicating.[5][10][11] These methods of communication presently include scientific communication, knowledge transfer, social media, news media, and entertainment amongst others, which are also studied individually regarding climate change.[5][9]

Connecting to values and emotions edit

In addition to studies regarding knowledge, climate communication researchers inspect existing values and emotions related to climate change and how they are impacted by various communication strategies and can influence the effects of communication modes.[8][9] Understanding and relating to the audiences' moral, cultural, religious, and political values, identities, and emotions (like fear) are viewed as imperative to appropriate and effective communication because climate change can otherwise seem intangible due to uncertainty and distance (physical, social, temporal).[8][12] Recognizing and understanding these values is key to impacting perception of climate science and mitigative action because values serve as filters through which information is processed.[7] Emotional reactions to climate change and the role emotions can play in decision-making have encouraged researchers to study the emotional side of climate change.[7] Appeals to emotions (such as fear and hope) and to values can also be used in communication strategies.[4][6] It is unclear whether negative emotions (e.g. concern and fear) or positive emotions (e.g. hope) better promote climate change action.[4][9][12] Emotions can also be analyzed by their level of pleasantness and/or to the extent they evoke action, which is often understudied.[12]

Producing engagement and action edit

 
Presenting data and other facts is less effective in motivating people to act to mitigate climate change, than financial incentives and social pressure involved in showing people climate-related actions of other people.[13]
 
The strongest factors in self-reported changes in opinion about global warming were Republican party identification, seeing others experience impacts of global warming, and learning more about global warming.[14]

Studying climate communications can also be focused on civic engagement and the production of behavior changes for adapting or increasing resiliency to climate change.[6] Engagement and action can occur on multiple geographic scales (local, regional, national, or international), and examples include participation in climate justice movements, support for policies or politics, changes to agricultural practices, and addresses to vulnerabilities to extreme weather vulnerabilities.[6][10] Behavioral changes can also address more fundamental norms and values that influence lifestyles, life choices, and society as a whole.[6] Engagement can also involve how those who communicate climate change interact with researchers studying the field of communications.[7]

Studies have recognized that increased understanding and perception does not automatically produce action and have argued for increased means of enabling action in communication methods.[7] Research into engagement and action often focuses on the perception and understanding of different demographics and geographic locations.[11] Some politicians, such as Arnold Schwarzenegger with his slogan "terminate pollution", say that activists should generate optimism by focusing on the health co-benefits of climate action.[15]

Major issues edit

Barriers to understanding edit

 
A 2022 study found that the public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change.[16] Studies from 2019–2021[17][18][19] found scientific consensus to range from 98.7–100%.
 
Research found that 80–90% of Americans underestimate the prevalence of support for major climate change mitigation policies and climate concern. While 66–80% Americans support these policies, Americans estimate the prevalence to be 37–43%. Researchers have called this misperception a false social reality, a form of pluralistic ignorance.[20]
 
National political divides on the seriousness of climate change consistently correlate with political ideology, with right-wing opinion being more negative.[21]

Climate communications is heavily focused on methods for inviting larger scale public action to address climate change. To this end, a lot of research focuses on barriers to public understanding and action on climate change. Scholarly evidence shows that the information deficit model of communication—where climate change communicators assume "if the public only knew more about the evidence they would act"—doesn't work. Instead, argumentation theory indicates that different audiences need different kinds of persuasive argumentation and communication. This is counter to many assumptions made by other fields such as psychology, environmental sociology, and risk communication.[22]

Additionally, climate denialism by organizations, such as The Heartland Institute in the United States,[23][24][25] and individuals introduces misinformation into public discourse and understanding.

There are several models for explaining why the public doesn't act once more informed. One of the theoretical models for this is the 5 Ds model created by Per Epsten Stoknes.[26] Stoknes describes 5 major barriers to creating action from climate communication:

  1. Distance – many effects and impacts of climate change feel distant from individual lives
  2. Doom - when framed as a disaster, the message backfires, causing Eco-anxiety
  3. Dissonance – a disconnect between the problems (mainly the fossil fuel economy) and the things that people choose in their lives
  4. Denial -- psychological self defense to avoid becoming overwhelmed by fear or guilt
  5. iDentity -- disconnects created by social identities, such as conservative values, which are threatened by the changes that need to happen because of climate change.

In her book Living in Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life, Kari Norgaard's study of Bygdaby—a fictional name used for a real city in Norway—found that non-response was much more complex than just a lack of information. In fact, too much information can do the exact opposite because people tend to neglect global warming once they realize there is no easy solution. When people understand the complexity of the issue, they can feel overwhelmed and helpless which can lead to apathy or skepticism.[27]

A study published in PLOS Climate studied defensive and secure forms of national identity—respectively called "national narcissism"[Note 1] and "secure national identification"[Note 2]—for their correlation to support for policies to mitigate climate change and to transition to renewable energy.[28] The researchers concluded that secure national identification tends to support policies promoting renewable energy; however, national narcissism was found to be inversely correlated with support for such policies—except to the extent that such policies, as well as greenwashing, enhance the national image.[28] Right-wing political orientation, which may indicate susceptibility to climate conspiracy beliefs, was also concluded to be negatively correlated with support for genuine climate mitigation policies.[28]

Climate literacy edit

 
Changes in interest in climate change, as measured by use of "climate change" as a Google search term.

Though communicating the science about climate change under the premises of an Information deficit model of communication is not very effective in creating change, comfort with and literacy in the main issues and topics of climate change is important for changing public opinion and action.[29] Several agencies and educational organizations have developed frameworks and tools for developing climate literacy, including the Climate Literacy Lab at Georgia State university,[30] and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.[31] Such resources in English have been collected by the Climate Literacy and Awareness Network.[32]

Creating change edit

As of 2008, most of the environmental communications evidence for effecting individual or social change were focused on behavior changes around: household energy consumption, recycling behaviours, changing transportation behavior and buying green products.[33] At that time, there were few examples of multi-level communications strategies for effecting change.[33]

Behaviour change edit

Main article: Social and behavior change communication

Since much of Climate communication is focused on engaging broad public action, much of the studies are focused on effecting behavior change. Typically, effective climate communication has three parts: cognitive, affective and place based appeals.[34]

Audience segmentation edit

 
The sharp divide over the existence of and responsibility for global warming and climate change falls largely along political lines.[35] Overall, 60% of Americans surveyed said oil and gas companies were "completely or mostly responsible" for climate change.[35]
 
Opinion about human causation of climate change increased substantially with education among Democrats, but not among Republicans.[36] Conversely, opinions favoring becoming carbon neutral declined substantially with age among Republicans, but not among Democrats.[36]
 
Perceptions differ along political lines, on whether climate change was a "major factor" contributing to various extreme weather events experienced by respondents.[37]
 
Democrats and Republicans have long differed in views of the importance of addressing climate change, with the gap widening in the 2010s[38] and Democrats three times as likely to view global warming as human-caused.[39]

Different parts of different populations respond differently to climate change communication. Academic research since 2013 has seen an increasing number of audience segmentation studies, to understand different tactics for reaching different parts of populations.[40] Major segmentation studies include:

  •   US Segmentation of the American audiences into 6 groups:[41] Alarmed, Concerned, Cautious, Disengaged, Doubtful and Dismissive.
  •   AUS Segmentation of Australians into 4 segments in 2011,[42] and 6 segments analogous to the Six America's model.[43]
  •   DE Segmentation of German populations into 5 segments[44]
  •   India Segmentation of Indian populations into the 6 segments[45]
  •   Singapore Segmentation of Singapore audiences into 3 segments[46]

Changing rhetoric edit

 
Google Trends data shows a growth in searches for the terms climate emergency (shown in red) and climate crisis (shown in blue).
 
Terms like "climate emergency" and climate crisis" have often been used by activists, and are increasingly found in academic papers.[47]

A significant part of the research and public advocacy conversations about climate change have focused on the effectiveness of different terms used to describe "global warming".

History of global warming edit

This section is an excerpt from Climate change § Terminology.[edit]

Before the 1980s, when it was unclear whether the warming effect of increased greenhouse gases was stronger than the cooling effect of airborne particulates in air pollution, scientists used the term inadvertent climate modification to refer to human impacts on the climate.[48]

In the 1980s, the terms global warming and climate change became more common. Though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably,[49] scientifically, global warming refers only to increased surface warming, while climate change describes the totality of changes to Earth's climate system.[48] Global warming—used as early as 1975[50]—became the more popular term after NASA climate scientist James Hansen used it in his 1988 testimony in the U.S. Senate.[51] Since the 2000s, climate change has increased in usage.[52] Climate change can also refer more broadly to both human-caused changes or natural changes throughout Earth's history.[53]

Various scientists, politicians and media now use the terms climate crisis or climate emergency to talk about climate change, and global heating instead of global warming.[54]

Health edit

Main article: Climate change and health

Climate change exacerbates a number of existing public health issues, such as mosquito-borne disease, and introduces new public health concerns related to changing climate, such as increase in health concerns after natural disasters or increases in heat illnesses. Thus the field of health communication has long acknowledged the importance of treating climate change as a public health issue, requiring broad population behavior changes that allow societal climate change adaptation.[33] A December 2008 article in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine recommended using two broad sets of tools to effect this change: communication and social marketing.[33] A 2018 study, found that even with moderates and conservatives who were skeptical of the importance of climate change, exposure to information about the health impacts of climate change creates greater concern about the issues.[55] Climate change is also expected to impact mental health significantly. With the increase in emotional responses to climate change, there is a growing need for greater resilience and tolerance to emotional experiences. Research has indicated that these emotional experiences can be adaptive when they are supported and processed appropriately. This support requires the facilitation of emotional processing and reflective functioning. When this occurs, individuals increase in tolerance to emotion and resilience, and are then able to support others through crisis.[56]

Importance of Storytelling edit

Framing climate change information as a story has been shown to be an effective form of communication. In a 2019 study, climate change narratives structured as stories were better at inspiring pro-environmental behavior.[57] The researchers propose that these climate stories spark action by allowing each experimental subject to process the information experientially, increasing their affective engagement and leading to emotional arousal. Stories with negative endings, for example, influenced cardiac activity, increasing inter-beat (RR) intervals. The story signalled the brain to be alert and take action against the threat of climate change.

A similar study has shown that sharing personal stories about experiences with climate change can convince climate change deniers.[58] Hearing about how climate change has influenced someone's life elicits emotions like worry and compassion, which can shift beliefs about climate change.

Media coverage edit

Main article: Media coverage of climate change

The effect of mass media and journalism on the public's attitudes towards climate change has been a significant part of communications studies. In particular, scholars have looked at how the media's tendency to cover climate change in different cultural contexts, with different audiences or political positions (for example Fox News's dismissive coverage of climate change news), and the tendency of newsrooms to cover climate change as an issue of uncertainty or debate, in order to give a sense of balance.[4]

Popular culture edit

Main article: Global warming in popular culture

Further research has explored how popular media, like the film The Day After Tomorrow, popular documentary An Inconvenient Truth, and climate fiction change public perceptions of climate change.[4][59]

Effective climate communication edit

Effective climate communications require audience and contextual awareness. Different organizations have published guides and frameworks based on experience in climate communications. This section documents those various guidelines.

General guidance edit

A 2009 handbook developed by the Center for Research on Environmental Decisions at the Earth Institute at Columbia University describes eight main principles for communications based on the psychological research about Environmental decisions:[60]

  1. Know your audience
  2. Get the Audience's Attention
  3. Translate Scientific Data into Concrete Experiences
  4. Beware the Overuse of Emotional Appeals
  5. Address Scientific and Climate Uncertainties
  6. Tap into Social Identities and Affiliates
  7. Encourage Group Participation
  8. Make Behavior Change Easier

A strategy playbook, developed based on lessons learned from the COVID pandemic communication, was released On Road Media in the UK in 2020. The framework is focused on developing positive messages that help people feel optimistic about learning more to address climate change.[61] This framework included six recommendations:

  1. Make it do-able and show change is possible
  2. Focus on the big things and how we can change them
  3. Normalize action and change, not inaction
  4. Connect the planet's health with our own health
  5. Emphasis our shared responsibility for future generations
  6. Keep it down to earth

By experts edit

In 2018, the IPCC published a handbook of guidance for IPCC authors about effective climate communication. It is based on extensive social studies research exploring the impact of different tactics for climate communication.[62] The guidelines focus on six main principles:

  1. Be a confident communicator
  2. Talk about the real world, not abstract ideas
  3. Connect with what matters to your audience
  4. Tell a human story
  5. Lead with what you know
  6. Use the most effective visual communication

Visuals edit

A 2018 study concluded that graphical illustrations such as charts and graphs more effectively overcome misperceptions than the same information presented in text.[63] Separately, Climate Visuals a nonprofit, published in 2020 a set of guidelines based on evidence for climate communications.[64] They recommend that visual communications include:

  1. Show real people
  2. Tell new stories
  3. Show climate change causes at scale
  4. Show emotionally powerful impacts
  5. Understand your audience
  6. Show local (serious) impacts
  7. Be careful with protest imagery.

Applying findings from psychology edit

Psychologists have increasingly been assisting the worldwide community in facing the difficult challenge of organizing effective climate change mitigation efforts. Much work has been done on how to best communicate climate related information so that it has positive psychological impact, leading to people engaging in the problem, rather than evoking psychological defenses like denial, distance or a numbing sense of doom.

As well as advising on the method of communication, psychologists have investigated the difference it make when the right sort of person is doing the communication – for example, when addressing American conservatives, climate related messages have been shown to be received more positively if delivered by former military officers.[65] Various people who are not primarily psychologists have also been advising on psychological matters related to climate change. For example, Christiana Figueres and Tom Rivett-Carnac, who led the efforts to organize the unprecedentedly successful 2015 Paris Agreement, have since campaigned to spread the view that a "stubborn optimism" mindset should ideally be part of an individual's psychological response to the climate change challenge.[66][67][68][69]

A study from 2020 found that persuasive messaging that explains the mechanisms behind climate change, rather than the risks or consequences of climate change, was more effective in changing beliefs, especially among conservatives.[70]

Sustainable development edit

The impacts of climate change are exacerbated in low- and middle income countries; higher levels of poverty, less access to technologies, and less education, means that this audience needs different information. The Paris Agreement and IPCC both acknowledge the importance of sustainable development in addressing these differences. In 2019 the nonprofit, Climate and Development Knowledge Network published a set of lessons learned and guidelines based on their experience communicating climate change in Latin America, Asia and Africa.[71]

Organizations edit

Research centers in climate communication include:

Other bodies that research climate communication
NGOs

Notes edit

  1. ^ Cislak et al. define National Narcissism as "a belief that one’s national group is exceptional and deserves external recognition underlain by unsatisfied psychological needs".
  2. ^ Cislak et al. define Secure National Identification as "reflect(ing) feelings of strong bonds and solidarity with one's ingroup members, and sense of satisfaction in group membership".

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Hawkins, Ed (4 December 2018). "2018 visualisation update / Warming stripes for 1850–2018 using the WMO annual global temperature dataset". Climate Lab Book. from the original on 17 April 2019. ()
  2. ^ "Hint to Coal Consumers". The Selma Morning Times. Selma, Alabama, US. October 15, 1902. p. 4.
  3. ^ "Coal Consumption Affecting Climate". Rodney and Otamatea Times, Waitemata and Kaipara Gazette. Warkworth, New Zealand. 14 August 1912. p. 7. Text was earlier published in Popular Mechanics, March 1912, p. 341.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Chadwick, Amy E. (2017-09-26). "Climate Change Communication". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.22. ISBN 978-0-19-022861-3. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
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    — Explained by Thompson, Andrea (19 April 2023). "What Makes People Act on Climate Change, according to Behavioral Science". Scientific American. from the original on 21 April 2023.
  14. ^ Data from Allew, Matthew; Marlon, Jennifer; Goldberg, Matthew; Maibach, Edward; et al. (27 September 2022). "Experience with global warming is changing people's minds about it". Yale Program on Climate Change Communication. from the original on 31 May 2023. ● Full technical article (pay wall): Allew, Matthew; Marlon, Jennifer; Goldberg, Matthew; Maibach, Edward; et al. (4 August 2022). "Changing minds about global warming: vicarious experience predicts self‑reported opinion change in the USA". Climatic Change. 173 (19): 19. Bibcode:2022ClCh..173...19B. doi:10.1007/s10584-022-03397-w. S2CID 251323601. (Fig. 2 on p. 12) (preprint)
  15. ^ "Schwarzenegger: climate activists should focus on pollution". The Independent. 2021-07-01. Retrieved 2022-05-04.
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  17. ^ Powell, James (20 November 2019). "Scientists Reach 100% Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming". Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society. 37 (4): 183–184. doi:10.1177/0270467619886266. S2CID 213454806.
  18. ^ Lynas, Mark; Houlton, Benjamin Z.; Perry, Simon (19 October 2021). "Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature". Environmental Research Letters. 16 (11): 114005. Bibcode:2021ERL....16k4005L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966. S2CID 239032360.
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  20. ^ Sparkman, Gregg; Geiger, Nathan; Weber, Elke U. (23 August 2022). "Americans experience a false social reality by underestimating popular climate policy support by nearly half". Nature Communications. Fig. 3. 13 (1): 4779. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.4779S. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32412-y. PMC 9399177. PMID 35999211. S2CID 251766448.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: location (link) ● Explained in Yoder, Kate (29 August 2022). "Americans are convinced climate action is unpopular. They're very, very wrong. / Support for climate policies is double what most people think, a new study found". Grist. from the original on 29 August 2022.
  21. ^ Poushter, Jacob; Fagan, Moira; Gubbala, Sneha (31 August 2022). "Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey". pewresearch.org. Pew Research Center. from the original on 31 August 2022. Only statistically significant differences shown.
  22. ^ Norgaard, K. M. (2011). Living in Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01544-8.
  23. ^ Dryzek, John S.; Norgaard, Richard B.; Schlosberg, David (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968342-0.
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  32. ^ "CLEAN". CLEAN. Retrieved 2020-04-16.
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  34. ^ Halperin, Abby; Walton, Peter (April 2018). "The Importance of Place in Communicating Climate Change to Different Facets of the American Public". Weather, Climate, and Society. 10 (2): 291–305. doi:10.1175/WCAS-D-16-0119.1. ISSN 1948-8327.
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Works cited edit

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Further reading edit

  • Kleemann, Katrin, and Jeroen Oomen, eds. “Communicating the Climate: From Knowing Change to Changing Knowledge,” RCC Perspectives: Transformations in Environment and Society 2019, no. 4. doi.org/10.5282/rcc/8822.

January 10, 2024
climate, communication, climate, change, communication, field, environmental, communication, science, communication, focused, causes, nature, effects, anthropogenic, climate, change, hawkins, warming, stripes, graphics, portray, global, warming, since, 1850, s. Climate communication or climate change communication is a field of environmental communication and science communication focused on the causes nature and effects of anthropogenic climate change Ed Hawkins warming stripes graphics portray global warming since 1850 as a series of color coded stripes purposely devoid of scientific notation to be quickly understandable by non scientists 1 Blue cool progresses over time to red warm Research in the field emerged in the 1990s and has since grown and diversified to include studies concerning the media conceptual framing and public engagement and response Since the late 2000s a growing number of studies have been conducted in countries in the Global South and have been focused on climate communication with marginalized populations Most research focuses on raising public knowledge and awareness understanding underlying cultural values and emotions and bringing about public engagement and action Major issues include familiarity with the audience barriers to public understanding creating change audience segmentation changing rhetoric public health storytelling media coverage and popular culture Contents 1 History 2 Primary goals of climate communication 2 1 Analyzing and increasing public understanding and perception 2 2 Connecting to values and emotions 2 3 Producing engagement and action 3 Major issues 3 1 Barriers to understanding 3 1 1 Climate literacy 3 2 Creating change 3 2 1 Behaviour change 3 3 Audience segmentation 3 4 Changing rhetoric 3 4 1 History of global warming 3 5 Health 3 6 Importance of Storytelling 3 7 Media coverage 3 8 Popular culture 4 Effective climate communication 4 1 General guidance 4 2 By experts 4 3 Visuals 4 4 Applying findings from psychology 4 5 Sustainable development 5 Organizations 6 Notes 7 See also 8 References 8 1 Works cited 9 Bibliography 10 Further readingHistory edit nbsp This 1902 article attributes to Swedish Nobel laureate chemistry Svante Arrhenius a theory that coal combustion could cause a degree of global warming that could eventually lead to human extinction 2 nbsp This 1912 article succinctly describes the greenhouse effect focusing on how burning coal creates carbon dioxide that causes climate change 3 In Climate Change Communication from Oxford s Communications Research Encyclopedia communications scholar Amy E Chadwick identifies Climate Change Communication as a new field of scholarship that truly emerged in the 1990s 4 In the late 80s and early 90s research in developed countries e g the United States New Zealand and Sweden was largely concerned with studying the public s perception and comprehension of climate change science models and risks and guiding further development of communication strategies 4 5 These studies showed that while the public was aware of and beginning to notice climate change effects increasing temperatures and changing precipitation patterns the public s understanding of climate change was interlinked with ozone depletion and other environmental risks but not human produced CO2 emissions 5 This understanding was coupled with varied yet overall increased net concern that continued through the mid 2000s 5 In studies from the mid 2000s to the late 2000s there is evidence of rising global skepticism despite growing consensus and evidence of increasingly polarized views due to climate change s growing use as a political litmus test 5 In 2010 researcher Susanne C Moser viewed both the expansion of climate change communication s focus which began to include subjects such as materialized evidence of climate change effects in addition to science and policy as well as more prolific conversation communication from a variety of voices as increasing climate change s relevance to society 6 Surveys through the mid 2010s showed mixed concern for climate change depending on global region notably consistent concern in developed Western countries but a trend towards global unconcern in countries such as China Mexico and Kenya 5 In 2016 Moser noted an increase in the total number of climate communication studies in both Westernized countries and the Global South and an increased focus on climate communication with indigenous peoples and other marginalized communities since 2010 7 As of 2017 research remained focused on public understanding and had since begun to also analyze the relevance of the media conceptual framing public engagement and response and persuasive strategies 4 7 This expansion has legitimated climate change communication as its own academic field and has yielded a group of experts specific to it 7 Primary goals of climate communication edit nbsp The Gateway Belief Model which models the thought that communicating scientific consensus will impact belief in climate change and produce support for actionMost climate communication and research within the field is concerned with 1 the mechanisms related to the public s understanding awareness of and perception of climate change which are intertwined with 2 personal cultural values and emotions related to social norms and 3 how these components can influence the engagement and action that may emerge as a response to communication 4 6 8 Within the academic field there are debates over which is more important knowledge based communication or emotion driven communication 9 Though both are inherently linked to action researchers often view increased understanding as leading to increased action 9 10 A 2020 study by Kris De Meyer et al attempts to push back against that notion and argues that action produces belief 9 Analyzing and increasing public understanding and perception edit One line of climate communication study is concerned with analyzing public understanding and risk perception 4 Understanding public perception of risk and its relevant influences as well as public knowledge concern consensus and imagery is thought to help policymakers better address the concerns of constituents and inform further climate communication 4 10 11 This notion has opened the realm of climate communications to political communications sociology and psychology 11 Achieving increased public understanding is often associated with communicating levels of scientific consensus and other scientific facts or futures in order to spur action and address the information deficit model but can also be related to connecting with values and emotions 9 11 Perception is often related to personal recognition to impacted locations times the present vs the future weather events or economics which has placed emphasis on different methods of framing linking concepts and rhetoric when communicating 5 10 11 These methods of communication presently include scientific communication knowledge transfer social media news media and entertainment amongst others which are also studied individually regarding climate change 5 9 Connecting to values and emotions edit In addition to studies regarding knowledge climate communication researchers inspect existing values and emotions related to climate change and how they are impacted by various communication strategies and can influence the effects of communication modes 8 9 Understanding and relating to the audiences moral cultural religious and political values identities and emotions like fear are viewed as imperative to appropriate and effective communication because climate change can otherwise seem intangible due to uncertainty and distance physical social temporal 8 12 Recognizing and understanding these values is key to impacting perception of climate science and mitigative action because values serve as filters through which information is processed 7 Emotional reactions to climate change and the role emotions can play in decision making have encouraged researchers to study the emotional side of climate change 7 Appeals to emotions such as fear and hope and to values can also be used in communication strategies 4 6 It is unclear whether negative emotions e g concern and fear or positive emotions e g hope better promote climate change action 4 9 12 Emotions can also be analyzed by their level of pleasantness and or to the extent they evoke action which is often understudied 12 Producing engagement and action edit nbsp Presenting data and other facts is less effective in motivating people to act to mitigate climate change than financial incentives and social pressure involved in showing people climate related actions of other people 13 nbsp The strongest factors in self reported changes in opinion about global warming were Republican party identification seeing others experience impacts of global warming and learning more about global warming 14 Studying climate communications can also be focused on civic engagement and the production of behavior changes for adapting or increasing resiliency to climate change 6 Engagement and action can occur on multiple geographic scales local regional national or international and examples include participation in climate justice movements support for policies or politics changes to agricultural practices and addresses to vulnerabilities to extreme weather vulnerabilities 6 10 Behavioral changes can also address more fundamental norms and values that influence lifestyles life choices and society as a whole 6 Engagement can also involve how those who communicate climate change interact with researchers studying the field of communications 7 Studies have recognized that increased understanding and perception does not automatically produce action and have argued for increased means of enabling action in communication methods 7 Research into engagement and action often focuses on the perception and understanding of different demographics and geographic locations 11 Some politicians such as Arnold Schwarzenegger with his slogan terminate pollution say that activists should generate optimism by focusing on the health co benefits of climate action 15 Major issues editBarriers to understanding edit nbsp A 2022 study found that the public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change 16 Studies from 2019 2021 17 18 19 found scientific consensus to range from 98 7 100 nbsp Research found that 80 90 of Americans underestimate the prevalence of support for major climate change mitigation policies and climate concern While 66 80 Americans support these policies Americans estimate the prevalence to be 37 43 Researchers have called this misperception a false social reality a form of pluralistic ignorance 20 nbsp National political divides on the seriousness of climate change consistently correlate with political ideology with right wing opinion being more negative 21 Climate communications is heavily focused on methods for inviting larger scale public action to address climate change To this end a lot of research focuses on barriers to public understanding and action on climate change Scholarly evidence shows that the information deficit model of communication where climate change communicators assume if the public only knew more about the evidence they would act doesn t work Instead argumentation theory indicates that different audiences need different kinds of persuasive argumentation and communication This is counter to many assumptions made by other fields such as psychology environmental sociology and risk communication 22 Additionally climate denialism by organizations such as The Heartland Institute in the United States 23 24 25 and individuals introduces misinformation into public discourse and understanding There are several models for explaining why the public doesn t act once more informed One of the theoretical models for this is the 5 Ds model created by Per Epsten Stoknes 26 Stoknes describes 5 major barriers to creating action from climate communication Distance many effects and impacts of climate change feel distant from individual lives Doom when framed as a disaster the message backfires causing Eco anxiety Dissonance a disconnect between the problems mainly the fossil fuel economy and the things that people choose in their lives Denial psychological self defense to avoid becoming overwhelmed by fear or guilt iDentity disconnects created by social identities such as conservative values which are threatened by the changes that need to happen because of climate change In her book Living in Denial Climate Change Emotions and Everyday Life Kari Norgaard s study of Bygdaby a fictional name used for a real city in Norway found that non response was much more complex than just a lack of information In fact too much information can do the exact opposite because people tend to neglect global warming once they realize there is no easy solution When people understand the complexity of the issue they can feel overwhelmed and helpless which can lead to apathy or skepticism 27 A study published in PLOS Climate studied defensive and secure forms of national identity respectively called national narcissism Note 1 and secure national identification Note 2 for their correlation to support for policies to mitigate climate change and to transition to renewable energy 28 The researchers concluded that secure national identification tends to support policies promoting renewable energy however national narcissism was found to be inversely correlated with support for such policies except to the extent that such policies as well as greenwashing enhance the national image 28 Right wing political orientation which may indicate susceptibility to climate conspiracy beliefs was also concluded to be negatively correlated with support for genuine climate mitigation policies 28 Climate literacy edit nbsp Changes in interest in climate change as measured by use of climate change as a Google search term Though communicating the science about climate change under the premises of an Information deficit model of communication is not very effective in creating change comfort with and literacy in the main issues and topics of climate change is important for changing public opinion and action 29 Several agencies and educational organizations have developed frameworks and tools for developing climate literacy including the Climate Literacy Lab at Georgia State university 30 and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 31 Such resources in English have been collected by the Climate Literacy and Awareness Network 32 Creating change edit As of 2008 most of the environmental communications evidence for effecting individual or social change were focused on behavior changes around household energy consumption recycling behaviours changing transportation behavior and buying green products 33 At that time there were few examples of multi level communications strategies for effecting change 33 Behaviour change edit Main article Social and behavior change communication Since much of Climate communication is focused on engaging broad public action much of the studies are focused on effecting behavior change Typically effective climate communication has three parts cognitive affective and place based appeals 34 Audience segmentation edit nbsp The sharp divide over the existence of and responsibility for global warming and climate change falls largely along political lines 35 Overall 60 of Americans surveyed said oil and gas companies were completely or mostly responsible for climate change 35 nbsp Opinion about human causation of climate change increased substantially with education among Democrats but not among Republicans 36 Conversely opinions favoring becoming carbon neutral declined substantially with age among Republicans but not among Democrats 36 nbsp Perceptions differ along political lines on whether climate change was a major factor contributing to various extreme weather events experienced by respondents 37 nbsp Democrats and Republicans have long differed in views of the importance of addressing climate change with the gap widening in the 2010s 38 and Democrats three times as likely to view global warming as human caused 39 This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it April 2023 Different parts of different populations respond differently to climate change communication Academic research since 2013 has seen an increasing number of audience segmentation studies to understand different tactics for reaching different parts of populations 40 Major segmentation studies include nbsp US Segmentation of the American audiences into 6 groups 41 Alarmed Concerned Cautious Disengaged Doubtful and Dismissive nbsp AUS Segmentation of Australians into 4 segments in 2011 42 and 6 segments analogous to the Six America s model 43 nbsp DE Segmentation of German populations into 5 segments 44 nbsp India Segmentation of Indian populations into the 6 segments 45 nbsp Singapore Segmentation of Singapore audiences into 3 segments 46 Changing rhetoric edit nbsp Google Trends data shows a growth in searches for the terms climate emergency shown in red and climate crisis shown in blue nbsp Terms like climate emergency and climate crisis have often been used by activists and are increasingly found in academic papers 47 A significant part of the research and public advocacy conversations about climate change have focused on the effectiveness of different terms used to describe global warming History of global warming edit This section is an excerpt from Climate change Terminology edit Before the 1980s when it was unclear whether the warming effect of increased greenhouse gases was stronger than the cooling effect of airborne particulates in air pollution scientists used the term inadvertent climate modification to refer to human impacts on the climate 48 In the 1980s the terms global warming and climate change became more common Though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably 49 scientifically global warming refers only to increased surface warming while climate change describes the totality of changes to Earth s climate system 48 Global warming used as early as 1975 50 became the more popular term after NASA climate scientist James Hansen used it in his 1988 testimony in the U S Senate 51 Since the 2000s climate change has increased in usage 52 Climate change can also refer more broadly to both human caused changes or natural changes throughout Earth s history 53 Various scientists politicians and media now use the terms climate crisis or climate emergency to talk about climate change and global heating instead of global warming 54 Health edit Main article Climate change and healthClimate change exacerbates a number of existing public health issues such as mosquito borne disease and introduces new public health concerns related to changing climate such as increase in health concerns after natural disasters or increases in heat illnesses Thus the field of health communication has long acknowledged the importance of treating climate change as a public health issue requiring broad population behavior changes that allow societal climate change adaptation 33 A December 2008 article in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine recommended using two broad sets of tools to effect this change communication and social marketing 33 A 2018 study found that even with moderates and conservatives who were skeptical of the importance of climate change exposure to information about the health impacts of climate change creates greater concern about the issues 55 Climate change is also expected to impact mental health significantly With the increase in emotional responses to climate change there is a growing need for greater resilience and tolerance to emotional experiences Research has indicated that these emotional experiences can be adaptive when they are supported and processed appropriately This support requires the facilitation of emotional processing and reflective functioning When this occurs individuals increase in tolerance to emotion and resilience and are then able to support others through crisis 56 Importance of Storytelling edit Framing climate change information as a story has been shown to be an effective form of communication In a 2019 study climate change narratives structured as stories were better at inspiring pro environmental behavior 57 The researchers propose that these climate stories spark action by allowing each experimental subject to process the information experientially increasing their affective engagement and leading to emotional arousal Stories with negative endings for example influenced cardiac activity increasing inter beat RR intervals The story signalled the brain to be alert and take action against the threat of climate change A similar study has shown that sharing personal stories about experiences with climate change can convince climate change deniers 58 Hearing about how climate change has influenced someone s life elicits emotions like worry and compassion which can shift beliefs about climate change Media coverage edit Main article Media coverage of climate change The effect of mass media and journalism on the public s attitudes towards climate change has been a significant part of communications studies In particular scholars have looked at how the media s tendency to cover climate change in different cultural contexts with different audiences or political positions for example Fox News s dismissive coverage of climate change news and the tendency of newsrooms to cover climate change as an issue of uncertainty or debate in order to give a sense of balance 4 Popular culture edit Main article Global warming in popular culture Further research has explored how popular media like the film The Day After Tomorrow popular documentary An Inconvenient Truth and climate fiction change public perceptions of climate change 4 59 Effective climate communication editEffective climate communications require audience and contextual awareness Different organizations have published guides and frameworks based on experience in climate communications This section documents those various guidelines General guidance edit A 2009 handbook developed by the Center for Research on Environmental Decisions at the Earth Institute at Columbia University describes eight main principles for communications based on the psychological research about Environmental decisions 60 Know your audience Get the Audience s Attention Translate Scientific Data into Concrete Experiences Beware the Overuse of Emotional Appeals Address Scientific and Climate Uncertainties Tap into Social Identities and Affiliates Encourage Group Participation Make Behavior Change EasierA strategy playbook developed based on lessons learned from the COVID pandemic communication was released On Road Media in the UK in 2020 The framework is focused on developing positive messages that help people feel optimistic about learning more to address climate change 61 This framework included six recommendations Make it do able and show change is possible Focus on the big things and how we can change them Normalize action and change not inaction Connect the planet s health with our own health Emphasis our shared responsibility for future generations Keep it down to earthBy experts edit In 2018 the IPCC published a handbook of guidance for IPCC authors about effective climate communication It is based on extensive social studies research exploring the impact of different tactics for climate communication 62 The guidelines focus on six main principles Be a confident communicator Talk about the real world not abstract ideas Connect with what matters to your audience Tell a human story Lead with what you know Use the most effective visual communicationVisuals edit A 2018 study concluded that graphical illustrations such as charts and graphs more effectively overcome misperceptions than the same information presented in text 63 Separately Climate Visuals a nonprofit published in 2020 a set of guidelines based on evidence for climate communications 64 They recommend that visual communications include Show real people Tell new stories Show climate change causes at scale Show emotionally powerful impacts Understand your audience Show local serious impacts Be careful with protest imagery Applying findings from psychology edit Psychologists have increasingly been assisting the worldwide community in facing the difficult challenge of organizing effective climate change mitigation efforts Much work has been done on how to best communicate climate related information so that it has positive psychological impact leading to people engaging in the problem rather than evoking psychological defenses like denial distance or a numbing sense of doom As well as advising on the method of communication psychologists have investigated the difference it make when the right sort of person is doing the communication for example when addressing American conservatives climate related messages have been shown to be received more positively if delivered by former military officers 65 Various people who are not primarily psychologists have also been advising on psychological matters related to climate change For example Christiana Figueres and Tom Rivett Carnac who led the efforts to organize the unprecedentedly successful 2015 Paris Agreement have since campaigned to spread the view that a stubborn optimism mindset should ideally be part of an individual s psychological response to the climate change challenge 66 67 68 69 A study from 2020 found that persuasive messaging that explains the mechanisms behind climate change rather than the risks or consequences of climate change was more effective in changing beliefs especially among conservatives 70 Sustainable development edit The impacts of climate change are exacerbated in low and middle income countries higher levels of poverty less access to technologies and less education means that this audience needs different information The Paris Agreement and IPCC both acknowledge the importance of sustainable development in addressing these differences In 2019 the nonprofit Climate and Development Knowledge Network published a set of lessons learned and guidelines based on their experience communicating climate change in Latin America Asia and Africa 71 Organizations editResearch centers in climate communication include Yale Program on Climate Change Communication Center for Climate Change Communication at George Mason University Climate Outreach UK Climate Commission Australia Other bodies that research climate communicationInternational Organizations the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC the UN Climate Change SecretariatNGOsClimate and Development Knowledge Network Climate Council New Zero WorldNotes edit Cislak et al define National Narcissism as a belief that one s national group is exceptional and deserves external recognition underlain by unsatisfied psychological needs Cislak et al define Secure National Identification as reflect ing feelings of strong bonds and solidarity with one s ingroup members and sense of satisfaction in group membership See also editClimate crisis Climate emergency declarationReferences edit Hawkins Ed 4 December 2018 2018 visualisation update Warming stripes for 1850 2018 using the WMO annual global temperature dataset Climate Lab Book Archived from the original on 17 April 2019 Direct link to image Hint to Coal Consumers The Selma Morning Times Selma Alabama US October 15 1902 p 4 Coal Consumption Affecting Climate Rodney and Otamatea Times Waitemata and Kaipara Gazette Warkworth New Zealand 14 August 1912 p 7 Text was earlier published in Popular Mechanics March 1912 p 341 a b c d e f g h i j Chadwick Amy E 2017 09 26 Climate Change Communication Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780190228613 013 22 ISBN 978 0 19 022861 3 Retrieved 2020 04 13 a b c d e f g Capstick Stuart Whitmarsh Lorraine Poortinga Wouter Pidgeon Nick Upham Paul 2015 International 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Knowing Change to Changing Knowledge RCC Perspectives Transformations in Environment and Society 2019 no 4 doi org 10 5282 rcc 8822 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Climate communication amp oldid 1193749130, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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