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Wikipedia

Social democracy

April 08, 2024

This article is about the politicale within the socialist movement. For socialism emphasizing democracy sometimes described as social democracy, see Democratic socialism. For the policy regime in Northern Europe sometimes described as social democracy, see Nordic model. For the social welfare model in Western Europe, see Social market economy.
See also: Social Democrats (disambiguation), Social Democratic Party, and List of social democratic parties.

Social democracy is a political, social, and economic philosophy within socialism[1] that supports political and economic democracy and supports a gradualist, reformist and democratic approach towards achieving socialism, usually under a social liberal framework.[2] In practice, social democracy takes a form of socially managed welfare capitalism, achieved with partial public ownership, economic interventionism, and policies promoting social equality.[3]

Social democracy maintains a commitment to representative and participatory democracy. Common aims include curbing inequality, eliminating the oppression of underprivileged groups, eradicating poverty, and upholding universally accessible public services such as child care, education, elderly care, health care, and workers' compensation.[4][5] Economically, it supports income redistribution and regulating the economy in the public interest.[6]

Social democracy has a strong, long-standing connection with trade unions and the broader labour movement. It is supportive of measures to foster greater democratic decision-making in the economic sphere, including co-determination, collective bargaining rights for workers, and expanding ownership to employees and other stakeholders.[7]

The history of social democracy stretches back to the 19th-century labour movement. Originally a catch-all term for socialists of varying tendencies, after the Russian Revolution, it came to refer to reformist socialists that are opposed to the authoritarian and centralized Soviet model of socialism.[8] In the post-war era, social democrats embraced mixed economies with a predominance of private property and promoted the regulation of capitalism over its replacement with a qualitatively different socialist economic system.[9] Since then, social democracy has been associated with Keynesian economics, the Nordic model, social liberalism, and welfare states.[10]

Social democracy has been described as the most common form of Western or modern socialism,[11] and democratic socialism.[12] Amongst social democrats, attitudes towards socialism vary: some retain socialism as a long-term goal[13] while others view it as an ethical ideal to guide reforms within capitalism. One way social democracy can be distinguished from democratic socialism is social democracy aims to strike a balance by advocating for a mixed market economy where capitalism is regulated to address inequalities through social welfare programs. It supports private ownership with a strong emphasis on a well-regulated market, on the other hand, democratic socialism places greater emphasis on abolishing private property ownership.[14] Nevertheless, the distinction remains blurred[15] and the term is commonly used synonymously.

The Third Way is an off-shoot of social democracy which aims to fuse economically liberal with social democratic economic policies and center-left social policies. It is a reconceptualization of social democracy developed in the 1990s and embraced by some social democratic parties; some analysts have characterized the Third Way as part of the neoliberal movement.[16]

Definitions edit

As a tradition of socialism edit

Social democracy is defined as one of many socialist traditions.[17] As an international political movement and ideology, it aims to achieve socialism through gradual and democratic means.[18] This definition goes back to the influence of both the reformist socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle and the internationalist revolutionary socialism advanced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[19] Social democracy has undergone various major forms throughout its history.[20] In the 19th century, it encompassed various non-revolutionary and revolutionary currents of socialism, excluding anarchism.[21] In one of the first scholarly works on European socialism written for an American audience, Richard T. Ely's 1883 book French and German Socialism in Modern Times, social democrats were characterized as "the extreme wing of the socialists" who were "inclined to lay so much stress on equality of enjoyment, regardless of the value of one's labor, that they might, perhaps, more properly be called communists".[22] In the early 20th century, social democracy came to refer to support for a process of developing society through existing political structures and opposition to revolutionary means, which are often associated with Marxism.[23] Thus whereas in the 19th century, social democracy could be described as "organized Marxism", it became "organized reformism" by the 20th century.[24]

In political science, democratic socialism and social democracy are sometimes seen as synonyms,[25] while they are distinguished in journalistic use.[26] Under this democratic socialist definition,[nb 1] social democracy is an ideology seeking to gradually build an alternative socialist economy through the institutions of liberal democracy.[23] Starting in the post-war period, social democracy was defined as a policy regime advocating the reformation of capitalism to align it with the ethical ideals of social justice.[30]

What socialists such as anarchists, communists, social democrats, syndicalists, and some social democratic proponents of the Third Way share in common is history, specifically that they can all be traced back to the individuals, groups, and literature of the First International, and have retained some of the terminology and symbolism such as the colour red. How far society should intervene and whether the government, mainly the existing government, is the right vehicle for change are issues of disagreement.[31] As the Historical Dictionary of Socialism summarizes, "there were general criticisms about the social effects of the private ownership and control of capital", "a general view that the solution to these problems lay in some form of collective control (with the degree of control varying among the proponents of socialism) over the means of production, distribution, and exchange", and "there was agreement that the outcomes of this collective control should be a society that provided social equality and justice, economic protection, and generally a more satisfying life for most people".[31] Socialism became a catch-all term for the critics of capitalism and industrial society.[32] Social democrats are anticapitalists insofar as criticism about "poverty, low wages, unemployment, economic and social inequality, and a lack of economic security" is linked to the private ownership of the means of production.[31]

Social democracy or social democratic remains controversial among socialists.[33][nb 2] Some define it as representing a Marxist faction and non-communist socialists or the right-wing of socialism during the split with communism.[29] Others have noted its pejorative use among communists and other socialists. According to Lyman Tower Sargent, "socialism refers to social theories rather than to theories oriented to the individual. Because many communists now call themselves democratic socialists, it is sometimes difficult to know what a political label really means. As a result, social democratic has become a common new label for democratic socialist political parties."[34]

As a policy regime edit

As a policy regime,[35] social democracy entails support for a mixed economy and ameliorative measures to benefit the working class within the framework of democratic capitalism.[36] Social democracy currently depicts a chiefly capitalist economy with state economic regulation in the general interest, state provision of welfare services and state redistribution of income and wealth. Social democratic concepts influence the policies of most Western states since World War 2.[37] Social democracy is frequently considered a practical middle course between capitalism and socialism. Social democracy aims to use democratic collective action for promoting freedom and equality in the economy and opposes what is seen as inequality and oppression that laissez-faire capitalism causes.[38]

In the 21st century, it has become commonplace to define social democracy in reference to Northern and Western European countries,[39] and their model of a welfare state with a corporatist system of collective bargaining.[40] Social democracy has also been used synonymously with the Nordic model.[41] Henning Meyer and Jonathan Rutherford associate social democracy with the socioeconomic order in Europe from the post-war period until the early 1990s.[42] Social democratic roots are also observed in Latin America during the early 20th century; this was the case in Uruguay during the two presidential terms of José Batlle y Ordóñez.[43]

While the welfare state has been accepted across the political spectrum,[27] particularly by conservatives (Christian democrats) and liberals (social liberals),[44] one notable difference is that socialists see the welfare state "not merely to provide benefits but to build the foundation for emancipation and self-determination".[45] In the 21st century, a social democratic policy regime[nb 3] may further be distinguished by a support for an increase in welfare policies or an increase in public services.[41]

Some distinguish between ideological social democracy as part of the broad socialist movement and social democracy as a policy regime. They call the first classical social democracy or classical socialism,[46] and the latter as competitive socialism,[47] liberal socialism,[48] neo-social democracy,[49] or new social democracy.[50]

As a name for political parties edit

Many socialist parties in several countries have been, or are called Social Democratic. In the 19th century, social democrat was a broad catch-all for international socialists owing their primary ideological allegiance to Lassalle or Marx, in contrast to those advocating various forms of utopian socialism. Many parties in this era described themselves as Social Democrats, including the General German Workers' Association and the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany, which merged to form the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Social Democratic Federation in Britain, and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. Social Democrat continued to be used in this context until the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917, when Communist came into vogue for individuals and organizations espousing a revolutionary road to socialism.[51][nb 4]

In the 20th century, the term came to be associated with the positions of the German and Swedish parties. The first advocated revisionist Marxism, while the second advocated a comprehensive welfare state. By the 21st century, parties advocating social democracy include Labour, Left,[53] and some Green parties.[54][nb 5] Most social democratic parties consider themselves democratic socialists and are categorized as socialists.[55] They continue to reference socialism,[56] either as a post-capitalist order[57] or, in more ethical terms, as a just society, described as representing democratic socialism,[58] without any explicit reference to the economic system or its structure.[59] Parties such as the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Swedish Social Democratic Party[nb 6] describe their goal as developing democratic socialism,[61] with social democracy as the principle of action.[62] In the 21st century, European social democratic parties represent the centre-left and most are part of the Party of European Socialists, while democratic socialist parties are to their left within the Party of the European Left. Many of those social democratic parties are members of the Socialist International, including several democratic socialist parties, whose Frankfurt Declaration declares the goal of developing democratic socialism.[33] Others are also part of the Progressive Alliance, founded in 2013 by most contemporary or former member parties of the Socialist International.[63]

As Marxist revisionism edit

Social democracy has been seen as a revision of orthodox Marxism,[64] although this has been described as misleading for modern social democracy.[65] Marxist revisionist Eduard Bernstein's views influenced and laid the groundwork for developing post-war social democracy as a policy regime, Labour revisionism, and the neo-revisionism[66] of the Third Way.[67] This definition of social democracy is focused on ethical terms, with the type of socialism advocated being ethical and liberal.[68] Bernstein described socialism and social democracy in particular as organized liberalism;[69] in this sense, liberalism is the predecessor and precursor of socialism,[70] whose restricted view of freedom is to be socialized, while democracy must entail social democracy.[71] For those social democrats, who still describe and see themselves as socialists, socialism is used in ethical or moral terms,[72] representing democracy, egalitarianism, and social justice rather than a specifically socialist economic system.[30] Under this type of definition, social democracy's goal is that of advancing those values within a capitalist market economy, as its support for a mixed economy no longer denotes the coexistence between private and public ownership or that between planning and market mechanisms but rather, it represents free markets combined with government intervention and regulations.[73]

Philosophy edit

As a form of reformist democratic socialism,[12] social democracy rejects the either/or interpretation of capitalism versus socialism.[74] It claims that fostering a progressive evolution of capitalism will gradually result in the evolution of a capitalist economy into a socialist economy.[75] All citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights: universal access to public services such as education, health care, workers' compensation, and other services, including child care and care for the elderly.[5] Social democrats advocate freedom from discrimination based on differences in ability/disability, age, ethnicity, gender, language, race, religion, sexual orientation, and social class.[76]

 
A portrait highlighting the five leaders of early social democracy in Germany[nb 7]

Later in their life, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that in some countries, workers might be able to achieve their aims through peaceful means.[77] In this sense, Engels argued that socialists were evolutionists, although both Marx and Engels remained committed to social revolution.[78] In developing social democracy,[79] Eduard Bernstein rejected orthodox Marxism's revolutionary and materialist foundations.[80] Rather than class conflict and socialist revolution,[70] Bernstein's Marxist revisionism reflected that socialism could be achieved through cooperation between people regardless of class.[81] Nonetheless, Bernstein paid deference to Marx, describing him as the father of social democracy but declaring that it was necessary to revise Marx's thought in light of changing conditions.[82] Influenced by the gradualist platform favoured by the Fabian movement in Britain,[83] Bernstein advocated a similar evolutionary approach to socialist politics that he termed evolutionary socialism.[84] Evolutionary means include representative democracy and cooperation between people regardless of class. Bernstein accepted the Marxist analysis that the creation of socialism is interconnected with the evolution of capitalism.[81]

August Bebel, Bernstein, Engels, Wilhelm Liebknecht, Marx, and Carl Wilhelm Tölcke are all considered founders of social democracy in Germany. However, Bernstein and Lassalle, along with labourists and reformists such as Louis Blanc in France,[85] led to the widespread association of social democracy with socialist reformism.[86] While Lassalle was a reformist state socialist,[87] Bernstein predicted a long-term coexistence of democracy with a mixed economy during the reforming of capitalism into socialism and argued that socialists needed to accept this.[81] This mixed economy would involve public, cooperative, and private enterprises, and it would be necessary for an extended period before private enterprises evolve of their own accord into cooperative enterprises.[88] Bernstein supported state ownership only for certain parts of the economy that the state could best manage and rejected a mass scale of state ownership as being too burdensome to be manageable.[81] Bernstein was an advocate of Kantian socialism and neo-Kantianism.[89] Although unpopular early on, his views became mainstream after World War I.[90]

In The Future of Socialism (1956), Anthony Crosland argued that "traditional capitalism has been reformed and modified almost out of existence, and it is with a quite different form of society that socialists must now concern themselves. Pre-war anti-capitalism will give us very little help", for a new kind of capitalism required a new kind of socialism. Crosland believed that these features of reformed managerial capitalism were irreversible, but it has been argued within the Labour Party and by others that Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan brought about its reversal in the 1970s and 1980s. Although the post-war consensus represented a period where social democracy was "most buoyant", it has been argued that "post-war social democracy had been altogether too confident in its analysis" because "gains which were thought to be permanent turned out to be conditional and as the reservoir of capitalist growth showed signs of drying up".[91] In Socialism Now (1974), Crosland argued that "[m]uch more should have been achieved by a Labour Government in office and Labour pressure in opposition. Against the dogged resistance to change, we should have pitted a stronger will to change. I conclude that a move to the Left is needed".[92]

In Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared, Vít Hloušek and Lubomír Kopecek explain how socialist parties have evolved from the 19th to the early 21st centuries. As the number of people in traditional working-class occupations such as factory workers and miners declined, socialists have successfully widened their appeal to the middle class by diluting their ideology;[93] however, there is still continuity between parties such as the SPD, the Labour Party in Britain, and other socialist parties which remain part of the same famille spirituelle, or ideological party family, as outlined by most political scientists.[94] For many social democrats, Marxism is loosely held to be valuable for its emphasis on changing the world for a more just, better future.[95]

History edit

During the late 19th century and the early 20th century, social democracy was a broad labour movement within socialism that aimed to replace private ownership with social ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange, taking influence from both Marxism and the supporters of Ferdinand Lassalle.[96] By 1868–1869, the socialism associated with Karl Marx had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany.[97] In the early 20th century, the German social democratic politician Eduard Bernstein rejected orthodox Marxist ideas about the inevitable progression of history and the need for revolution, advancing instead the position that socialism should be grounded in ethical and moral arguments and achieved through gradual legislative reform.[80] Bernstein's ideas were initially not well received; his party maintained the position that reforms should be pursued only as a means to an eventual revolution, not as a substitute for it. Yet, Bernstein's ideas would have growing influence, particularly after the First World War

The Russian Revolution was a pivotal moment that furthered the division between reformists and revolutionary socialists. Those supporting the October Revolution renamed themselves as Communists while those opposing the Bolsheviks retained the Social Democrat label.[98] While both groups technically shared the goal of a communist society that fully realized the principle of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need", the Communists sought to distance themselves from to Social Democracy's association with reformism.[99] The Communists also sought to distinguish themselves from the socialists that had supported the imperialist Great War and thus betrayed proletarian internationalism. This reformist–revolutionary division culminated in the German Revolution of 1919,[100] in which the Communists wanted to overthrow the German government and establish a soviet republic like Russia, while the Social Democrats wanted to preserve it as what came to be known as the Weimar Republic.[101] Thus social democracy went from a "Marxist revolutionary" doctrine into a form of "moderate parliamentary socialism".[102]

The Bolsheviks split from the Second International and created their own separate Communist International (Comintern) in 1919 that sought to rally revolutionary social democrats together for socialist revolution. With this split, the reformists founded the Labour and Socialist International (LSI) in 1923. The LSI had a history of rivalry with the Comintern, with which it competed over the leadership of the international socialist and labour movement.[103]

During the 1920s and 1930s, social democracy became dominant in the socialist movement, mainly associated with reformist socialism while communism represented revolutionary socialism.[104] Under the influence of politicians like Carlo Rosselli in Italy, social democrats began disassociating themselves from orthodox Marxism altogether as represented by Marxism–Leninism,[105] embracing liberal socialism,[106] Keynesianism,[105] and appealing to morality rather than any consistent systematic, scientific, or materialist worldview.[107] Social democracy appealed to communitarian, corporatist, and sometimes nationalist sentiments while rejecting the economic and technological determinism generally characteristic of orthodox Marxism and economic liberalism.[108]

By the post-World War II period and its economic consensus and expansion, most social democrats in Europe had abandoned their ideological connection to orthodox Marxism. They shifted their emphasis toward social policy reform as a compromise between capitalism to socialism.[109] According to Michael Harrington, the primary reason for this was the perspective that viewed the Stalinist-era Soviet Union as having succeeded in usurping the legacy of Marxism and distorting it in propaganda to justify totalitarianism.[110] In its foundation, the Socialist International denounced the Bolshevik-inspired communist movement, "for [it] falsely claims a share in the Socialist tradition".[111] Furthermore, core tenets of Marxism have been regarded by social democrats as having become obsolete, including the prediction that the working class was the decisive class with the development of capitalism. In their view, this did not materialize in the aftermath of mass industrialization during World War II.[110]

In Britain, the social democratic Gaitskellites emphasized the goals of personal liberty, social welfare, and social equality.[112] The Gaitskellites were part of a political consensus between the Labour and Conservative parties, famously dubbed Butskellism.[113] Some social democratic Third Way figures such as Anthony Giddens and Tony Blair, who has described himself as a Christian socialist and a socialist in ethical terms,[114] insist that they are socialists,[115] for they claim to believe in the same values that their anti-Third Way critics do.[116] According to those self-proclaimed social democratic modernizers, Clause IV's open advocacy of state socialism was alienating potential middle-class Labour supporters, and nationalization policies had been so thoroughly attacked by neoliberal economists and politicians, including rhetorical comparisons by the right of state-owned industry in the West to that in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, and nationalizations and state socialism became unpopular. Thatcherite Conservatives were adept at condemning state-owned enterprises as economically inefficient.[117] For the Gaitskellites, nationalization was not essential to achieve all major socialist objectives; public ownership and nationalization were not explicitly rejected but were seen as merely one of numerous useful devices.[112] According to social democratic modernizers like Blair, nationalization policies had become politically unviable by the 1990s.[118]

During the Third Way development of social democracy, social democrats adjusted to the neoliberal political climate that had existed since the 1980s. Those social democrats recognized that outspoken opposition to capitalism was politically non-viable and that accepting the powers that be, seeking to challenge free-market and laissez-faire variations of capitalism, was a more immediate concern.[119] The Third Way stands for a modernized social democracy,[120] but the social democracy that remained committed to the gradual abolition of capitalism and social democrats opposed to the Third Way merged into democratic socialism.[121] Although social democracy originated as a revolutionary socialist or communist movement,[52] one distinction between democratic socialism and social democracy is that the former can include revolutionary means.[122] The latter proposes representative democracy under the rule of law as the only acceptable constitutional form of government.[123]

 
Anthony Crosland, who argued that traditional capitalism had been reformed and modified almost out of existence by the social democratic welfare policy regime after World War II

During the Great Recession, Social Democratic parties in Europe increasingly adopted austerity as a policy response to the economic crisis, shifting away from the traditional Keynesian response of deficit spending. According to Björn Bremer, this shift in thinking was due to the influence of supply-side economics on Social Democratic leaders and by electoral motivations whereby Social Democrats wanted to appear economically competent to voters by adopting orthodox fiscal policies.[124]

Social democracy and democratic socialism edit

Further information: Democratic socialism

Social democracy has some significant overlap in practical policy positions with democratic socialism,[125] although they are usually distinguished from each other.[126] In Britain, the revised version of Clause IV to the Labour Party Constitution, which was implemented in the 1990s by the New Labour faction led by Tony Blair,[127] affirms a formal commitment to democratic socialism,[56] describing it as a modernized form of social democracy;[128] however, it no longer commits the party to public ownership of industry and in its place advocates "the enterprise of the market and the rigour of competition" along with "high quality public services either owned by the public or accountable to them".[56] Many social democrats "refer to themselves as socialists or democratic socialists", and some such as Blair[116] "use or have used these terms interchangeably".[129] Others argue that "there are clear differences between the three terms, and preferred to describe their own political beliefs by using the term 'social democracy' only".[130]

Democratic socialism[nb 8] represents social democracy before the 1970s,[140] when the post-war displacement of Keynesianism by monetarism and neoliberalism caused many social democratic parties to adopt the Third Way ideology, accepting capitalism as the status quo for the time being and redefining socialism in a way that maintains the capitalist structure intact.[141] Like modern social democracy, democratic socialism tends to follow a gradual or evolutionary path to socialism rather than a revolutionary one.[142][143] Policies commonly supported are Keynesian and include some degree of regulation over the economy, social insurance schemes, public pension programs, and a gradual expansion of public ownership over major and strategic industries.[34]

Internal debates edit

During the late 20th century, those labels were embraced, contested and rejected due to the emergence of developments within the European left,[144] such as Eurocommunism,[145] the rise of neoliberalism,[146] the fall of the Soviet Union and the Revolutions of 1989,[147] the Third Way,[148] and the rise of anti-austerity[149] and Occupy[150] movements due to the global financial crisis of 2007–2008[nb 9] and the Great Recession,[152] the causes of which have been attributed by some to the neoliberal shift and deregulation economic policies.[153] This latest development contributed to the rise of politicians, such as Jeremy Corbyn in Britain and Bernie Sanders in the United States,[154] who rejected centrist politicians that supported triangulation within the Labour and Democratic parties.[155]

According to both right-wing critics and supporters alike, policies such as universal health care and education are "pure Socialism" because they are opposed to "the hedonism of capitalist society".[156] Because of this overlap, democratic socialism refers to European socialism as represented by social democracy,[157] especially in the United States,[158] where it is tied to the New Deal.[159] Some democratic socialists who follow social democracy support practical, progressive reforms of capitalism and are more concerned with administrating and humanising it, with socialism relegated to the indefinite future.[160] Other democratic socialists want to go beyond mere meliorist reforms and advocate the systematic transformation of the mode of production from capitalism to socialism.[161]

In the United States edit

Despite the long history of overlap between the two, with social democracy considered a form of democratic or parliamentary socialism and social democrats calling themselves democratic socialists,[25] democratic socialism is considered a misnomer in the United States.[26] One issue is that social democracy is equated with wealthy countries in the Western world, especially in Northern and Western Europe, while democratic socialism is conflated either with the pink tide in Latin America, especially with Venezuela,[162] or with communism in the form of Marxist–Leninist socialism as practised in the Soviet Union and other self-declared socialist states.[26] Democratic socialism has been described as representing the left-wing[163] or socialist tradition of the New Deal.[164]

The lack of a strong and influential socialist movement in the United States has been linked to the Red Scare,[165] and any ideology associated with socialism brings social stigma due to its association with authoritarian socialist states.[166] Socialism has been used as a pejorative term by members of the political right to stop the implementation of liberal and progressive policies and proposals and to criticize the public figures trying to implement them.[167] Although Americans may reject the idea that the United States has characteristics of a European-style social democracy, it has been argued by some observers that it has a comfortable social safety net, albeit severely underfunded in comparison to other Western countries.[168] It has also been argued that many policies that may be considered socialist are popular but that socialism is not.[163] Others, such as Tony Judt, described modern liberalism in the United States as representing European social democracy.[169]

In South Africa edit

South Africa has been governed by the African National Congress (ANC), a social-democratic party, since 1994. In 2022, The World Economic Forum said that South Africa risks state collapse and identified five major risks facing the country.[170] Former minister Jay Naidoo has said that South Africa is in serious trouble and is showing signs of a failed state, with record unemployment levels and the fact that many young people will not find a job in their lifetime.[171]

Policy regime edit

Social democracy rests on three fundamental features, namely: "(1) parliamentary democracy, (2) an economy partly regulated by the state, and (3) provision of social support to those in need".[172] In practice, social democratic parties have been instrumental in the social-liberal paradigm, lasting from the 1940s and 1970s, and called such because it was developed by social liberals but implemented by social democrats.[173] Since those policies were mostly implemented by social democrats, social liberalism is sometimes called social democracy.[174] In Britain, the social-liberal Beveridge Report drafted by the Liberal economist William Beveridge influenced the Labour Party's social policies, such as the National Health Service and Labour's welfare state development.[175] This social-liberal paradigm represented the post-war consensus and was accepted across the political spectrum by conservatives, liberals and socialists until the 1970s.[176] Similarly, the neoliberal paradigm, which replaced the previous paradigm, was accepted across the mainstream political parties, including social democratic supporters of the Third Way.[177] This has caused much controversy within the social democratic movement.[178]

Role of the state edit

From the late 19th century until the mid to late 20th century, there was greater public confidence in the idea of a state-managed economy that was a major pillar of communism, and to a substantial degree by conservatives and left-liberals.[179] Aside from anarchists and other libertarian socialists, there was confidence amongst socialists in the concept of state socialism as being the most effective form of socialism. Some early British social democrats in the 19th century and 20th century, such as the Fabians, said that British society was already mostly socialist and that the economy was significantly socialist through government-run enterprises created by conservative and liberal governments which could be run for the interests of the people through their representatives' influence,[180] an argument echoed by some socialists in post-war Britain.[181] Advents in economics and observation of the failure of state socialism in the Eastern Bloc countries[182] and the Western world with the crisis and stagflation of the 1970s,[183] combined with the neoliberal rebuke of state interventionism, resulted in socialists re-evaluating and redesigning socialism.[184] Some social democrats have sought to keep what they deem are socialism's core values while changing their position on state involvement in the economy and retaining significant social regulations.[185]

 
Aneurin Bevan, minister of health (1945–1951)
 
François Mitterrand, president of France
(1981–1995)

When nationalization of large industries was relatively widespread in the 20th century until the 1970s, it was not uncommon for commentators to describe some European social democracies as democratic socialist states seeking to move their countries toward a socialist economy.[186] In 1956, leading Labour Party politician and British author Anthony Crosland said that capitalism had been abolished in Britain,[187] although others such as Welshman Aneurin Bevan, Minister of Health in the first post-war Labour government and the architect of the National Health Service, disputed the claim.[188] For Crosland and others who supported his views, Britain was a socialist state.[181] According to Bevan, Britain had a socialist National Health Service, which opposed the hedonism of Britain's capitalist society.[156]

Although, as in the rest of Europe, the laws of capitalism still operated fully and private enterprise dominated the economy,[189] some political commentators stated that during the post-war period, when social democratic parties were in power, countries such as Britain and France were democratic socialist states. The same claim has been applied to Nordic countries with the Nordic model.[186] In the 1980s, the government of President François Mitterrand aimed to expand dirigism and attempted to nationalize all French banks, but this attempt faced opposition from the European Economic Community because it demanded a free-market economy among its members.[190] Public ownership never accounted for more than 15–20% of capital formation, further dropping to 8% in the 1980s and below 5% in the 1990s after the rise of neoliberalism.[189]

The collapse of the legitimacy of state socialism and Keynesian interventionism (with the discovery of the phenomenon of stagflation) has been an issue for social democracy.[183] This has provoked re-thinking of how socialism should be achieved by social democrats,[191] including changing views by social democrats on private property—anti-Third Way social democrats such as Robert Corfe have advocated a socialist form of private property as part of new socialism (although Corfe technically objects to private property as a term to collectively describe property that is not publicly owned as being vague) and rejecting state socialism as a failure.[192] Third Way social democracy was formed in response to what its proponents saw as a crisis in the legitimacy of socialism—especially state socialism—and the rising legitimacy of neoliberalism, especially laissez-faire capitalism. The Third Way's view of the crisis is criticized for being too simplistic.[193] Others have criticized it because with the fall of state socialism, it was possible for "a new kind of 'third way' socialism (combining social ownership with markets and democracy), thereby heralding a revitalization of the social democratic tradition";[194] however, it has been argued that the prospect of a new socialism was "a chimera, a hopeful invention of Western socialists who had not understood how 'actually existing socialism' had totally discredited any version of socialism among those who had lived under it".[194]

Corporatism edit

Social democracy influenced the development of social corporatism, a form of economic tripartite corporatism based upon a social partnership between the interests of capital and labour, involving collective bargaining between representatives of employers and labour mediated by the government at the national level.[195] During the post-war consensus, this form of social democracy has been a major component of the Nordic model and, to a lesser degree, the West European social market economies.[196] The development of social corporatism began in Norway and Sweden in the 1930s and was consolidated in the 1960s and 1970s.[197] The system was based upon the dual compromise of capital and labour as one component and the market and the state as the other.[197] From the 1940s through the 1970s, defining features of social democracy as a policy regime included Keynesian economic policies and industrial agreements to balance the power of capital and labour and the welfare state.[23] This is especially associated with the Swedish Social Democrats.[198] In the 1970s, social corporatism evolved into neo-corporatism, which replaced it. Neo-corporatism has represented an important concept of Third Way social democracy.[199] Social democratic theorist Robin Archer wrote about the importance of social corporatism to social democracy in his work Economic Democracy: The Politics of a Feasible Socialism (1995).[200] As a welfare state, social democracy is a specific type of welfare state and policy regime described as being universalist, supportive of collective bargaining, and more supportive of public provision of welfare. It is especially associated with the Nordic model.[201]

Analysis edit

Legacy edit

Social democratic policies were first adopted in the German Empire between the 1880s and 1890s, when the conservative Chancellor Otto von Bismarck put in place many social welfare proposals initially suggested by the Social Democrats to hinder their electoral success after he instituted the Anti-Socialist Laws, laying the ground of the first modern welfare state.[45] Those policies were dubbed State Socialism by the liberal opposition, but Bismarck later accepted and re-appropriated the term.[202] It was a set of social programs implemented in Germany that Bismarck initiated in 1883 as remedial measures to appease the working class and reduce support for socialism and the Social Democrats following earlier attempts to achieve the same objective through Bismarck's Anti-Socialist Laws.[203] This did not prevent the Social Democrats from becoming the biggest party in parliament by 1912.[204]

Similar policies were later adopted in most of Western Europe, including France and the United Kingdom (the latter in the form of the Liberal welfare reforms),[205] with both socialist and liberal parties adopting those policies.[44] In the United States, the progressive movement, a similar social democratic movement predominantly influenced more by social liberalism than socialism, supported progressive liberals such as Democratic presidents Woodrow Wilson and Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose New Freedom and New Deal programmes adopted many social democratic policies.[206] With the Great Depression, economic interventionism and nationalizations became more common worldwide and the post-war consensus until the 1970s saw Keynesian social democratic and mixed economy policies put in place, leading to the post-World War II boom in which the United States, the Soviet Union, the Western European, and East Asian countries experienced unusually high and sustained economic growth, together with full employment. Contrary to early predictions, this period of high economic growth and national development also included many countries that were devastated by the war, such as Japan (Japanese post-war economic miracle), West Germany and Austria (Wirtschaftswunder), South Korea (Miracle of the Han River), France (Trente Glorieuses), Italy (Italian economic miracle), and Greece (Greek economic miracle).[207]

With the 1970s energy crisis, the abandonment of both the gold standard and the Bretton Woods system along with Keynesian social democratic, mixed-economy policies and the implementation of market-oriented, monetarist, and neoliberal policies (privatization, deregulation, free trade, economic globalization, and anti-inflationary fiscal policy, among others), the social democratic welfare state was put in doubt.[208] This caused several social democratic parties to adopt the Third Way, a centrist ideology combining social democracy with neoliberalism;[209] however, the Great Recession in the late 2000s and early 2010s cast doubts on the Washington Consensus, and protests against austerity measures ensued. There was a resurgence of social democratic parties and policies, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom, with the rise of politicians such as Bernie Sanders and Jeremy Corbyn, who rejected the Third Way,[210] after the economic recession caused the Pasokification of many social democratic parties.[211]

The United Nations World Happiness Report shows that the happiest nations are concentrated in social democratic nations,[212][better source needed] especially in Northern Europe, where the Nordic model is applied.[213] This is at times attributed to the success of the social democratic Nordic model in the region, where similar democratic socialist, labourist, and social democratic parties dominated the region's political scene and laid the ground for their universal welfare states in the 20th century.[214] The Nordic countries, including Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, as well as Greenland and the Faroe Islands, also ranks highest on the metrics of real GDP per capita, economic equality, public health, life expectancy, solidarity, perceived freedom to make life choices, generosity, quality of life, and human development, while countries practising a neoliberal form of government have registered relatively poorer results.[215][better source needed] Similarly, several reports have listed Scandinavian and other social democratic countries as ranking high on indicators such as civil liberties,[216] democracy,[217] press,[218] labour and economic freedoms,[219] peace,[220] and freedom from corruption.[221] Numerous studies and surveys indicate that people live happier lives in countries ruled by social democratic parties than those ruled by neoliberal, centrist, and right-wing governments.[222]

Criticism edit

See also: Criticism of welfare and Criticism of welfare states

Other socialists criticize social democracy because it serves to devise new means to strengthen the capitalist system, which conflicts with the socialist goal of replacing capitalism with a socialist system.[223] According to this view, social democracy fails to address the systemic issues inherent in capitalism. The American democratic socialist philosopher David Schweickart contrasts social democracy with democratic socialism by defining the former as an attempt to strengthen the welfare state and the latter as an alternative economic system to capitalism. According to Schweickart, the democratic socialist critique of social democracy is that capitalism can never be sufficiently humanized and that any attempt to suppress its economic contradictions will only cause them to emerge elsewhere. He gives the example that attempts to reduce unemployment too much would result in inflation, and too much job security would erode labour discipline.[224] In contrast to social democracy's mixed economy, democratic socialists advocate a post-capitalist economic system based on either a market economy combined with workers' self-management or on some form of participatory, decentralized planning of the economy.[136]

Marxian socialists argue that social democratic welfare policies cannot resolve the fundamental structural issues of capitalism, such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation, and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate living conditions in capitalism, such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits, creates further contradictions by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system by reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production.[225] The welfare state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative and contradiction-laden system of capitalism to society's detriment. Critics of contemporary social democracy, such as Jonas Hinnfors, argue that when social democracy abandoned Marxism, it also abandoned socialism and became a liberal capitalist movement, effectively making social democrats similar to non-socialist parties like the Democratic Party in the United States.[226]

Market socialism is also critical of social democratic welfare states. While one common goal of both concepts is to achieve greater social and economic equality, market socialism does so through changes in enterprise ownership and management. Social democracy attempts to do so by subsidies and taxes on privately owned enterprises to finance welfare programs. Franklin Delano Roosevelt III (grandson of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt) and David Belkin criticize social democracy for maintaining a property-owning capitalist class with an active interest in reversing social democratic welfare policies and a disproportionate amount of power as a class to influence government policy.[227] The economists John Roemer and Pranab Bardhan point out that social democracy requires a strong labour movement to sustain its heavy redistribution through taxes and that it is idealistic to think such redistribution can be accomplished in other countries with weaker labour movements, noting that social democracy in Scandinavian countries has been in decline as the labour movement weakened.[228]

Some critics say social democracy abandoned socialism in the 1930s by endorsing Keynesian welfare capitalism.[229] The democratic socialist political theorist Michael Harrington argued that social democracy historically supported Keynesianism as part of a "social democratic compromise" between capitalism and socialism. Although this compromise did not allow for the immediate creation of socialism, it created welfare states and "recognized noncapitalist, and even anticapitalist, principles of human need over and above the imperatives of profit".[74] Social democrats in favour of the Third Way have been accused of endorsing capitalism, including anti-Third Way social democrats who have accused Third Way proponents such as Anthony Giddens of being anti-social democratic and anti-socialist in practice.[230] Some critics and analysts argue that many prominent social democratic parties,[nb 10] such as the Labour Party in Britain and the Social Democratic Party of Germany, even while maintaining references to socialism and declaring themselves democratic socialist parties, have abandoned socialism in practice, whether unwillingly or not.[178]

Social democracy's reformism has been criticized by both the left and right,[232] on the grounds that if reformist socialists were left to govern a capitalist economy, they would have to do so according to capitalist, not socialist, logic. For example, Joseph Schumpeter writes in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942): "Socialists had to govern in an essentially capitalist world... a social and economic system that would not function except on capitalist lines.... If they were to run it, they would have to run it according to its own logic. They would have to 'administer' capitalism".[233] Similarly, Irving Kristol argued: "Democratic socialism turns out to be an inherently unstable compound, a contradiction in terms. Every social democratic party, once in power, soon finds itself choosing, at one point after another, between the socialist society it aspires to and the liberal society that lathered it".[234] Joseph Stalin was a vocal critic of reformist social democrats, later coining the term social fascism to describe social democracy in the 1930s because, in this period, it embraced a similar corporatist economic model to the model supported by fascism. This view was adopted by the Communist International, which argued that capitalist society had entered the Third Period in which a proletarian revolution was imminent but could be prevented by social democrats and other fascist forces.[235]

See also edit

References edit

Citations edit

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Notes edit

  1. ^ "Social democracy is a political ideology focusing on an evolutionary road to socialism or the humanization of capitalism. It includes parliamentary process of reform, the provision of state benefits to the population, agreements between labor and the state, and the revisionist movement away from revolutionary socialism."[23] "By the early twentieth century, ... many such [social democratic] parties had come to adopt parliamentary tactics and were committed to a gradual and peaceful transition to socialism. As a result, social democracy was increasingly taken to refer to democratic socialism, in contrast to revolutionary socialism."[27] "Social democracy refers to a political theory, a social movement or a society that aims to achieve the egalitarian objectives of socialism while remaining committed to the values and institutions of liberal democracy."[28] "In general, a label for any person or group who advocates the pursuit of socialism by democratic means. Used especially by parliamentary social democrats who put parliamentarism ahead of socialism, and therefore oppose revolutionary action against democratically elected governments. Less ambiguous than social democracy, which has had, historically, the opposite meanings of (1) factions of Marxism, and (2) groupings on the right of socialist parties."[29]
  2. ^ Donald F. Busky wrote: "Social democracy is a somewhat controversial term among democratic socialists. Many democratic socialists use social democracy as a synonym for democratic socialism, while others, particularly revolutionary democratic socialists, do not, the latter seeing social democracy as something less than socialism—a milder, evolutionary ideology that seeks merely to reform capitalism. Communists also use the term social democratic to mean something less than true socialism that sought only to preserve capitalism by reform rather than by overthrowing and establishing socialism. Even revolutionary democratic socialists and Communists have at times, particularly the past, called their parties 'social democratic.'"[33]
  3. ^ "Social democracy therefore came to stand for a broad balance between the market economy, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other. Although this stance has been most clearly associated with reformist socialism, it has also been embraced, to a greater or lesser extent, by others, notably modern liberals and paternalist conservatives."[27]
  4. ^ According to Richard T. Ely, "[social democrats] have two distinguishing characteristics. The vast majority of them are laborers, and, as a rule, they expect the violent overthrow of existing institutions by revolution to precede the introduction of the socialistic state. I would not, by any means, say that they are all revolutionists, but the most of them undoubtedly are. The most general demands of the social democrats are the following: The state should exist exclusively for the laborers; land and capital must become collective property, and production be carried on unitedly. Private competition, in the ordinary sense of the term, is to cease."[52]
  5. ^ "The far left is becoming the principal challenge to mainstream social democratic parties, in large part because its main parties are no longer extreme, but present themselves as defending the values and policies that social democrats have allegedly abandoned."[54]
  6. ^ The party's first chapter in its statutes says "the intention of the Swedish Social Democratic Labour Party is the struggle towards the Democratic Socialism", which is defined as a society with a democratic economy based on the socialist principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."[60]
  7. ^ They include from top to row August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht from the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany; Karl Marx as an ideal pulse in the middle; and Carl Wilhelm Tölcke and Ferdinand Lassalle from the General German Workers' Association in the bottom row.
  8. ^ Democratic socialism is generally defined as an anti-Stalinist left-wing big tent that opposes authoritarian socialism, rejecting self-described socialist states, as well as Marxism–Leninism and its derivatives such as Maoism and Stalinism.[131] Besides social democrats, democratic socialists also include some anarchists,[132] classical Marxists,[133] democratic communists,[134] libertarian socialists,[135] market socialists,[136] and orthodox Marxists such as Karl Kautsky[137] and Rosa Luxemburg,[138] as well as revisionists such as Eduard Bernstein, who supported social democracy.[139]
  9. ^ It peaked after the mid-September 2008 outbreak.[151]
  10. ^ "With the rise of neoliberalism, social democracy turned towards the right and increasingly adopted neoliberal policies. When Tony Blair became British Prime Minister in 1997, his neoliberal vision of social democracy influenced social democracy around the world. The consequence was that social democracy became in many respects indistinguishable from conservative parties, especially in respect to class politics."[231]

Sources edit

Books edit

Conferences edit

  • Berman, Sheri (2008). (PDF). What's Left of the Left: Liberalism and Social Democracy in a Globalized World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies, Harvard University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
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Encyclopedias edit

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News edit

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  • Sanders, Bernie (19 November 2015). Democratic Socialism in the United States (Speech). Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. Retrieved 1 March 2020 – via Vox.

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Further reading edit

Library resources about
Social democracy

External links edit

social, democracy, this, article, about, politicale, within, socialist, movement, socialism, emphasizing, democracy, sometimes, described, social, democracy, democratic, socialism, policy, regime, northern, europe, sometimes, described, social, democracy, nord. This article is about the politicale within the socialist movement For socialism emphasizing democracy sometimes described as social democracy see Democratic socialism For the policy regime in Northern Europe sometimes described as social democracy see Nordic model For the social welfare model in Western Europe see Social market economy See also Social Democrats disambiguation Social Democratic Party and List of social democratic parties Social democracy is a political social and economic philosophy within socialism 1 that supports political and economic democracy and supports a gradualist reformist and democratic approach towards achieving socialism usually under a social liberal framework 2 In practice social democracy takes a form of socially managed welfare capitalism achieved with partial public ownership economic interventionism and policies promoting social equality 3 Social democracy maintains a commitment to representative and participatory democracy Common aims include curbing inequality eliminating the oppression of underprivileged groups eradicating poverty and upholding universally accessible public services such as child care education elderly care health care and workers compensation 4 5 Economically it supports income redistribution and regulating the economy in the public interest 6 Social democracy has a strong long standing connection with trade unions and the broader labour movement It is supportive of measures to foster greater democratic decision making in the economic sphere including co determination collective bargaining rights for workers and expanding ownership to employees and other stakeholders 7 The history of social democracy stretches back to the 19th century labour movement Originally a catch all term for socialists of varying tendencies after the Russian Revolution it came to refer to reformist socialists that are opposed to the authoritarian and centralized Soviet model of socialism 8 In the post war era social democrats embraced mixed economies with a predominance of private property and promoted the regulation of capitalism over its replacement with a qualitatively different socialist economic system 9 Since then social democracy has been associated with Keynesian economics the Nordic model social liberalism and welfare states 10 Social democracy has been described as the most common form of Western or modern socialism 11 and democratic socialism 12 Amongst social democrats attitudes towards socialism vary some retain socialism as a long term goal 13 while others view it as an ethical ideal to guide reforms within capitalism One way social democracy can be distinguished from democratic socialism is social democracy aims to strike a balance by advocating for a mixed market economy where capitalism is regulated to address inequalities through social welfare programs It supports private ownership with a strong emphasis on a well regulated market on the other hand democratic socialism places greater emphasis on abolishing private property ownership 14 Nevertheless the distinction remains blurred 15 and the term is commonly used synonymously The Third Way is an off shoot of social democracy which aims to fuse economically liberal with social democratic economic policies and center left social policies It is a reconceptualization of social democracy developed in the 1990s and embraced by some social democratic parties some analysts have characterized the Third Way as part of the neoliberal movement 16 Contents 1 Definitions 1 1 As a tradition of socialism 1 2 As a policy regime 1 3 As a name for political parties 1 4 As Marxist revisionism 2 Philosophy 3 History 4 Social democracy and democratic socialism 4 1 Internal debates 4 2 In the United States 4 3 In South Africa 5 Policy regime 5 1 Role of the state 5 2 Corporatism 6 Analysis 6 1 Legacy 6 2 Criticism 7 See also 8 References 8 1 Citations 8 2 Notes 8 3 Sources 8 3 1 Books 8 3 2 Conferences 8 3 3 Encyclopedias 8 3 4 Journals 8 3 5 News 8 3 6 Speeches 8 3 7 Websites 9 Further reading 10 External linksDefinitions editAs a tradition of socialism edit Social democracy is defined as one of many socialist traditions 17 As an international political movement and ideology it aims to achieve socialism through gradual and democratic means 18 This definition goes back to the influence of both the reformist socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle and the internationalist revolutionary socialism advanced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels 19 Social democracy has undergone various major forms throughout its history 20 In the 19th century it encompassed various non revolutionary and revolutionary currents of socialism excluding anarchism 21 In one of the first scholarly works on European socialism written for an American audience Richard T Ely s 1883 book French and German Socialism in Modern Times social democrats were characterized as the extreme wing of the socialists who were inclined to lay so much stress on equality of enjoyment regardless of the value of one s labor that they might perhaps more properly be called communists 22 In the early 20th century social democracy came to refer to support for a process of developing society through existing political structures and opposition to revolutionary means which are often associated with Marxism 23 Thus whereas in the 19th century social democracy could be described as organized Marxism it became organized reformism by the 20th century 24 In political science democratic socialism and social democracy are sometimes seen as synonyms 25 while they are distinguished in journalistic use 26 Under this democratic socialist definition nb 1 social democracy is an ideology seeking to gradually build an alternative socialist economy through the institutions of liberal democracy 23 Starting in the post war period social democracy was defined as a policy regime advocating the reformation of capitalism to align it with the ethical ideals of social justice 30 What socialists such as anarchists communists social democrats syndicalists and some social democratic proponents of the Third Way share in common is history specifically that they can all be traced back to the individuals groups and literature of the First International and have retained some of the terminology and symbolism such as the colour red How far society should intervene and whether the government mainly the existing government is the right vehicle for change are issues of disagreement 31 As the Historical Dictionary of Socialism summarizes there were general criticisms about the social effects of the private ownership and control of capital a general view that the solution to these problems lay in some form of collective control with the degree of control varying among the proponents of socialism over the means of production distribution and exchange and there was agreement that the outcomes of this collective control should be a society that provided social equality and justice economic protection and generally a more satisfying life for most people 31 Socialism became a catch all term for the critics of capitalism and industrial society 32 Social democrats are anticapitalists insofar as criticism about poverty low wages unemployment economic and social inequality and a lack of economic security is linked to the private ownership of the means of production 31 Social democracy or social democratic remains controversial among socialists 33 nb 2 Some define it as representing a Marxist faction and non communist socialists or the right wing of socialism during the split with communism 29 Others have noted its pejorative use among communists and other socialists According to Lyman Tower Sargent socialism refers to social theories rather than to theories oriented to the individual Because many communists now call themselves democratic socialists it is sometimes difficult to know what a political label really means As a result social democratic has become a common new label for democratic socialist political parties 34 As a policy regime edit As a policy regime 35 social democracy entails support for a mixed economy and ameliorative measures to benefit the working class within the framework of democratic capitalism 36 Social democracy currently depicts a chiefly capitalist economy with state economic regulation in the general interest state provision of welfare services and state redistribution of income and wealth Social democratic concepts influence the policies of most Western states since World War 2 37 Social democracy is frequently considered a practical middle course between capitalism and socialism Social democracy aims to use democratic collective action for promoting freedom and equality in the economy and opposes what is seen as inequality and oppression that laissez faire capitalism causes 38 In the 21st century it has become commonplace to define social democracy in reference to Northern and Western European countries 39 and their model of a welfare state with a corporatist system of collective bargaining 40 Social democracy has also been used synonymously with the Nordic model 41 Henning Meyer and Jonathan Rutherford associate social democracy with the socioeconomic order in Europe from the post war period until the early 1990s 42 Social democratic roots are also observed in Latin America during the early 20th century this was the case in Uruguay during the two presidential terms of Jose Batlle y Ordonez 43 While the welfare state has been accepted across the political spectrum 27 particularly by conservatives Christian democrats and liberals social liberals 44 one notable difference is that socialists see the welfare state not merely to provide benefits but to build the foundation for emancipation and self determination 45 In the 21st century a social democratic policy regime nb 3 may further be distinguished by a support for an increase in welfare policies or an increase in public services 41 Some distinguish between ideological social democracy as part of the broad socialist movement and social democracy as a policy regime They call the first classical social democracy or classical socialism 46 and the latter as competitive socialism 47 liberal socialism 48 neo social democracy 49 or new social democracy 50 As a name for political parties edit Many socialist parties in several countries have been or are called Social Democratic In the 19th century social democrat was a broad catch all for international socialists owing their primary ideological allegiance to Lassalle or Marx in contrast to those advocating various forms of utopian socialism Many parties in this era described themselves as Social Democrats including the General German Workers Association and the Social Democratic Workers Party of Germany which merged to form the Social Democratic Party of Germany the Social Democratic Federation in Britain and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party Social Democrat continued to be used in this context until the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917 when Communist came into vogue for individuals and organizations espousing a revolutionary road to socialism 51 nb 4 In the 20th century the term came to be associated with the positions of the German and Swedish parties The first advocated revisionist Marxism while the second advocated a comprehensive welfare state By the 21st century parties advocating social democracy include Labour Left 53 and some Green parties 54 nb 5 Most social democratic parties consider themselves democratic socialists and are categorized as socialists 55 They continue to reference socialism 56 either as a post capitalist order 57 or in more ethical terms as a just society described as representing democratic socialism 58 without any explicit reference to the economic system or its structure 59 Parties such as the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Swedish Social Democratic Party nb 6 describe their goal as developing democratic socialism 61 with social democracy as the principle of action 62 In the 21st century European social democratic parties represent the centre left and most are part of the Party of European Socialists while democratic socialist parties are to their left within the Party of the European Left Many of those social democratic parties are members of the Socialist International including several democratic socialist parties whose Frankfurt Declaration declares the goal of developing democratic socialism 33 Others are also part of the Progressive Alliance founded in 2013 by most contemporary or former member parties of the Socialist International 63 As Marxist revisionism edit Social democracy has been seen as a revision of orthodox Marxism 64 although this has been described as misleading for modern social democracy 65 Marxist revisionist Eduard Bernstein s views influenced and laid the groundwork for developing post war social democracy as a policy regime Labour revisionism and the neo revisionism 66 of the Third Way 67 This definition of social democracy is focused on ethical terms with the type of socialism advocated being ethical and liberal 68 Bernstein described socialism and social democracy in particular as organized liberalism 69 in this sense liberalism is the predecessor and precursor of socialism 70 whose restricted view of freedom is to be socialized while democracy must entail social democracy 71 For those social democrats who still describe and see themselves as socialists socialism is used in ethical or moral terms 72 representing democracy egalitarianism and social justice rather than a specifically socialist economic system 30 Under this type of definition social democracy s goal is that of advancing those values within a capitalist market economy as its support for a mixed economy no longer denotes the coexistence between private and public ownership or that between planning and market mechanisms but rather it represents free markets combined with government intervention and regulations 73 Philosophy editAs a form of reformist democratic socialism 12 social democracy rejects the either or interpretation of capitalism versus socialism 74 It claims that fostering a progressive evolution of capitalism will gradually result in the evolution of a capitalist economy into a socialist economy 75 All citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights universal access to public services such as education health care workers compensation and other services including child care and care for the elderly 5 Social democrats advocate freedom from discrimination based on differences in ability disability age ethnicity gender language race religion sexual orientation and social class 76 nbsp A portrait highlighting the five leaders of early social democracy in Germany nb 7 Later in their life Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that in some countries workers might be able to achieve their aims through peaceful means 77 In this sense Engels argued that socialists were evolutionists although both Marx and Engels remained committed to social revolution 78 In developing social democracy 79 Eduard Bernstein rejected orthodox Marxism s revolutionary and materialist foundations 80 Rather than class conflict and socialist revolution 70 Bernstein s Marxist revisionism reflected that socialism could be achieved through cooperation between people regardless of class 81 Nonetheless Bernstein paid deference to Marx describing him as the father of social democracy but declaring that it was necessary to revise Marx s thought in light of changing conditions 82 Influenced by the gradualist platform favoured by the Fabian movement in Britain 83 Bernstein advocated a similar evolutionary approach to socialist politics that he termed evolutionary socialism 84 Evolutionary means include representative democracy and cooperation between people regardless of class Bernstein accepted the Marxist analysis that the creation of socialism is interconnected with the evolution of capitalism 81 August Bebel Bernstein Engels Wilhelm Liebknecht Marx and Carl Wilhelm Tolcke are all considered founders of social democracy in Germany However Bernstein and Lassalle along with labourists and reformists such as Louis Blanc in France 85 led to the widespread association of social democracy with socialist reformism 86 While Lassalle was a reformist state socialist 87 Bernstein predicted a long term coexistence of democracy with a mixed economy during the reforming of capitalism into socialism and argued that socialists needed to accept this 81 This mixed economy would involve public cooperative and private enterprises and it would be necessary for an extended period before private enterprises evolve of their own accord into cooperative enterprises 88 Bernstein supported state ownership only for certain parts of the economy that the state could best manage and rejected a mass scale of state ownership as being too burdensome to be manageable 81 Bernstein was an advocate of Kantian socialism and neo Kantianism 89 Although unpopular early on his views became mainstream after World War I 90 In The Future of Socialism 1956 Anthony Crosland argued that traditional capitalism has been reformed and modified almost out of existence and it is with a quite different form of society that socialists must now concern themselves Pre war anti capitalism will give us very little help for a new kind of capitalism required a new kind of socialism Crosland believed that these features of reformed managerial capitalism were irreversible but it has been argued within the Labour Party and by others that Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan brought about its reversal in the 1970s and 1980s Although the post war consensus represented a period where social democracy was most buoyant it has been argued that post war social democracy had been altogether too confident in its analysis because gains which were thought to be permanent turned out to be conditional and as the reservoir of capitalist growth showed signs of drying up 91 In Socialism Now 1974 Crosland argued that m uch more should have been achieved by a Labour Government in office and Labour pressure in opposition Against the dogged resistance to change we should have pitted a stronger will to change I conclude that a move to the Left is needed 92 In Origin Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties East Central and Western Europe Compared Vit Hlousek and Lubomir Kopecek explain how socialist parties have evolved from the 19th to the early 21st centuries As the number of people in traditional working class occupations such as factory workers and miners declined socialists have successfully widened their appeal to the middle class by diluting their ideology 93 however there is still continuity between parties such as the SPD the Labour Party in Britain and other socialist parties which remain part of the same famille spirituelle or ideological party family as outlined by most political scientists 94 For many social democrats Marxism is loosely held to be valuable for its emphasis on changing the world for a more just better future 95 History editDuring the late 19th century and the early 20th century social democracy was a broad labour movement within socialism that aimed to replace private ownership with social ownership of the means of production distribution and exchange taking influence from both Marxism and the supporters of Ferdinand Lassalle 96 By 1868 1869 the socialism associated with Karl Marx had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe the Social Democratic Workers Party of Germany 97 In the early 20th century the German social democratic politician Eduard Bernstein rejected orthodox Marxist ideas about the inevitable progression of history and the need for revolution advancing instead the position that socialism should be grounded in ethical and moral arguments and achieved through gradual legislative reform 80 Bernstein s ideas were initially not well received his party maintained the position that reforms should be pursued only as a means to an eventual revolution not as a substitute for it Yet Bernstein s ideas would have growing influence particularly after the First World WarThe Russian Revolution was a pivotal moment that furthered the division between reformists and revolutionary socialists Those supporting the October Revolution renamed themselves as Communists while those opposing the Bolsheviks retained the Social Democrat label 98 While both groups technically shared the goal of a communist society that fully realized the principle of from each according to his ability to each according to his need the Communists sought to distance themselves from to Social Democracy s association with reformism 99 The Communists also sought to distinguish themselves from the socialists that had supported the imperialist Great War and thus betrayed proletarian internationalism This reformist revolutionary division culminated in the German Revolution of 1919 100 in which the Communists wanted to overthrow the German government and establish a soviet republic like Russia while the Social Democrats wanted to preserve it as what came to be known as the Weimar Republic 101 Thus social democracy went from a Marxist revolutionary doctrine into a form of moderate parliamentary socialism 102 The Bolsheviks split from the Second International and created their own separate Communist International Comintern in 1919 that sought to rally revolutionary social democrats together for socialist revolution With this split the reformists founded the Labour and Socialist International LSI in 1923 The LSI had a history of rivalry with the Comintern with which it competed over the leadership of the international socialist and labour movement 103 During the 1920s and 1930s social democracy became dominant in the socialist movement mainly associated with reformist socialism while communism represented revolutionary socialism 104 Under the influence of politicians like Carlo Rosselli in Italy social democrats began disassociating themselves from orthodox Marxism altogether as represented by Marxism Leninism 105 embracing liberal socialism 106 Keynesianism 105 and appealing to morality rather than any consistent systematic scientific or materialist worldview 107 Social democracy appealed to communitarian corporatist and sometimes nationalist sentiments while rejecting the economic and technological determinism generally characteristic of orthodox Marxism and economic liberalism 108 By the post World War II period and its economic consensus and expansion most social democrats in Europe had abandoned their ideological connection to orthodox Marxism They shifted their emphasis toward social policy reform as a compromise between capitalism to socialism 109 According to Michael Harrington the primary reason for this was the perspective that viewed the Stalinist era Soviet Union as having succeeded in usurping the legacy of Marxism and distorting it in propaganda to justify totalitarianism 110 In its foundation the Socialist International denounced the Bolshevik inspired communist movement for it falsely claims a share in the Socialist tradition 111 Furthermore core tenets of Marxism have been regarded by social democrats as having become obsolete including the prediction that the working class was the decisive class with the development of capitalism In their view this did not materialize in the aftermath of mass industrialization during World War II 110 In Britain the social democratic Gaitskellites emphasized the goals of personal liberty social welfare and social equality 112 The Gaitskellites were part of a political consensus between the Labour and Conservative parties famously dubbed Butskellism 113 Some social democratic Third Way figures such as Anthony Giddens and Tony Blair who has described himself as a Christian socialist and a socialist in ethical terms 114 insist that they are socialists 115 for they claim to believe in the same values that their anti Third Way critics do 116 According to those self proclaimed social democratic modernizers Clause IV s open advocacy of state socialism was alienating potential middle class Labour supporters and nationalization policies had been so thoroughly attacked by neoliberal economists and politicians including rhetorical comparisons by the right of state owned industry in the West to that in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc and nationalizations and state socialism became unpopular Thatcherite Conservatives were adept at condemning state owned enterprises as economically inefficient 117 For the Gaitskellites nationalization was not essential to achieve all major socialist objectives public ownership and nationalization were not explicitly rejected but were seen as merely one of numerous useful devices 112 According to social democratic modernizers like Blair nationalization policies had become politically unviable by the 1990s 118 During the Third Way development of social democracy social democrats adjusted to the neoliberal political climate that had existed since the 1980s Those social democrats recognized that outspoken opposition to capitalism was politically non viable and that accepting the powers that be seeking to challenge free market and laissez faire variations of capitalism was a more immediate concern 119 The Third Way stands for a modernized social democracy 120 but the social democracy that remained committed to the gradual abolition of capitalism and social democrats opposed to the Third Way merged into democratic socialism 121 Although social democracy originated as a revolutionary socialist or communist movement 52 one distinction between democratic socialism and social democracy is that the former can include revolutionary means 122 The latter proposes representative democracy under the rule of law as the only acceptable constitutional form of government 123 nbsp Anthony Crosland who argued that traditional capitalism had been reformed and modified almost out of existence by the social democratic welfare policy regime after World War IIDuring the Great Recession Social Democratic parties in Europe increasingly adopted austerity as a policy response to the economic crisis shifting away from the traditional Keynesian response of deficit spending According to Bjorn Bremer this shift in thinking was due to the influence of supply side economics on Social Democratic leaders and by electoral motivations whereby Social Democrats wanted to appear economically competent to voters by adopting orthodox fiscal policies 124 Social democracy and democratic socialism editFurther information Democratic socialism Social democracy has some significant overlap in practical policy positions with democratic socialism 125 although they are usually distinguished from each other 126 In Britain the revised version of Clause IV to the Labour Party Constitution which was implemented in the 1990s by the New Labour faction led by Tony Blair 127 affirms a formal commitment to democratic socialism 56 describing it as a modernized form of social democracy 128 however it no longer commits the party to public ownership of industry and in its place advocates the enterprise of the market and the rigour of competition along with high quality public services either owned by the public or accountable to them 56 Many social democrats refer to themselves as socialists or democratic socialists and some such as Blair 116 use or have used these terms interchangeably 129 Others argue that there are clear differences between the three terms and preferred to describe their own political beliefs by using the term social democracy only 130 Democratic socialism nb 8 represents social democracy before the 1970s 140 when the post war displacement of Keynesianism by monetarism and neoliberalism caused many social democratic parties to adopt the Third Way ideology accepting capitalism as the status quo for the time being and redefining socialism in a way that maintains the capitalist structure intact 141 Like modern social democracy democratic socialism tends to follow a gradual or evolutionary path to socialism rather than a revolutionary one 142 143 Policies commonly supported are Keynesian and include some degree of regulation over the economy social insurance schemes public pension programs and a gradual expansion of public ownership over major and strategic industries 34 Internal debates edit During the late 20th century those labels were embraced contested and rejected due to the emergence of developments within the European left 144 such as Eurocommunism 145 the rise of neoliberalism 146 the fall of the Soviet Union and the Revolutions of 1989 147 the Third Way 148 and the rise of anti austerity 149 and Occupy 150 movements due to the global financial crisis of 2007 2008 nb 9 and the Great Recession 152 the causes of which have been attributed by some to the neoliberal shift and deregulation economic policies 153 This latest development contributed to the rise of politicians such as Jeremy Corbyn in Britain and Bernie Sanders in the United States 154 who rejected centrist politicians that supported triangulation within the Labour and Democratic parties 155 According to both right wing critics and supporters alike policies such as universal health care and education are pure Socialism because they are opposed to the hedonism of capitalist society 156 Because of this overlap democratic socialism refers to European socialism as represented by social democracy 157 especially in the United States 158 where it is tied to the New Deal 159 Some democratic socialists who follow social democracy support practical progressive reforms of capitalism and are more concerned with administrating and humanising it with socialism relegated to the indefinite future 160 Other democratic socialists want to go beyond mere meliorist reforms and advocate the systematic transformation of the mode of production from capitalism to socialism 161 In the United States edit Despite the long history of overlap between the two with social democracy considered a form of democratic or parliamentary socialism and social democrats calling themselves democratic socialists 25 democratic socialism is considered a misnomer in the United States 26 One issue is that social democracy is equated with wealthy countries in the Western world especially in Northern and Western Europe while democratic socialism is conflated either with the pink tide in Latin America especially with Venezuela 162 or with communism in the form of Marxist Leninist socialism as practised in the Soviet Union and other self declared socialist states 26 Democratic socialism has been described as representing the left wing 163 or socialist tradition of the New Deal 164 The lack of a strong and influential socialist movement in the United States has been linked to the Red Scare 165 and any ideology associated with socialism brings social stigma due to its association with authoritarian socialist states 166 Socialism has been used as a pejorative term by members of the political right to stop the implementation of liberal and progressive policies and proposals and to criticize the public figures trying to implement them 167 Although Americans may reject the idea that the United States has characteristics of a European style social democracy it has been argued by some observers that it has a comfortable social safety net albeit severely underfunded in comparison to other Western countries 168 It has also been argued that many policies that may be considered socialist are popular but that socialism is not 163 Others such as Tony Judt described modern liberalism in the United States as representing European social democracy 169 In South Africa edit South Africa has been governed by the African National Congress ANC a social democratic party since 1994 In 2022 The World Economic Forum said that South Africa risks state collapse and identified five major risks facing the country 170 Former minister Jay Naidoo has said that South Africa is in serious trouble and is showing signs of a failed state with record unemployment levels and the fact that many young people will not find a job in their lifetime 171 Policy regime editSocial democracy rests on three fundamental features namely 1 parliamentary democracy 2 an economy partly regulated by the state and 3 provision of social support to those in need 172 In practice social democratic parties have been instrumental in the social liberal paradigm lasting from the 1940s and 1970s and called such because it was developed by social liberals but implemented by social democrats 173 Since those policies were mostly implemented by social democrats social liberalism is sometimes called social democracy 174 In Britain the social liberal Beveridge Report drafted by the Liberal economist William Beveridge influenced the Labour Party s social policies such as the National Health Service and Labour s welfare state development 175 This social liberal paradigm represented the post war consensus and was accepted across the political spectrum by conservatives liberals and socialists until the 1970s 176 Similarly the neoliberal paradigm which replaced the previous paradigm was accepted across the mainstream political parties including social democratic supporters of the Third Way 177 This has caused much controversy within the social democratic movement 178 Role of the state edit From the late 19th century until the mid to late 20th century there was greater public confidence in the idea of a state managed economy that was a major pillar of communism and to a substantial degree by conservatives and left liberals 179 Aside from anarchists and other libertarian socialists there was confidence amongst socialists in the concept of state socialism as being the most effective form of socialism Some early British social democrats in the 19th century and 20th century such as the Fabians said that British society was already mostly socialist and that the economy was significantly socialist through government run enterprises created by conservative and liberal governments which could be run for the interests of the people through their representatives influence 180 an argument echoed by some socialists in post war Britain 181 Advents in economics and observation of the failure of state socialism in the Eastern Bloc countries 182 and the Western world with the crisis and stagflation of the 1970s 183 combined with the neoliberal rebuke of state interventionism resulted in socialists re evaluating and redesigning socialism 184 Some social democrats have sought to keep what they deem are socialism s core values while changing their position on state involvement in the economy and retaining significant social regulations 185 nbsp Aneurin Bevan minister of health 1945 1951 nbsp Francois Mitterrand president of France 1981 1995 When nationalization of large industries was relatively widespread in the 20th century until the 1970s it was not uncommon for commentators to describe some European social democracies as democratic socialist states seeking to move their countries toward a socialist economy 186 In 1956 leading Labour Party politician and British author Anthony Crosland said that capitalism had been abolished in Britain 187 although others such as Welshman Aneurin Bevan Minister of Health in the first post war Labour government and the architect of the National Health Service disputed the claim 188 For Crosland and others who supported his views Britain was a socialist state 181 According to Bevan Britain had a socialist National Health Service which opposed the hedonism of Britain s capitalist society 156 Although as in the rest of Europe the laws of capitalism still operated fully and private enterprise dominated the economy 189 some political commentators stated that during the post war period when social democratic parties were in power countries such as Britain and France were democratic socialist states The same claim has been applied to Nordic countries with the Nordic model 186 In the 1980s the government of President Francois Mitterrand aimed to expand dirigism and attempted to nationalize all French banks but this attempt faced opposition from the European Economic Community because it demanded a free market economy among its members 190 Public ownership never accounted for more than 15 20 of capital formation further dropping to 8 in the 1980s and below 5 in the 1990s after the rise of neoliberalism 189 The collapse of the legitimacy of state socialism and Keynesian interventionism with the discovery of the phenomenon of stagflation has been an issue for social democracy 183 This has provoked re thinking of how socialism should be achieved by social democrats 191 including changing views by social democrats on private property anti Third Way social democrats such as Robert Corfe have advocated a socialist form of private property as part of new socialism although Corfe technically objects to private property as a term to collectively describe property that is not publicly owned as being vague and rejecting state socialism as a failure 192 Third Way social democracy was formed in response to what its proponents saw as a crisis in the legitimacy of socialism especially state socialism and the rising legitimacy of neoliberalism especially laissez faire capitalism The Third Way s view of the crisis is criticized for being too simplistic 193 Others have criticized it because with the fall of state socialism it was possible for a new kind of third way socialism combining social ownership with markets and democracy thereby heralding a revitalization of the social democratic tradition 194 however it has been argued that the prospect of a new socialism was a chimera a hopeful invention of Western socialists who had not understood how actually existing socialism had totally discredited any version of socialism among those who had lived under it 194 Corporatism edit Social democracy influenced the development of social corporatism a form of economic tripartite corporatism based upon a social partnership between the interests of capital and labour involving collective bargaining between representatives of employers and labour mediated by the government at the national level 195 During the post war consensus this form of social democracy has been a major component of the Nordic model and to a lesser degree the West European social market economies 196 The development of social corporatism began in Norway and Sweden in the 1930s and was consolidated in the 1960s and 1970s 197 The system was based upon the dual compromise of capital and labour as one component and the market and the state as the other 197 From the 1940s through the 1970s defining features of social democracy as a policy regime included Keynesian economic policies and industrial agreements to balance the power of capital and labour and the welfare state 23 This is especially associated with the Swedish Social Democrats 198 In the 1970s social corporatism evolved into neo corporatism which replaced it Neo corporatism has represented an important concept of Third Way social democracy 199 Social democratic theorist Robin Archer wrote about the importance of social corporatism to social democracy in his work Economic Democracy The Politics of a Feasible Socialism 1995 200 As a welfare state social democracy is a specific type of welfare state and policy regime described as being universalist supportive of collective bargaining and more supportive of public provision of welfare It is especially associated with the Nordic model 201 Analysis editLegacy edit Social democratic policies were first adopted in the German Empire between the 1880s and 1890s when the conservative Chancellor Otto von Bismarck put in place many social welfare proposals initially suggested by the Social Democrats to hinder their electoral success after he instituted the Anti Socialist Laws laying the ground of the first modern welfare state 45 Those policies were dubbed State Socialism by the liberal opposition but Bismarck later accepted and re appropriated the term 202 It was a set of social programs implemented in Germany that Bismarck initiated in 1883 as remedial measures to appease the working class and reduce support for socialism and the Social Democrats following earlier attempts to achieve the same objective through Bismarck s Anti Socialist Laws 203 This did not prevent the Social Democrats from becoming the biggest party in parliament by 1912 204 Similar policies were later adopted in most of Western Europe including France and the United Kingdom the latter in the form of the Liberal welfare reforms 205 with both socialist and liberal parties adopting those policies 44 In the United States the progressive movement a similar social democratic movement predominantly influenced more by social liberalism than socialism supported progressive liberals such as Democratic presidents Woodrow Wilson and Franklin D Roosevelt whose New Freedom and New Deal programmes adopted many social democratic policies 206 With the Great Depression economic interventionism and nationalizations became more common worldwide and the post war consensus until the 1970s saw Keynesian social democratic and mixed economy policies put in place leading to the post World War II boom in which the United States the Soviet Union the Western European and East Asian countries experienced unusually high and sustained economic growth together with full employment Contrary to early predictions this period of high economic growth and national development also included many countries that were devastated by the war such as Japan Japanese post war economic miracle West Germany and Austria Wirtschaftswunder South Korea Miracle of the Han River France Trente Glorieuses Italy Italian economic miracle and Greece Greek economic miracle 207 With the 1970s energy crisis the abandonment of both the gold standard and the Bretton Woods system along with Keynesian social democratic mixed economy policies and the implementation of market oriented monetarist and neoliberal policies privatization deregulation free trade economic globalization and anti inflationary fiscal policy among others the social democratic welfare state was put in doubt 208 This caused several social democratic parties to adopt the Third Way a centrist ideology combining social democracy with neoliberalism 209 however the Great Recession in the late 2000s and early 2010s cast doubts on the Washington Consensus and protests against austerity measures ensued There was a resurgence of social democratic parties and policies especially in the United States and the United Kingdom with the rise of politicians such as Bernie Sanders and Jeremy Corbyn who rejected the Third Way 210 after the economic recession caused the Pasokification of many social democratic parties 211 The United Nations World Happiness Report shows that the happiest nations are concentrated in social democratic nations 212 better source needed especially in Northern Europe where the Nordic model is applied 213 This is at times attributed to the success of the social democratic Nordic model in the region where similar democratic socialist labourist and social democratic parties dominated the region s political scene and laid the ground for their universal welfare states in the 20th century 214 The Nordic countries including Denmark Finland Iceland Norway and Sweden as well as Greenland and the Faroe Islands also ranks highest on the metrics of real GDP per capita economic equality public health life expectancy solidarity perceived freedom to make life choices generosity quality of life and human development while countries practising a neoliberal form of government have registered relatively poorer results 215 better source needed Similarly several reports have listed Scandinavian and other social democratic countries as ranking high on indicators such as civil liberties 216 democracy 217 press 218 labour and economic freedoms 219 peace 220 and freedom from corruption 221 Numerous studies and surveys indicate that people live happier lives in countries ruled by social democratic parties than those ruled by neoliberal centrist and right wing governments 222 Criticism edit See also Criticism of welfare and Criticism of welfare states Other socialists criticize social democracy because it serves to devise new means to strengthen the capitalist system which conflicts with the socialist goal of replacing capitalism with a socialist system 223 According to this view social democracy fails to address the systemic issues inherent in capitalism The American democratic socialist philosopher David Schweickart contrasts social democracy with democratic socialism by defining the former as an attempt to strengthen the welfare state and the latter as an alternative economic system to capitalism According to Schweickart the democratic socialist critique of social democracy is that capitalism can never be sufficiently humanized and that any attempt to suppress its economic contradictions will only cause them to emerge elsewhere He gives the example that attempts to reduce unemployment too much would result in inflation and too much job security would erode labour discipline 224 In contrast to social democracy s mixed economy democratic socialists advocate a post capitalist economic system based on either a market economy combined with workers self management or on some form of participatory decentralized planning of the economy 136 Marxian socialists argue that social democratic welfare policies cannot resolve the fundamental structural issues of capitalism such as cyclical fluctuations exploitation and alienation Accordingly social democratic programs intended to ameliorate living conditions in capitalism such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits creates further contradictions by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system by reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production 225 The welfare state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative and contradiction laden system of capitalism to society s detriment Critics of contemporary social democracy such as Jonas Hinnfors argue that when social democracy abandoned Marxism it also abandoned socialism and became a liberal capitalist movement effectively making social democrats similar to non socialist parties like the Democratic Party in the United States 226 Market socialism is also critical of social democratic welfare states While one common goal of both concepts is to achieve greater social and economic equality market socialism does so through changes in enterprise ownership and management Social democracy attempts to do so by subsidies and taxes on privately owned enterprises to finance welfare programs Franklin Delano Roosevelt III grandson of United States President Franklin D Roosevelt and David Belkin criticize social democracy for maintaining a property owning capitalist class with an active interest in reversing social democratic welfare policies and a disproportionate amount of power as a class to influence government policy 227 The economists John Roemer and Pranab Bardhan point out that social democracy requires a strong labour movement to sustain its heavy redistribution through taxes and that it is idealistic to think such redistribution can be accomplished in other countries with weaker labour movements noting that social democracy in Scandinavian countries has been in decline as the labour movement weakened 228 Some critics say social democracy abandoned socialism in the 1930s by endorsing Keynesian welfare capitalism 229 The democratic socialist political theorist Michael Harrington argued that social democracy historically supported Keynesianism as part of a social democratic compromise between capitalism and socialism Although this compromise did not allow for the immediate creation of socialism it created welfare states and recognized noncapitalist and even anticapitalist principles of human need over and above the imperatives of profit 74 Social democrats in favour of the Third Way have been accused of endorsing capitalism including anti Third Way social democrats who have accused Third Way proponents such as Anthony Giddens of being anti social democratic and anti socialist in practice 230 Some critics and analysts argue that many prominent social democratic parties nb 10 such as the Labour Party in Britain and the Social Democratic Party of Germany even while maintaining references to socialism and declaring themselves democratic socialist parties have abandoned socialism in practice whether unwillingly or not 178 Social democracy s reformism has been criticized by both the left and right 232 on the grounds that if reformist socialists were left to govern a capitalist economy they would have to do so according to capitalist not socialist logic For example Joseph Schumpeter writes in Capitalism Socialism and Democracy 1942 Socialists had to govern in an essentially capitalist world a social and economic system that would not function except on capitalist lines If they were to run it they would have to run it according to its own logic They would have to administer capitalism 233 Similarly Irving Kristol argued Democratic socialism turns out to be an inherently unstable compound a contradiction in terms Every social democratic party once in power soon finds itself choosing at one point after another between the socialist society it aspires to and the liberal society that lathered it 234 Joseph Stalin was a vocal critic of reformist social democrats later coining the term social fascism to describe social democracy in the 1930s because in this period it embraced a similar corporatist economic model to the model supported by fascism This view was adopted by the Communist International which argued that capitalist society had entered the Third Period in which a proletarian revolution was imminent but could be prevented by social democrats and other fascist forces 235 See also editEconomic progressivism History of the Social Democratic Party of Austria History of the Social Democratic Party of Germany International Group of Democratic Socialists List of anti capitalist and communist parties with national parliamentary representation List of social democratic and democratic socialist parties that have governed List of democratic socialist parties and organizations List of democratic socialists List of Labour parties List of left wing political parties List of social democratic parties List of social democrats Social Democratic Party Socialist Party Socialist Union of Central Eastern Europe Three ArrowsReferences editCitations edit Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 80 103 Newman 2005 p 5 Heywood 2007 pp 101 134 136 139 Ypi 2018 Watson 2019 Wintrop 1983 p 306 Archer 1995 Jones 2001 p 737 Ritzer 2004 p 479 Lane David 2023 The Decay of Social Democracy Global Neoliberal Capitalism and the Alternatives From Social Democracy to State Capitalisms Bristol Bristol University Press pp 96 114 ISBN 978 1 5292 2093 3 Heywood 2012 p 97 Hoefer 2013 p 29 a b Hinchman amp Meyer 2007 p 137 Miller 1998 p 827 Badie Berg Schlosser amp Morlino 2011 p 2423 Heywood 2012 p 128 Hinchman amp Meyer 2007 p 91 Mathers Taylor amp Upchurch 2009 p 51 Adams 1993 pp 102 103 Weisskopf 1992 p 10 Miller 1998 p 827 Jones 2001 p 1410 Heywood 2012 pp 125 128 Gombert 2009 p 8 Sejersted 2011 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 81 100 Pruitt 2019 Berman 2020 a b Williams 1985 p 289 Foley 1994 p 23 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 80 Busky 2000 p 8 Sargent 2008 p 117 Heywood 2012 p 97 Hain 2015 p 3 Roemer 1994 pp 25 27 Berman 1998 p 57 Bailey 2009 p 77 Lamb 2015 pp 415 416 Astor Maggie 22 September 2018 Are You a Democratic Socialist The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 18 January 2024 Weisskopf 1992 p 10 Romano 2006 p 11 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 80 103 Newman 2005 p 5 Steger 1997 Safra 1998 p 920 Stevens 2000 p 1504 Duignan Kalsang Bhutia amp Mahajan 2014 Aspalter 2001 p 52 Miller 1998 p 827 Durlauf amp Lawrence 2008 Ely 1883 pp 204 205 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 80 Lamb 2015 pp 415 416 Ely 1883 p 204 a b c d O Hara 2003 p 538 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 80 a b Busky 2000 p 8 Sargent 2008 p 118 Heywood 2012 p 97 Hain 2015 p 3 a b c Qiu 2015 Barro 2015 Tupy 2016 a b c Heywood 2012 Blume amp Durlauf 2016 p 606 a b Brown McLean amp McMillan 2018 a b Kornai amp Yingi 2009 pp 11 24 a b c Docherty amp Lamb 2006 pp 1 2 Docherty amp Lamb 2006 p 2 a b c Busky 2000 p 8 a b Sargent 2008 p 117 Egle et al 2008 Kotz 2009 Foster amp Tsakiroglou 2014 Hinchman amp Meyer 2007 p 112 Badie Berg Schlosser amp Morlino 2011 p 2423 Heywood 2012 p 128 Social democracy Social democracy Blume amp Durlauf 2016 pp 610 611 Egle et al 2008 a b Bolton 2020 Meyer amp Rutherford 2011 Altman 2011 a b Esping Andersen 2013 a b Sacks 2019 Adams 1999 pp 103 106 128 131 British socialism and the Labour movement Social democracy to New Labour Romano 2006 p 4 Doring 2007 p 3 Adams 1999 pp 103 106 128 131 British socialism and the Labour movement Social democracy to New Labour Walters 2001 p 66 Katseli Milios amp Pelagidis 2018 Gamble amp Wright 1999 p 6 Fitzpatrick 2003 Bailey 2009 pp 14 17 Meyer amp Rutherford 2011 pp 111 119 Taylor 2013 p 133 Williams 1985 p 289 a b Ely 1883 pp 204 205 Lafontaine 2009 pp 3 4 a b March 2008 Lightfoot 2005 p 17 Docherty amp Lamb 2006 Lamb 2015 a b c Adams 1998 pp 144 145 Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen 2010 Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen November 2016 Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen December 2016 New Democratic Party of Canada 2013 New Democratic Party of Canada 2018 Ludlam amp Smith 2017 p 3 Samuelsson 1968 Egle et al 2008 p 180 Social Democratic Party of Germany 2007 Lambin 2014 p 269 Imlay 2018 p 465 Duignan Kalsang Bhutia amp Mahajan 2014 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 86 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 99 Giddens 2003 p 2 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 86 Bastow amp Martin 2003 pp 72 79 Heywood 2012 p 128 Steger 1997 p 139 Laidler 2013 p 253 a b Freeden Sargent amp Stears 2013 p 350 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 83 86 Giddens 1998a p 71 Jackson amp Tansey 2008 p 97 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 100 a b Harrington 2011 p 93 Bose 2005 p 41 Groenke amp Hatch 2009 p 192 Gray Johnson amp Walker 2014 pp 119 120 Steger 1999 p 186 Steger 1997 pp 133 146 a b Steger 1997 pp 80 137 a b c d Steger 1997 p 146 Lerner 1993 p 65 Mosse 2018 p 269 Steger 1997 pp 4 14 135 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 82 Megill 1970 p 37 Lipset 1995 p 1149 Brandal Bratberg amp Thorsen 2013 p 24 Berlau 1949 p 21 Pierson 2001 p 25 Steger 1997 pp 96 115 116 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 86 Freeden Sargent amp Stears 2013 p 349 Mosse 2018 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 93 Crosland 1974 p 44 Hlousek amp Kopecek 2013 pp 15 40 Hlousek amp Kopecek 2013 pp 41 66 Berman 2006 p 153 Ely 1883 pp 204 205 Lamb 2015 pp 415 416 Schorske 1993 p 2 Naarden 2002 p 441 Williams 1985 p 289 Busky 2000 p 8 Chickering 1998 p 155 Berman 1998 pp 145 146 Childs 2000 p 2 Adams 2001 p 108 Vickers 2003 p 72 Newman 2005 p 5 a b Bronner 1999 p 103 Bronner 1999 pp 103 104 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 86 Heywood 2012 p 128 Berman 2008 pp 12 13 Adams 1993 p 146 a b Harrington 2011 p 162 Socialist International 1951 a b Brivati amp Heffernan 2000 p 301 Haseler 1969 Jackson amp Tansey 2008 p 97 Giddens 1998b p 71 a b Blair 1995 p 2 Labour Past Present and Future The Guardian 2006 Diamond 2015 Eaton 2017 Campbell 2009 p 95 Lowe 2004 Romano 2007 p 3 Ludlam amp Smith 2017 p 1 15 Romano 2006 p 113 Lowe 2004 Romano 2006 p 3 Ludlam amp Smith 2017 p 3 Lafontaine 2009 Duignan Kalsang Bhutia amp Mahajan 2014 Abjorensen 2019 p 115 Hinchman amp Meyer 2007 p 91 Bremer Bjorn 2023 Austerity from the Left Social Democratic Parties in the Shadow of the Great Recession Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 287221 0 Denitch 1981 Picard 1985 Foley 1994 p 23 Busky 2000 p 8 Heywood 2012 p 97 Sunkara 2020 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 80 Busky 2000 p 8 Anderson amp Herr 2007 Alt et al 2010 Sunkara 2020 Ludlam amp Smith 2017 pp 1 15 Lowe 2004 Romano 2007 p 3 Ludlam amp Smith 2017 p 3 O Reilly 2007 p 91 Raza 2012 p 86 Gage 2018 Brandal Bratberg amp Thorsen 2013 p 7 Busky 2000 pp 7 8 Schweickart 2007 p 448 Dongyoun 2016 pp 171 174 Sargent 2008 p 118 Megill 1970 p 45 Fleet 1973 Sargent 2008 p 117 Draper 1966 Poulantzas 1978 Hain 1995 Hain 2000 a b Schweickart 2007 p 448 Muldoon 2019 Post 2019 Blanc 2019 Draper 1966 The Revisionist Facade Sunkara 2020 Bernstein 1907 Steger 1997 Schumpeter 1942 Thomas 1953 Williams 1985 Hattersley 1987 Tomlinson 1997 Medearis 1997 Barrientos amp Powell 2004 Romano 2006 Hinnfors 2006 Lafontaine 2009 Corfe 2010 Hamilton 1989 Busky 2000 p 10 Pierson 2005 Heywood 2012 p 97 Wintrop 1983 p 306 Kindersley 2016 Lavelle 2005 Birch MacLeavy amp Springer 2016 Humphrys 2018 Docherty amp Lamb 2006 p 82 Barrientos amp Powell 2004 pp 9 26 Cammack 2004 pp 151 166 Romano 2006 Hinnfors 2006 Lafontaine 2009 Corfe 2010 Calossi 2016 Kwok amp Rieger 2013 p 40 CNBC 2009 Dionne amp Galtson 2019 Cassidy 2019 Kvitrud 2019 Sears 2019 p 243 Palley 2013 Amadeo 2019 Sitaraman 2019 Tarnoff 2017 Huges 2016 Associated Press 2018 a b Bevan 1952 p 106 Busky 2000 p 8 Sargent 2008 p 118 Heywood 2012 p 97 Hain 2015 p 3 Levitz April 2019 Benson 2015 Gram 2015 Murphy 2017 Prokop 2015 Sanders 2015 Frizell 2019 Sanders 2019 Golshan 2019 Berman 1998 p 57 Bailey 2009 p 77 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 80 Anderson amp Herr 2007 Alt et al 2010 Stephens 2019 Faiola 2019 Haltiwanger 2020 Krugman 2020 a b Levitz April 2019 Ackerman 2019 Foner 1984 Oshinsky 1988 Zimmerman 2010 Leibovich 2007 Truman 1952 Jackson 2012 Astor 2019 Zimmerman 2010 The Economist 2010 Head Tom 12 January 2022 South Africa at risk of STATE COLLAPSE according to top experts Archived from the original on 12 January 2022 South Africa showing signs of a failed state mybroadband co za 13 October 2022 Archived from the original on 13 October 2022 Badie Berg Schlosser amp Morlino 2011 p 2423 Adams 2001 Arnason amp Wittrock 2012 pp 30 192 Kenworthy 2014 Jefferys 1994 Adams 2001 p 37 Adams 2001 pp 212 213 a b Barrientos amp Powell 2004 p 18 Cammack 2004 p 155 Romano 2006 p 11 Hinnfors 2006 pp 117 137 139 Lafontaine 2009 p 7 Corfe 2010 pp 33 178 Rothestein 1998 pp 18 27 Esping Andersen 2013 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 87 88 a b Crosland 1952 Kynaston 2009 p 82 Gey Kosta amp Quaisser 1987 a b Miller 2008 Ehns 2016 pp 4 5 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 93 95 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 pp 96 103 a b Heilbroner 1991 pp 96 110 Kendall 2011 pp 125 127 Li 2015 pp 60 69 Crosland 1952 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 93 Socialist Party of Great Britain 1958 Crosland 2006 pp 9 89 a b Batson 2017 Cobham 1984 Cohen 2010 Egle et al p 253 Corfe 2001 p 74 Corfe amp Miller 2002 p 51 Corfe 2005 p 20 Lemke amp Marks 1992 p 5 a b Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 95 Hicks 1988 Rosser amp Rosser 2003 p 226 a b Moschonas 2002 p 65 Samuelsson 1968 Carlsson amp Lindgren 1998 Whyman 2005 p 208 Archer 1995 Esping Andersen 2013 Brandal Bratberg amp Thorsen 2013 Feuchtwanger 2002 p 221 Bismarck 1884 Gregory amp Stuart 2003 p 207 Sacks 2019 Boissoneault 2017 The National Archive Liberal Welfare Reforms 1906 11 Schlesinger 1962 Zimmerman 2010 Marglin amp Schor 1991 Marglin amp Schor 2017 Lewis amp Surender 2004 Whyman 2005 Huges 2016 Tarnoff 2017 Associated Press 2018 Lowen 2013 Ludwigshafen Piraeus amp Valletta 2016 Younge 2017 Eaton 2018 The Economist 2018 Conley 2019 Cappelen et al 1990 pp 60 94 Veggel 2014 pp 60 94 Dolvik et al 2015 p 23 Simon Reid 2015 p 132 Esping Andersen 1985 Hicks 1988 Moschonas 2002 Rosser amp Rosser 2003 Ferragina amp Seeleib Kaiser 2011 Brandal Bratberg amp Thorsen 2013 Gregoire 2013 Conley 2019 Abramowitz 2018 Aghekyan et al 2018 Abramowitz 2019 Repucci 2020 The Economist 2020 Reporters Without Borders 2019 table Reporters Without Borders 2019 analysis Kim amp Miller 2016 The Heritage Foundation 2017 Vision of Humanity 2019 Transparency International 2020 table Transparency International 2020 analysis Pani amp Panic 2011 Radcliff 2013 Brown 2014 Flavin Pacek amp Radcliff 2014 Sullivan amp Hickel 2023 Clarke 1981 p 2 Schweickart 2007 p 447 Ticktin 1998 pp 60 61 Hinnfors 2006 pp 117 137 139 Weisskopf 1994 pp 314 315 Bardhan amp Roemer 1992 p 104 Eatwell amp Wright 1999 p 91 Fitzpatrick 2003 pp 2 3 Cammack 2004 p 155 Fuchs 2019 Socialist Party of Great Britain 2002 Patnaik 2010 pp 3 21 Nagin 2018 Romano 2006 p 114 Barrett 1978 Haro 2011 Notes edit Social democracy is a political ideology focusing on an evolutionary road to socialism or the humanization of capitalism It includes parliamentary process of reform the provision of state benefits to the population agreements between labor and the state and the revisionist movement away from revolutionary socialism 23 By the early twentieth century many such social democratic parties had come to adopt parliamentary tactics and were committed to a gradual and peaceful transition to socialism As a result social democracy was increasingly taken to refer to democratic socialism in contrast to revolutionary socialism 27 Social democracy refers to a political theory a social movement or a society that aims to achieve the egalitarian objectives of socialism while remaining committed to the values and institutions of liberal democracy 28 In general a label for any person or group who advocates the pursuit of socialism by democratic means Used especially by parliamentary social democrats who put parliamentarism ahead of socialism and therefore oppose revolutionary action against democratically elected governments Less ambiguous than social democracy which has had historically the opposite meanings of 1 factions of Marxism and 2 groupings on the right of socialist parties 29 Donald F Busky wrote Social democracy is a somewhat controversial term among democratic socialists Many democratic socialists use social democracy as a synonym for democratic socialism while others particularly revolutionary democratic socialists do not the latter seeing social democracy as something less than socialism a milder evolutionary ideology that seeks merely to reform capitalism Communists also use the term social democratic to mean something less than true socialism that sought only to preserve capitalism by reform rather than by overthrowing and establishing socialism Even revolutionary democratic socialists and Communists have at times particularly the past called their parties social democratic 33 Social democracy therefore came to stand for a broad balance between the market economy on the one hand and state intervention on the other Although this stance has been most clearly associated with reformist socialism it has also been embraced to a greater or lesser extent by others notably modern liberals and paternalist conservatives 27 According to Richard T Ely social democrats have two distinguishing characteristics The vast majority of them are laborers and as a rule they expect the violent overthrow of existing institutions by revolution to precede the introduction of the socialistic state I would not by any means say that they are all revolutionists but the most of them undoubtedly are The most general demands of the social democrats are the following The state should exist exclusively for the laborers land and capital must become collective property and production be carried on unitedly Private competition in the ordinary sense of the term is to cease 52 The far left is becoming the principal challenge to mainstream social democratic parties in large part because its main parties are no longer extreme but present themselves as defending the values and policies that social democrats have allegedly abandoned 54 The party s first chapter in its statutes says the intention of the Swedish Social Democratic Labour Party is the struggle towards the Democratic Socialism which is defined as a society with a democratic economy based on the socialist principle From each according to his ability to each according to his need 60 They include from top to row August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht from the Social Democratic Workers Party of Germany Karl Marx as an ideal pulse in the middle and Carl Wilhelm Tolcke and Ferdinand Lassalle from the General German Workers Association in the bottom row Democratic socialism is generally defined as an anti Stalinist left wing big tent that opposes authoritarian socialism rejecting self described socialist states as well as Marxism Leninism and its derivatives such as Maoism and Stalinism 131 Besides social democrats democratic socialists also include some anarchists 132 classical Marxists 133 democratic communists 134 libertarian socialists 135 market socialists 136 and orthodox Marxists such as Karl Kautsky 137 and Rosa Luxemburg 138 as well as revisionists such as Eduard Bernstein who supported social democracy 139 It peaked after the mid September 2008 outbreak 151 With the rise of neoliberalism social democracy turned towards the right and increasingly adopted neoliberal policies When Tony Blair became British Prime Minister in 1997 his neoliberal vision of social democracy influenced social democracy around the world The consequence was that social democracy became in many respects indistinguishable from conservative parties especially in respect to class politics 231 Sources edit Books edit Abjorensen Norman 2019 Historical Dictionary of Democracy Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 5381 2074 3 Adams Ian 1993 Political Ideology Today Politics Today 1st hardcover ed Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 3346 9 Adams Ian 1998 Ideology and Politics in Britain Today Politics Today illustrated reprint ed Manchester England Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 5056 5 Adams Ian 1999 Ideology and Politics in Britain Today Politics Today illustrated reprint ed Manchester England Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 5056 5 Adams Ian 2001 Political Ideology Today Politics Today 2nd reprint revised ed Manchester England Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 6019 9 Anderson Gary L Herr Kathryn G 2007 Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice SAGE Publications ISBN 978 1 4129 1812 1 Archer Robin 1995 Economic Democracy The Politics of Feasible Socialism Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 827891 7 Arnason Johann Pall Wittrock Bjorn eds 2012 Nordic Paths to Modernity Berghahn Books ISBN 978 0 85745 269 6 Aspalter Christian 2001 Importance of Christian and Social Democratic Movements in Welfare Politics With Special Reference to Germany Austria and Sweden Huntington New York Nova Science Publishers ISBN 978 1 56072 975 4 Bailey David J 2009 The Political Economy of European Social Democracy A Critical Realist Approach Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 60425 3 Barrientos Armando Powell Martin 2004 The Route Map of the Third Way In Hale Sarah Leggett Will Martell Luke eds The Third Way and Beyond Criticisms Futures and Alternatives Manchester University Press pp 9 26 ISBN 978 0 7190 6598 9 Bastow Steve Martin James 2003 Third Way Discourse European Ideologies in the Twentieth Century Edinburgh Scotland Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 0 7486 1560 5 Berlau Abraham Joseph 1949 The German Social Democratic Party 1914 1921 New York Columbia University Press ASIN B007T3SD0A Berman Sheri 1998 The Social Democratic Moment Ideas and Politics in the Making of Interwar Europe Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 44261 0 Berman Sheri 2006 The Primacy of Politics Social Democracy and the Making of Europe s Twentieth Century Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 81799 8 Bernstein Eduard 1907 1899 Evolutionary Socialism Translated by Harvey Edith C Independent Labour Party via Marxists Internet Archive Bevan Aneurin 1952 In Place of Fear New York Simon amp Schuster Birch Kean MacLeavy Julie Springer Simon eds 2016 The Handbook of Neoliberalism Routledge ISBN 978 1 138 84400 1 Blair Tony 1995 Let Us Face the Future Fabian phamplets London Fabian Society ISBN 978 0 7163 0571 2 Blume Lawrence E Durlauf Steven N eds 2016 The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 2nd illustrated ed Springer ISBN 978 0 7163 0571 2 Bose Pradip 2005 Social Democracy in Practice Socialist International 1951 2001 Delhi Authorspress ISBN 978 81 7273 175 5 Brandal Nik Bratberg Oivind Thorsen Dag Einar 2013 The Nordic Model of Social Democracy Basingstoke England Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 137 01326 2 Brivati Brian Heffernan Richard eds 2000 The Labour Party A Centenary History Macmillan ISBN 978 0 333 74650 9 Bronner Stephen Eric 1999 Ideas in Action Political Tradition in the Twentieth Century Oxford Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 0 8476 9387 0 Brown Garrett W McLean Ian McMillan Alistair 2018 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics and International Relations Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 254584 8 Busky Donald F 2000 Democratic Socialism A Global Survey Westport Connecticut Praeger Publishers ISBN 978 0 275 96886 1 Calossi Enrico 2016 Anti Austerity Left Parties in the European Union Competition Coordination Integration Pisa Pisa University Press ISBN 978 88 6741 665 3 Cammack Paul 2004 Giddens s Way with Words In Hale Sarah Leggett Will Martell Luke eds The Third Way and Beyond Criticisms Futures and Alternatives Manchester University Press pp 151 166 ISBN 978 0 7190 6598 9 Campbell John 2009 The Iron Lady Margaret Thatcher from Grocer s Daughter to Prime Minister Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 09 954003 8 Carlsson Ingvar Lindgren Anne Marie 1998 What is Social Democracy A Book about Social Democracy Stockholm Socialdemokraterna ISBN 978 91 532 0413 8 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Richard ed New Fabian Essays London Turnstile Press ISBN 978 0 7146 4655 8 Crosland Anthony 1974 Socialism Now Jonathan Cape ISBN 978 0 224 00996 6 Crosland Anthony 2006 1956 The Future of Socialism Constable ISBN 978 1 84529 485 4 Denitch Bogdan 1981 Democratic Socialism The Mass Left in Advanced Industrial Societies Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 86598 015 0 Diamond Patrick 2015 New Labour s Old Roots Revisionist Thinkers in Labour s History 2nd ed Andrews UK Limited ISBN 978 1 84540 797 1 Dolvik Jon Erik Flotten Tone Hippe Jon M Jordfald Bard 2015 The Nordic Model Towards 2030 A New Chapter Nordmod 2030 ISBN 978 82 324 0185 7 Dongyoun Hwang 2016 Anarchism in Korea Independence Transnationalism and the Question of National Development 1919 1984 SUNY Press ISBN 978 1 4384 6167 0 Doring Daniel 2007 Is Third Way Social Democracy Still a Form of Social Democracy Norderstedt Germany GRIN Publishing ISBN 978 3 638 86832 7 Eatwell Roger Wright Anthony 1999 Contemporary Political Ideologies 2nd ed London Continuum ISBN 978 1 85567 605 3 Egle Christoph Henkes Christian Merkel Wolfgang Petring Alexander 2008 Social Democracy in Power The Capacity to Reform Routledge Research in Comparative Politics London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 43820 9 Ehns Dirk H 2016 Modern Monetary Theory and European Macroeconomics Routledge ISBN 978 1 138 65477 8 Ely Richard 1883 French and German Socialism in Modern Times New York Harper and Brothers ISBN 978 1 104 06955 1 Esping Andersen Gosta 1985 Politics Against Markets The Social Democratic Road to Power Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 65418 8 JSTOR j ctt1m322zp Esping Andersen Gosta 2013 1990 The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 7456 6675 4 Feuchtwanger Edgar 2002 Bismarck Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 21614 2 Fitzpatrick Tony 2003 After the New Social Democracy Social Welfare for the Twenty First Century Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 6477 7 Foley Michael 1994 Ideas that Shape Politics Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 3825 9 Freeden Michael Sargent Lyman Tower Stears Marc eds 2013 The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 958597 7 Fuchs Christian 2019 Marxism Karl Marx s Fifteen Key Concepts for Cultural and Communication Studies Routledge ISBN 978 1 000 75049 2 Gamble Peter Wright Tony eds 1999 The New Social Democracy Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 0 631 21765 7 Gey Peter Kosta H G Jiri Quaisser Wolfgang 1987 Crisis and Reform in Socialist Economies Avalon Publishing ISBN 978 0 8133 7332 4 Giddens Anthony 1998a 1994 Beyond Left and Right The Future of Radical Politics Cambridge England Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 1439 7 Giddens Anthony 1998b The Third Way The Renewal of Social Democracy Cambridge England Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 2266 8 Giddens Anthony 2003 Neoprogressivism A New Agenda for Social Democracy In Giddens Anthony ed The Progressive Manifesto New Ideas for the Centre Left Cambridge England Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 3295 7 Gombert Tobias 2009 Blasius Julia Krell Christian Timpe Martin eds Foundations of Social Democracy Social Democratic Reader Vol 1 Translated by Patterson James Berlin Friedrich Ebert Stiftung ISBN 978 3 86872 215 4 Gray Daniel Johnson Elliott Walker David 2014 Historical Dictionary of Marxism Historical Dictionaries of Religions Philosophies and Movements 2nd ed Lanham Maryland Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 4422 3798 8 Gregory Paul R Stuart Robert C 2003 Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty First Century 7th ed Cengage Learning ISBN 978 0 618 26181 9 Groenke Susan L Hatch J Amos eds 2009 Critical Pedagogy and Teacher Education in the Neoliberal Era Small Openings Springer ISBN 978 1 4020 9588 7 Hain Peter 1995 Ayes to the Left Lawrence and Wishart ISBN 978 0 85315 832 5 Hain Peter 2015 Back to the Future of Socialism Policy Press ISBN 978 1 4473 2168 2 Hamilton Malcolm 1989 Democratic Socialism in Britain and Sweden St Martin s Press ISBN 978 1 349 09234 5 Harrington Michael 2011 1989 Socialism Past and Future New York Arcade Publishing ISBN 978 1 61145 335 5 Haseler Stephen 1969 The Gaitskellites Revisionism in the British Labour Party 1951 1964 Macmillan ISBN 978 1 349 00258 0 Hattersley Roy 1987 Choose Freedom The Future of Democratic Socialism Harmondsworth England Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 010494 3 Heywood Andrew 2007 Political Ideologies An Introduction 4th ed Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 52180 3 Heywood Andrew 2012 Political Ideologies An Introduction 5th ed Basingstoke England Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 36725 8 Hinchman Lewis P Meyer Thomas 2007 The Theory of Social Democracy Cambridge England Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 4113 3 Hinnfors Jonas 2006 Reinterpreting Social Democracy A History of Stability in the British Labour Party and Swedish Social Democratic Party Critical Labour Movement Studies Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 7362 5 Hlousek Vit Kopecek Lubomir 2013 Origin Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties East Central and Western Europe Compared Ashgate ISBN 978 1 4094 9977 0 Hoefer Richard 2013 Social Welfare Policy and Politics In Colby Ira C Dolmus Catherine N Sowers Karen M eds Connecting Social Welfare Policy to Fields of Practice Hoboken New Jersey John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 118 17700 6 Humphrys Elizabeth 8 October 2018 How Labour Built Neoliberalism Australia s Accord the Labour Movement and the Neoliberal Project Brill Academic Publishers ISBN 978 90 04 38346 3 Imlay Talbot C 2018 The Practice of Socialist Internationalism European Socialists and International Politics 1914 1960 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 964104 8 Jackson Nigel Tansey Stephen D 2008 Politics The Basics 4th ed London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 42244 4 Jefferys Kevin ed 1994 War and Reform British Politics during the Second World War Manchester Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 3970 6 Katseli Louka T Milios John Pelagidis Theodore eds 2018 Welfare State and Democracy in Crisis Reforming the European Model Routledge ISBN 978 1 351 78839 7 Kendall Diana 2011 Sociology in Our Time The Essentials Cengage Learning ISBN 978 1 111 30550 5 Kindersley Richard ed 2016 In Search of Eurocommunism Springer ISBN 978 1 349 16581 0 Kornai Janos Yingi Qian eds 2009 Market and Socialism In the Light of the Experiences of China and Vietnam New York Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 55354 5 Kwok Pui lan Rieger Joerg 2013 Occupy Religion Theology of the Multitude Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 4422 1792 8 Kynaston David 2009 Family Britain 1951 1957 London Bloomsbury ISBN 978 0 7475 8385 1 Lafontaine Oskar 2009 Left Parties Everywhere Socialist Renewal Nottingham England Spokesman Books ISBN 978 0 85124 764 9 Laidler Harry W 2013 History of Socialism An Historical Comparative Study of Socialism Communism Utopia Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 23143 8 Lambin Jean Jacques 2014 Rethinking the Market Economy New Challenges New Ideas New Opportunities Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 137 39291 6 Lerner Warren 1993 A History of Socialism and Communism in Modern Times Theorists Activists and Humanists Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 389552 0 Lemke Christiane Marks Gary eds 1992 The Crisis of Socialism in Europe Durham North Carolina Duke University Press ISBN 978 0 8223 1197 3 Lewis Jane Surender Rebecca eds 2004 Welfare State Change Towards a Third Way Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926672 2 Lightfoot Simon 2005 Europeanizing Social Democracy The Rise of the Party of European Socialists Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 27647 9 Li He 2015 Political Thought and China s Transformation Ideas Shaping Reform in Post Mao China Springer ISBN 978 1 137 42781 6 Lowe Rodney 2004 1993 The Welfare State in Britain Since 1945 3rd illustrated ed Macmillan Education UK ISBN 978 1 4039 1193 3 Ludlam Steve Smith Martin J eds 2017 Governing as New Labour Policy and Politics Under Blair Macmillan International Higher Education ISBN 978 1 4039 0678 6 March Luke 2008 Contemporary Far Left Parties in Europe From Marxism to the Mainstream PDF Berlin Friedrich Ebert Stiftung ISBN 978 3 86872 000 6 Retrieved 9 November 2021 Marglin Stephen A Schor Juliet B 1991 The Golden Age of Capitalism Reinterpreting the Postwar Experience Clarendon Press doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780198287414 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 828741 4 Marglin Stephen A Schor Juliet B 2017 Post war reconstruction and development in the Golden Age of Capitalism World Economic and Social Survey 2017 Reflecting on Seventy Years of Development Policy Analysis United Nations iLibrary doi 10 18356 8310f38c en ISBN 978 92 1 060598 4 Mathers Andrew Taylor Graham Upchurch Martin 2009 The Crisis of Social Democratic Trade Unionism in Western Europe The Search for Alternatives Contemporary Employment Relations Farnham England Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 7053 7 Megill Kenneth A 1970 The New Democratic Theory New York The Free Press ISBN 978 0 02 920790 1 Meyer Henning Rutherford Jonathan eds 2011 The Future of European Social Democracy Building the Good Society Springer ISBN 978 0 230 35504 0 Miller Toby 2008 A Companion to Cultural Studies Wiley ISBN 978 0 470 99879 3 Moschonas Gerassimos 2002 In the Name of Social Democracy The Great Transformation 1945 to the Present Translated by Elliott Gregory London Verso Books ISBN 978 1 85984 639 1 Mosse George 2018 Marxism The Culture Of Western Europe The Nineteenth And Twentieth Centuries Routledge ISBN 978 0 429 97252 2 Naarden Bruno 2002 1992 Socialist Europe and Revolutionary Russia Perception and Prejudice 1848 1923 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 89283 4 Newman Michael 2005 Socialism A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 280431 0 O Reilly David 2007 The New Progressive Dilemma Australia and Tony Blair s Legacy Springer ISBN 978 0 230 62547 1 Palley Thomas I 2013 From Financial Crisis to Stagnation The Destruction of Shared Prosperity and the Role of Economics Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 61246 4 Pani Mica Panic M 2011 Neoliberalism versus Social Democracy Empirical Evidence Globalization A Threat to International Cooperation and Peace Springer pp 109 141 ISBN 978 0 230 30701 8 Picard Robert 6 December 1985 The Press and the Decline of Democracy Democratic Socialist Response in Public Policy Praeger ISBN 978 0 86598 015 0 Pierson Christopher 2001 Hard Choices Social Democracy in the Twenty First Century Cambridge England Oxford England Malden Massachusetts Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 1985 9 Raza Syed Ali 2012 Social Democratic System Global Peace Trust ISBN 978 969 9757 00 6 Roemer John E 1994 The long term and the short term A Future for Socialism Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 33946 0 Romano Flavio 2006 Clinton and Blair The Political Economy of the Third Way Routledge Frontiers of Political Economy Vol 75 London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 37858 1 Romano Flavio 2007 Clinton and Blair The Political Economy of the Third Way Routledge Frontiers of Political Economy Vol 75 London Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 18252 7 Rosser J Barkley Jr Rosser Marina V 2003 Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy 2nd ed Cambridge Massachusetts MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 18234 8 Rothestein Bo 1998 Just Institutions Matter The Moral and Political Logic of the Universal Welfare State Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 59893 4 Samuelsson Kurt 1968 From Great Power to Welfare State 300 Years of Swedish Social Development London George Allen and Unwin ISBN 978 0 04 948002 5 Sargent Lyman Tower 2008 Contemporary Political Ideologies A Comparative Analysis 14th ed Wadsworth Publishing ISBN 978 0 495 56939 8 Schlesinger Arthur M Jr 1962 Liberalism in America A Note for Europeans The Politics of Hope and The Bitter Heritage Boston Riverside Press Schorske Carl E 1993 1955 German Social Democracy 1905 1917 The Development of the Great Schism Harvard Historical Studies Vol 65 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 35125 7 Schumpeter Joseph 1942 Capitalism Socialism and Democracy New York Harper amp Brothers ISBN 978 0 06 133008 7 OCLC 22556726 Sears Kathleen 2019 Socialism 101 From the Bolsheviks and Karl Marx to Universal Healthcare and the Democratic Socialists Everything You Need to Know about Socialism Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 5072 1136 6 Sejersted Francis 2011 Adams Madeleine B ed The Age of Social Democracy Norway and Sweden in the Twentieth Century Translated by Daly Richard Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14774 1 Simon Reid Henry 2015 The Political Origins of Inequality Why a More Equal World Is Better for Us All University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 23679 7 Steger Manfred B 1997 The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism Eduard Bernstein and Social Democracy Cambridge United Kingdom New York City United States Melbourne Australia Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 58200 1 Steger Manfred B 1999 Friedrich Engels and the Origins of German Revisionism Another Look In Carver Terrell Steger Manfred B eds Engels After Marx University Park Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State University pp 181 196 ISBN 978 0 271 01891 1 Taylor Andrew J 2013 Trade Unions and the Politics of Social Democratic Renewal In Gillespie Richard Paterson William E eds Rethinking Social Democracy in Western Europe Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 23618 2 Thomas Norman 1953 Democratic Socialism A New Appraisal New York League for Industrial Democracy ISBN 978 0 598 69160 6 Ticktin Hillel 1998 The Problem is Market Socialism In Ollman Bertell ed Market Socialism The Debate Among Socialists New York Routledge pp 55 80 ISBN 978 0 415 91966 1 Tomlinson Jim 1997 Democratic Socialism and Economic Policy The Attlee Years 1945 1951 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 55095 6 Vickers Rhiannon 2003 The Labour Party and the World Volume 1 The Evolution of Labour s Foreign Policy 1900 1951 Manchester Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 6745 7 Walters William 2001 Governing Unemployment Transforming the Social In Pavlich George Wickham Gary eds Rethinking Law Society and Governance Foucault s Bequest Hart Publishing ISBN 978 1 84113 293 8 Weisskopf Thomas E 1994 Challenges to Market Socialism A Response to Critics In Roosevelt Frank Belkin David eds Why Market Socialism Voices from Dissent Armonk New York M E Sharpe pp 297 318 ISBN 978 1 56324 465 0 Whyman Philip 2005 Third Way Economics Theory and Evaluation Springer ISBN 978 0 230 51465 2 Williams Raymond 1985 1976 Keywords A Vocabulary of Culture and Society revised ed New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 520469 8 OCLC 1035920683 Wintrop Norman 1983 1982 Liberal Democratic Theory and Its Critics reprint ed Croom Helm ISBN 978 0 7099 2766 2 Wright Anthony 1983 British Socialism Socialist Thought from the 1880s to the 1960s London Longman ISBN 978 0 582 29561 2 Conferences edit Berman Sheri 2008 Understanding Social Democracy PDF What s Left of the Left Liberalism and Social Democracy 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November 2018 There is no left wing case for Brexit 21st century socialism requires transnational organization British Politics and Policy London School of Economics Retrieved 26 October 2021 Further reading editLibrary resources about Social democracy Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Cronin James E Ross George W Shoch James eds 2011 What s Left of the Left Democrats and Social Democrats in Challenging Times Durham North Carolina Duke University Press ISBN 978 0 8223 5079 8 Draper Theodore 1966 The Historic Left The Roots of American Communism Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 1 4128 3880 1 Kenworthy Lane 2014 Social Democratic America New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 932251 0 Lavelle Ashley 2008 The Death of Social Democracy Political Consequences in the 21st Century Aldershot England Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 7014 8 Thorsen Dag Einar Brandal Nik Bratberg Oivind 2013 Utopia Sustained The Nordic Model of Social Democracy London Fabian Society Retrieved 2 August 2016 External links editSocial democracy at Wikipedia s sister projects span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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