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Wikipedia

Science communication

March 10, 2023

Not to be confused with Scientific literature, Scientific communication, or Scholarly communication.
For the academic journal, see Science Communication.

Science communication is the practice of informing, educating, raising awareness of science-related topics, and increasing the sense of wonder about scientific discoveries and arguments. Science communicators and audiences are ambiguously defined and the expertise and level of science knowledge varies with each group. Two types of science communication are outward-facing or science outreach (typically conducted by professional scientists to non-expert audiences) and inward-facing or science "inreach" (expert to expert communication from similar or different scientific backgrounds).[1] Examples of outreach include science journalism and science museums. Examples of inreach include scholarly communication and publication in scientific journals. Science communication is influenced by systemic inequalities that impact both inreach[2] and outreach.[3]

Schematic overview of the field and the actors of science communication according to Carsten Könneker

Science communicators can use entertainment and persuasion including humour, storytelling and metaphors.[4][5] Scientists can be trained in some of the techniques used by actors to improve their communication.[6] Continually evaluating science communication and engagement activities allows for designing engagement activities to be as resource efficient as possible while also avoiding well known pitfalls.[7]

There is a field of research on science communication that, for decades, had only limited influence on science communication practice, and vice versa,[7][8] but evidence-based science communication aims to bridge research and practice in science communication.[7]

Science communication may generate support for scientific research or science education, and inform decision making, including political and ethical thinking.[9] Science communication can be an effective mediator between the different groups and individuals that have a stake in public policy, industry, and civil society.[7] This may be especially critical in addressing scientific misinformation, which spreads easily because it is not subject to the constraints of scientific method.[9][10]

The requirement for scientists to publicise research findings and generate impact has increased in recent years. Research funders have also raised their expectations that researchers will go beyond publication in academic journals to communicate with the public. This has generated interest in using creative methods of science communication such as blogs, infographics, illustrations and comics and board games.[11]

Motivations

Writing in 1987, Geoffery Thomas and John Durant advocated various reasons to increase public understanding of science, or scientific literacy.[12][9] More trained engineers and scientists could allow a nation to be more competitive economically.[9]: 11–17  Science can also benefit individuals. Science can simply have aesthetic appeal (e.g., popular science or science fiction). Living in an increasingly technological society, background scientific knowledge can help to negotiate it. The science of happiness is an example of a field whose research can have direct and obvious implications for individuals.[9] Governments and societies might also benefit from more scientific literacy, since an informed electorate promotes a more democratic society.[9] Moreover, science can inform moral decision making (e.g., answering questions about whether animals can feel pain, how human activity influences climate, or even a science of morality).[9]

In 1990, Steven Hilgartner, a scholar in science and technology studies, criticized some academic research in public understanding of science.[10] Hilgartner argued that what he called "the dominant view" of science popularization tends to imply a tight boundary around those who can articulate true, reliable knowledge.[10] By defining a "deficient public" as recipients of knowledge, the scientists get to emphasize their own identity as experts, according to Hilgartner. Understood in this way, science communication may explicitly exist to connect scientists with the rest of society, but science communication may reinforce the boundary between the public and the experts (according to work by Brian Wynne in 1992[13] and Massimiano Bucchi in 1998[14]). In 2016, the scholarly journal Public Understanding of Science ran an essay competition on the "deficit model" or "deficit concept" of science communication and published a series of articles answering the question "In science communication, why does the idea of a public deficit always return?" in different ways;[15] for example, Carina Cortassa's essay argued that the deficit model of science communication is just a special case of an omnipresent problem studied in social epistemology of testimony, the problem of "epistemic asymmetry", which arises whenever some people know more about some things than other people.[16] Science communication is just one kind of attempt to reduce epistemic asymmetry between people who may know more and people who may know less about a certain subject.[16]

Biologist Randy Olson said in 2009 that anti-science groups can often be so motivated, and so well funded, that the impartiality of science organizations in politics can lead to crises of public understanding of science.[4] He cited examples of denialism (for instance, climate change denial) to support this worry.[4] Journalist Robert Krulwich likewise argued in 2008 that the stories scientists tell compete with the efforts of people such as Turkish creationist Adnan Oktar.[17] Krulwich explained that attractive, easy to read, and cheap creationist textbooks were sold by the thousands to schools in Turkey (despite their strong secular tradition) due to the efforts of Oktar.[17][5] Astrobiologist David Morrison has spoken of repeated disruption of his work by popular anti-scientific phenomena, having been called upon to assuage public fears of an impending cataclysm involving an unseen planetary object—first in 2008, and again in 2012 and 2017.[18]

Methods

Walter Lewin demonstrates conservation of potential energy. It can be difficult to captivatingly share good scientific thinking as well as scientifically accurate information. Krulwich and Olson believe scientists must rise to that challenge using metaphor and story telling.[4][17][5]

Science popularization figures such as Carl Sagan and Neil deGrasse Tyson are partly responsible for the view of science or a specific science discipline within the general public. However, the degree of knowledge and experience a science popularizer has can vary greatly. Because of this, some science communication can depend on sensationalism. As a Forbes contributor put it, "The main job of physics popularizers is the same as it is for any celebrity: get more famous."[19] Another point in the controversy of popular science is the idea of how public debate can affect public opinion. A relevant and highly public example of this is climate change. A science communication study appearing in The New York Times proves that "even a fractious minority wields enough power to skew a reader's perception of a [science news] story" and that even "firmly worded (but not uncivil) disagreements between commenters affected readers' perception of science."[20] This causes some to worry about the popularizing of science in the public, questioning whether the further popularization of science will cause pressure towards generalization or sensationalism.[20]

Marine biologist and film-maker Randy Olson published Don't Be Such a Scientist: Talking Substance in an Age of Style. In the book he describes how there has been an unproductive negligence when it comes to teaching scientists to communicate. Don't be Such a Scientist is written to his fellow scientists, and he says they need to "lighten up". He adds that scientists are ultimately the most responsible for promoting and explaining science to the public and media. This, Olson says, should be done according to a good grasp of social science; scientists must use persuasive and effective means like story telling. Olson acknowledges that the stories told by scientists need not only be compelling but also accurate to modern science—and says this added challenge must simply be confronted. He points to figures like Carl Sagan as effective popularizers, partly because such figures actively cultivate a likeable image.[4]

At his commencement address to Caltech students, journalist Robert Krulwich delivered a speech entitled "Tell me a story".[17] Krulwich says that scientists are actually given many opportunities to explain something interesting about science or their work, and that they must seize such opportunities. He says scientists must resist shunning the public, as Sir Isaac Newton did in his writing, and instead embrace metaphors the way Galileo did; Krulwich suggests that metaphors only become more important as the science gets more difficult to understand. He adds that telling stories of science in practice, of scientists' success stories and struggles, helps convey that scientists are real people. Finally, Krulwich advocates for the importance of scientific values in general, and helping the public to understand that scientific views are not mere opinions, but hard-won knowledge.[5]

Actor Alan Alda helped scientists and PhD students get more comfortable with communication with the help of drama coaches (they use the acting techniques of Viola Spolin).[6]

Matthew Nisbet described the use of opinion leaders as intermediaries between scientists and the public as a way to reach the public via trained individuals who are more closely engaged with their communities, such as "teachers, business leaders, attorneys, policymakers, neighborhood leaders, students, and media professionals".[21] Examples of initiatives that have taken this approach include Science & Engineering Ambassadors, sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, and Science Booster Clubs, coordinated by the National Center for Science Education.[21]

Evidence based practices

Similar to how evidence-based medicine gained a foothold in medical communication decades ago, researchers Eric Jensen and Alexander Gerber have argued that science communication would benefit from evidence-based prescriptions since the field faces related challenges.[7] In particular, they argued that the lack of collaboration between researchers and practitioners is a problem: "Ironically, the challenges begin with communication about science communication evidence."[7]: 2 

The overall effectiveness of the science communication field is limited by the lack of effective transfer mechanisms for practitioners to apply research in their work and perhaps even investigate, together with researchers, communication strategies, Jensen and Gerber said.[7] Closer collaboration could enrich the spectrum of science communication research and increase the existing methodological toolbox, including more longitudinal and experimental studies.[7]

Evidence-based science communication would combine the best available evidence from systematic research, underpinned by established theory, as well as practitioners' acquired skills and expertise, reducing the double-disconnect between scholarship and practice.[22] Neither adequately take into account the other side's priorities, needs and possible solutions, Jensen and Gerber argued; bridging the gap and fostering closer collaboration could allow for mutual learning, enhancing the overall advancements of science communication as a young field.[7]

Imagining science's publics

In the preface of The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins wrote: "Three imaginary readers looked over my shoulder while I was writing, and I now dedicate the book to them. [...] First the general reader, the layman [...] second the expert [and] third the student".

 
Students explain science projects to visitors. Susanna Hornig promotes the message that anyone can meaningfully engage with science, even without going as deeply into it as the researchers themselves do.[23]

Many criticisms of the public understanding of science movement have emphasized that this thing they were calling the public was somewhat of an (unhelpful) black box. Approaches to the public changed with the move away from the public understanding of science. Science communication researchers and practitioners now often showcase their desire to listen to non-scientists as well as acknowledging an awareness of the fluid and complex nature of (post/late) modern social identities.[24] At the very least, people will use plurals: publics or audiences. As the editor of the scholarly journal Public Understanding of Science put it in a special issue on publics:

We have clearly moved from the old days of the deficit frame and thinking of publics as monolithic to viewing publics as active, knowledgeable, playing multiple roles, receiving as well as shaping science. (Einsiedel, 2007: 5)[25]

However, Einsiedel goes on to suggest both views of the public are "monolithic" in their own way; they both choose to declare what something called the public is. Some promoters of public understanding of science might have ridiculed publics for their ignorance, but an alternative "public engagement with science and technology" romanticizes its publics for their participatory instincts, intrinsic morality or simple collective wisdom. As Susanna Hornig Priest concluded in her 2009 introduction essay on science's contemporary audiences, the job of science communication might be to help non-scientists feel they are not excluded as opposed to always included; that they can join in if they want, rather than that there is a necessity to spend their lives engaging.[23]

The process of quantifiably surveying public opinion of science is now largely associated with the public understanding of science movement (some would say unfairly).[26] In the US, Jon Miller is the name most associated with such work and well known for differentiating between identifiable "attentive" or "interested" publics (that is to say science fans) and those who do not care much about science and technology. Miller's work questioned whether the American public had the following four attributes of scientific literacy:

  • knowledge of basic textbook scientific factual knowledge
  • an understanding of scientific method
  • appreciated the positive outcomes of science and technology
  • rejected superstitious beliefs, such as astrology or numerology[27]

In some respects, John Durant's work surveying British public applied similar ideas to Miller. However, they were slightly more concerned with attitudes to science and technology, rather than just how much knowledge people had.[28] They also looked at public confidence in their knowledge, considering issues such as the gender of those ticking "don't know" boxes. We can see aspects of this approach, as well as a more "public engagement with science and technology" influenced one, reflected within the Eurobarometer studies of public opinion. These have been running since 1973 to monitor public opinion in the member states, with the aim of helping the preparation of policy (and evaluation of policy). They look at a host of topics, not just science and technology but also defense, the euro, enlargement of the European Union, and culture. Eurobarometer's 2008 study of Europeans' Attitudes to Climate Change is a good example.[29] It focuses on respondents' "subjective level of information"; asking "personally, do you think that you are well informed or not about...?" rather than checking what people knew.

Frame analysis

Science communication can be analyzed through frame analysis, a research method used to analyze how people understand situations and activities.

Some features of this analysis are listed below.

  • Public accountability: placing a blame on public actions for value, e.g. political gain in the climate change debate
  • Runaway technology: creating a certain view of technological advancements, e.g. photos of an exploded nuclear power plant
  • Scientific uncertainty: questioning the reliability of a scientific theory, e.g. arguing how bad global climate change can be if humans are still alive[30]

Heuristics

People make an enormous number of decisions every day, and to approach all of them in a careful, methodical manner is impractical. They therefore often use mental shortcuts known as "heuristics" to quickly arrive at acceptable inferences.[31] Tversky and Kahneman originally proposed three heuristics, listed below, although there are many others that have been discussed in later research.[32]

  • Representativeness: used to make assumptions about probability based on relevancy, e.g. how likely item A is to be a member of category B (is Kim a chef?), or that event C resulted from process D (could the sequence of coin tosses H-H-T-T have occurred randomly?).
  • Availability: used to estimate how frequent or likely an event is based on how quickly one can conjure examples of the event. For example, if one were asked to approximate the number of people in your age group that are currently in college, your judgment would be affected by how many of your own acquaintances are in college.
  • Anchoring and adjustment: used when making judgments with uncertainties. One will start with an anchoring point, then adjust it to reach an assumption. For example, if you are asked to estimate how many people will take Dr. Smith's biology class this spring, you may recall that 38 students took the class in the fall, and adjust your estimation based on whether the class is more popular in the spring or in the fall.

The most effective science communication efforts take into account the role that heuristics play in everyday decision-making. Many outreach initiatives focus solely on increasing the public's knowledge, but studies have found little, if any, correlation between knowledge levels and attitudes towards scientific issues.[33][34]

Inclusive communication and cultural differences

Science communication is often influenced by the implicit inequities embedded in the production of scientific knowledge itself. Māori researcher Linda Tuhiwai Smith details how scientific research is "inextricably linked to European imperialism and colonialism,"[35] and Collin Bjork notes that this oppressive framework is linked to science communication in part because European colonizers "employed both the English language and western science as tools for subjugating others."[36] The inequalities in the systems that produce science and science communication persist to today and were recently amplified during the initial waves of the Covid-19 pandemic when studies found that women researchers "submitted proportionally fewer manuscripts than men"[37] to peer-reviewed journals, which is likely due to the unequal professional and sociocultural burdens faced by women scientists.

There is a cultural side to science communication. There is a necessity to consider cultural differences, such as how individuals feel about the distance between humans and nature.[38] A code of ethics for communicators of science would have to transcend cultural boundaries.[39]

Inclusive science communication seeks to build further methods for reaching marginalized groups that are often left out by typical top-down science communication.[40] The Metcalf Institute for Marine & Environmental Reporting at the University of Rhode Island produced a survey of these practices in 2020.[40]

Complementary methods for including diverse voices include the use of poetry,[41] participatory arts,[42] film,[43] and games,[44] all of which have been used to engage various publics by monitoring, deliberating, and responding to their attitudes toward science and scientific discourse.

Science in popular culture and the media

 
This diagram, designed by Thomas Edison in 1880, is intended to depict the workings of a light bulb.

Birth of public science

While scientific study began to emerge as a popular discourse following the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, science was not widely funded or exposed to the public until the nineteenth century.[45] Most science prior to this was funded by individuals under private patronage and was studied in exclusive groups, like the Royal Society. Public science emerged due to a gradual social change, resulting from the rise of the middle class in the nineteenth century. As scientific inventions, like the conveyor belt and the steam locomotive entered and enhanced the lifestyle of people in the nineteenth century, scientific inventions began to be widely funded by universities and other public institutions in an effort to increase scientific research.[46] Since scientific achievements were beneficial to society, the pursuit of scientific knowledge resulted in science as a profession. Scientific institutions, like the National Academy of Sciences or the British Association for the Advancement of Science are examples of leading platforms for the public discussion of science.[47] David Brewster, founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, believed in regulated publications in order to effectively communicate their discoveries, "so that scientific students may know where to begin their labours."[48] As the communication of science reached a wider audience, due to the professionalization of science and its introduction to the public sphere, the interest in the subject increased.

Scientific media in the 19th century

There was a change in media production in the nineteenth century. The invention of the steam-powered printing press enabled more pages to be printed per hour, which resulted in cheaper texts. Book prices gradually dropped, which gave the working classes the ability to purchase them.[49] No longer reserved for the elite, affordable and informative texts were made available to a mass audience. Historian Aileen Fyfe noted that, as the nineteenth century experienced a set of social reforms that sought to improve the lives of those in the working classes, the availability of public knowledge was valuable for intellectual growth.[50] As a result, there were reform efforts to further the knowledge of the less educated. The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, led by Henry Brougham, attempted to organize a system for widespread literacy for all classes.[51] Additionally, weekly periodicals, like the Penny Magazine, were aimed to educate the general public on scientific achievements in a comprehensive manner.[52]

 
Fredrich Koenig's steam powered printing press, 1814

As the audience for scientific texts expanded, the interest in public science did as well. "Extension lectures" were installed in some universities, like Oxford and Cambridge, which encouraged members of the public to attend lectures.[53] In America, traveling lectures were a common occurrence in the nineteenth century and attracted hundreds of viewers. These public lectures were a part of the lyceum movement and demonstrated basic scientific experiments, which advanced scientific knowledge for both the educated and uneducated viewers.[54]

Not only did the popularization of public science enlighten the general public through mass media, but it also enhanced communication within the scientific community. Although scientists had been communicating their discoveries and achievements through print for centuries, publications with a variety of subjects decreased in popularity.[55] Alternatively, publications in discipline-specific journals were crucial for a successful career in the sciences in the nineteenth century. As a result, scientific journals such as Nature or National Geographic possessed a large readership and received substantial funding by the end of the nineteenth century as the popularization of science continued.[56]

Science communication in contemporary media

Science can be communicated to the public in many different ways. According to Karen Bultitude, a science communication lecturer at University College London, these can be broadly categorized into three groups: traditional journalism, live or face-to-face events, and online interaction.[57]

Traditional journalism

Traditional journalism (for example, newspapers, magazines, television and radio) has the advantage of reaching large audiences; in the past, this is way most people regularly accessed information about science.[57][58] Traditional media is also more likely to produce information that is high quality (well written or presented), as it will have been produced by professional journalists. Traditional journalism is often also responsible for setting agendas and having an impact on government policy.[57] The traditional journalistic method of communication is one-way, so there can be no dialogue with the public, and science stories can often be reduced in scope so that there is a limited focus for a mainstream audience, who may not be able to comprehend the bigger picture from a scientific perspective.[57][59] However, there is new research now available on the role of newspapers and television channels in constituting "scientific public spheres" which enable participation of a wide range of actors in public deliberations.[60]

Another disadvantage of traditional journalism is that, once a science story is taken up by mainstream media, the scientist(s) involved no longer has any direct control over how his or her work is communicated, which may lead to misunderstanding or misinformation.[57][59] Research in this area demonstrates how the relationship between journalists and scientists has been strained in some instances.[61] On one hand scientists have reported being frustrated with things like journalists oversimplifying or dramatizing of their work, while on the other hand journalists find scientists difficult to work with and ill-equipped to communicate their work to a general audience.[62][61] Despite this potential tension, a comparison of scientists from several countries has shown that many scientists are pleased with their media interactions and engage often.[63]

However, the use of traditional media sources, like newspapers and television, has steadily declined as primary sources for science information, while the internet has rapidly increased in prominence.[64] In 2016, 55% of Americans reported using the internet as their primary source to learn about science and technology, compared to 24% reporting TV and 4% reporting newspapers were their primary sources.[64] Additionally, traditional media outlets have dramatically decreased the number of, or in some cases eliminated, science journalists and the amount of science-related content they publish.[65]

Live or face-to-face events

The second category is live or face-to-face events, such as public lectures in museums or universities,[66] debates, science busking,[67] "sci-art" exhibits,[68] Science Cafés and science festivals. Citizen science or crowd-sourced science (scientific research conducted, in whole or in part, by amateur or nonprofessional scientists) can be done with a face-to-face approach, online, or as a combination of the two to engage in science communication.[57] Research has shown that members of the public seek out science information that is entertaining, but also helping citizens to critically participate in risk regulation and S&T governance.[69] Therefore, it is important to bear this aspect in mind when communicating scientific information to the public (for example, through events combining science communication and comedy, such as Festival of the Spoken Nerd,[70] or during scientific controversies).[58] The advantages of this approach are that it is more personal and allows scientists to interact with the public, allowing for two-way dialogue. Scientists are also better able to control content using this method. Disadvantages of this method include the limited reach, it can also be resource-intensive and costly and also, it may be that only audiences with an existing interest in science will be attracted.[57]

Online interaction

The third category is online interaction; for example, websites, blogs, wikis and podcasts can be used for science communication, as can other social media. Online methods of communicating science have the potential to reach huge audiences, can allow direct interaction between scientists and the public,[71] and the content is always accessible and can be somewhat controlled by the scientist. Additionally, online communication of science can help boost scientists' reputation through increased citations, better circulation of articles, and establishing new collaborations.[62][61] Online communication also allows for both one-way and two-way communication, depending on the audience's and the author's preferences. However, there are disadvantages in that it is difficult to control how content is picked up by others, and regular attention and updating is needed.[57]

When considering whether or not to engage in science communication online, scientists should review what science communication research has shown to be the potential positive and negative outcomes. Online communication has given rise to movements like open science, which advocates for making science more accessible. However, when engaging in communication about science online, scientists should consider not publicizing or reporting findings from their research until it has been peer-reviewed and published, as journals may not accept the work after it has been circulated under the "Ingelfinger rule".

Other considerations revolve around how scientists will be perceived by other scientists for engaging in communication. For example, some scholars have criticized engaged, popular scholars using concepts like the Sagan effect or Kardashian Index. Despite these criticisms, many scientists are taking to communicating their work on online platforms, a sign of potentially changing norms in the field.[72]

Art

According to Lesen et all (2016),[73] art has been an increasingly used tool to attract the public to science. Either formally or in an informal context, an integration between artists and scientists could potentially raise awareness of the general public[74] about current topics in the Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM).

The arts have the power of creating emotional links between the public and a research topic and create a collaborative atmosphere that can "activate science" in a different way.[75] Learning through the affection domain, in contrast to the cognitive domain, increases motivation[76] and using the arts to communicate scientific knowledge this way could increase dramatically engagement.[77]

Social media science communication

By using Twitter, scientists and science communicators can discuss scientific topics with many types of audiences with various points of view.[78] Studies published in 2012 by Gunther Eysenbach shed light on how Twitter not only communicates science to the public but also affects advances in the science community.[79]

Alison Bert, editor in chief of Elsevier Connect, wrote a 2014 news article titled "How to use social media for science" that reported on a panel about social media at that year's AAAS meeting, in which panelists Maggie Koerth-Baker, Kim Cobb, and Danielle N. Lee noted some potential benefits and drawbacks to scientists of sharing their research on Twitter.[80] Koerth-Baker, for example, commented on the importance of keeping public and private personas on social media separate in order to maintain professionalism online.[80]

Interviewed in 2014, Karen Peterson, director of Scientific Career Development at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center stressed the importance for scientists of using social networks such as Facebook and Twitter to establish an online presence.[81]

Kimberly Collins et al., writing in PLOS One in 2016, explained reasons why some scientists were hesitant to join Twitter.[82] Some scientists were hesitant to use social media outlets such as Twitter due to lack of knowledge of the platform, and inexperience with how to make meaningful posts.[82] Some scientists did not see the meaning in using Twitter as a platform to share their research or have the time to add the information into the accounts themselves.[82]

In 2016, Elena Milani created the SciHashtag Project, which is a condensed collection of Twitter hashtags about science communication.[83]

In 2017, a study done by the Pew Research Center found that about "a quarter of social media users (26%) follow science accounts" on social media.[84] This group of users "places both more importance and comparatively more trust on science news that comes to them through social media".[84]

Scientists have also used other social media platforms, including Instagram and Reddit, to establish a connection with the public and discuss science.[85][86][87]

The public understanding of science movement

 
Michael Faraday giving a Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution (circa 1855)

"Public understanding of science", "public awareness of science" and "public engagement with science and technology" are all terms coined with a movement involving governments and societies in the late 20th century. During the late 19th century, science became a professional subject and influenced by governmental suggestions. Prior to this, public understanding of science was very low on the agenda. However, some well-known figures such as Michael Faraday ran lectures aimed at the non-expert public, his being the famous Christmas Lectures which began in 1825.

The 20th century saw groups founded on the basis they could position science in a broader cultural context and allow scientists to communicate their knowledge in a way that could reach and be understood by the general public. In the UK, The Bodmer Report (or The Public Understanding of Science as it is more formally known) published in 1985 by The Royal Society changed the way scientists communicated their work to the public. The report was designed to "review the nature and extent of the public understanding of science in the United Kingdom and its adequacy for an advanced democracy".[9]: 5–7  Chaired by the geneticist Sir Walter Bodmer alongside famous scientists as well as broadcaster Sir David Attenborough, the report was evidenced by all of the major sectors concerned; scientists, politicians, journalists and industrialists but not the general public.[9]: 5–7  One of the main assumptions drawn from the report was everybody should have some grasp of science and this should be introduced from a young age by teachers who are suitably qualified in the subject area.[88] The report also asked for further media coverage of science including via newspapers and television which has ultimately led to the establishment of platforms such as the Vega Science Trust.

In both the UK and the United States following the second world war, public views of scientists swayed from great praise to resentment. Therefore, the Bodmer Report highlighted concerns from the scientific community that their withdrawal from society was causing scientific research funding to be weak.[89] Bodmer promoted the communication of science to a wider more general public by expressing to British scientists that it was their responsibility to publicize their research.[89] An upshot of the publication of the report was the creation of the Committee on the Public Understanding of Science (COPUS), a collaboration between the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Royal Society and the Royal Institution. The engagement between these individual societies caused the necessity for a public understanding of science movement to be taken seriously. COPUS also awarded grants for specific outreach activities allowing the public understanding to come to the fore.[90] Ultimately leading to a cultural shift in the way scientists publicized their work to the wider non-expert community.[91] Although COPUS no longer exists within the UK the name has been adopted in the US by the Coalition on the Public Understanding of Science. An organization which is funded by the US National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation and focuses on popular science projects such as science cafes, festivals, magazines and citizen science schemes.

In the European Union, public views on public-funded research and the role of governmental institutions in funding scientific activities were being questioned as the budget allocated was increasing.[92] Therefore, the European Commission encouraged strongly and later obligated research organizations to communicate about their research activities and results widely and to the general public. This is being done by integrating a communication plan into their research project that increases the public visibility of the project using an accessible language and adapted channels and materials.[93]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Illingworth, Sam; Allen, Grant (2020) [2016]. "Introduction". Effective science communication: a practical guide to surviving as a scientist (2nd ed.). Bristol, UK; Philadelphia: IOP Publishing. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1088/978-0-7503-2520-2ch1. ISBN 9780750325189. OCLC 1172776633. This chapter provides a clearer distinction between the two aspects of science communication that are discussed in this book: that which is aimed at engaging scientists (inward-facing) and that which is aimed at engaging non-scientists (outward-facing).
  2. ^ Bjork, Collin (2022). "Book Review: H. Glasman-Deal, Science Research Writing for Native and Non-Native Speakers of English". Journal of Second Language Writing. 56. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2022.100877. S2CID 247394793.
  3. ^ Lewenstein, Bruce V. (2022). "Is Citizen Science a Remedy for Inequality?". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 700: 183–194. doi:10.1177/00027162221092697. S2CID 248562327.
  4. ^ a b c d e (23 October 2009.) "Randy Olson – Don't Be Such a Scientist." (Includes podcast). Pointofinquiry.org. Accessed May 2012.
  5. ^ a b c d Miller, Lulu (29 July 2008)."Tell Me a Story." (Includes podcast). Radiolab.org. Accessed May 2012.
  6. ^ a b Grushkin, Daniel (5 August 2010). The Scientist Magazine. Accessed May 2012 (archive accessed Jan 2022).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Jensen, Eric A.; Gerber, Alexander (2020). "Evidence-Based Science Communication". Frontiers in Communication. 4. doi:10.3389/fcomm.2019.00078. ISSN 2297-900X.   Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  8. ^ The first detailed empirical analysis of the international research field was commissioned by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research: Gerber, Alexander (2020). Science Communication Research: an Empirical Field Analysis. Germany: Edition innovare. ISBN 978-3-947540-02-0. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i Gregory, Jane; Miller, Steve (1998). Science in Public: Communication, Culture, and Credibility. New York: Plenum Trade. ISBN 0306458608. OCLC 38478554.
  10. ^ a b c Hilgartner, Stephen (1990). "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses". Social Studies of Science. 20 (3): 519–539. doi:10.1177/030631290020003006. S2CID 144068473.
  11. ^ Coon, Jo Thompson; Orr, Noreen; Shaw, Liz; Hunt, Harriet; Garside, Ruth; Nunns, Michael; Gröppel-Wegener, Alke; Whear, Becky (4 April 2022). "Bursting out of our bubble: using creative techniques to communicate within the systematic review process and beyond". Systematic Reviews. 11 (1): 56. doi:10.1186/s13643-022-01935-2. ISSN 2046-4053. PMC 8977563. PMID 35379331.
  12. ^ Thomas, Geoffrey; Durant, John (Summer 1987). (PDF). Scientific Literacy Papers: A Journal of Research in Science, Education and the Public. 1: 1–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
  13. ^ Wynne, Brian (1992). "Misunderstood misunderstanding: Social identities and public uptake of science", Public Understanding of Science, vol. 1 (3): 281–304. See also Irwin, Alan & Wynne, Brian (eds) (1996) Misunderstanding Science (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press).
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Further reading

  • Bauer, M & Bucchi, M (eds) (2007). Journalism, Science and Society (London & New York: Routledge).
  • Bucchi, M & Trench, B (eds) (2014). Handbook of Public Communication of Science and Technology (2nd ed.) (London & New York: Routledge).
  • Cartwright, JH & Baker, B (2005). Literature and Science: Social Impact and Interaction (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO).
  • Drake, JL et al. (eds) (2013). New Trends in Earth-Science Outreach and Engagement: The Nature of Communication (Cham, Switzerland: Springer).
  • Fortenberry, RC (2018). Complete Science Communication: A Guide to Connecting with Scientists, Journalists and the Public (London: Royal Society of Chemistry).
  • Gregory, J & Miller, S (1998). Science in Public: Communication, Culture and Credibility (New York: Plenum).
  • Holliman, R et al. (eds) (2009). Investigating Science Communication in the Information Age: Implications for Public Engagement and Popular Media (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2016). Communicating Science Effectively: A Research Agenda (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press). doi:10.17226/23674  
  • Nelkin, D (1995). Selling Science: How the Press Covers Science & Technology, 2nd edition (New York: WH Freeman).
  • Wilson, A et al. (eds.) (1998). Handbook of Science Communication (Bristol; Philadelphia: Institute of Physics).

March 10, 2023
science, communication, confused, with, scientific, literature, scientific, communication, scholarly, communication, academic, journal, science, communication, practice, informing, educating, raising, awareness, science, related, topics, increasing, sense, won. Not to be confused with Scientific literature Scientific communication or Scholarly communication For the academic journal see Science Communication Science communication is the practice of informing educating raising awareness of science related topics and increasing the sense of wonder about scientific discoveries and arguments Science communicators and audiences are ambiguously defined and the expertise and level of science knowledge varies with each group Two types of science communication are outward facing or science outreach typically conducted by professional scientists to non expert audiences and inward facing or science inreach expert to expert communication from similar or different scientific backgrounds 1 Examples of outreach include science journalism and science museums Examples of inreach include scholarly communication and publication in scientific journals Science communication is influenced by systemic inequalities that impact both inreach 2 and outreach 3 Schematic overview of the field and the actors of science communication according to Carsten Konneker Science communicators can use entertainment and persuasion including humour storytelling and metaphors 4 5 Scientists can be trained in some of the techniques used by actors to improve their communication 6 Continually evaluating science communication and engagement activities allows for designing engagement activities to be as resource efficient as possible while also avoiding well known pitfalls 7 There is a field of research on science communication that for decades had only limited influence on science communication practice and vice versa 7 8 but evidence based science communication aims to bridge research and practice in science communication 7 Science communication may generate support for scientific research or science education and inform decision making including political and ethical thinking 9 Science communication can be an effective mediator between the different groups and individuals that have a stake in public policy industry and civil society 7 This may be especially critical in addressing scientific misinformation which spreads easily because it is not subject to the constraints of scientific method 9 10 The requirement for scientists to publicise research findings and generate impact has increased in recent years Research funders have also raised their expectations that researchers will go beyond publication in academic journals to communicate with the public This has generated interest in using creative methods of science communication such as blogs infographics illustrations and comics and board games 11 Contents 1 Motivations 2 Methods 2 1 Evidence based practices 2 2 Imagining science s publics 2 3 Frame analysis 2 4 Heuristics 2 5 Inclusive communication and cultural differences 3 Science in popular culture and the media 3 1 Birth of public science 3 2 Scientific media in the 19th century 3 3 Science communication in contemporary media 3 3 1 Traditional journalism 3 3 2 Live or face to face events 3 3 3 Online interaction 3 4 Social media science communication 4 The public understanding of science movement 5 See also 6 Notes and references 7 Further readingMotivations EditWriting in 1987 Geoffery Thomas and John Durant advocated various reasons to increase public understanding of science or scientific literacy 12 9 More trained engineers and scientists could allow a nation to be more competitive economically 9 11 17 Science can also benefit individuals Science can simply have aesthetic appeal e g popular science or science fiction Living in an increasingly technological society background scientific knowledge can help to negotiate it The science of happiness is an example of a field whose research can have direct and obvious implications for individuals 9 Governments and societies might also benefit from more scientific literacy since an informed electorate promotes a more democratic society 9 Moreover science can inform moral decision making e g answering questions about whether animals can feel pain how human activity influences climate or even a science of morality 9 In 1990 Steven Hilgartner a scholar in science and technology studies criticized some academic research in public understanding of science 10 Hilgartner argued that what he called the dominant view of science popularization tends to imply a tight boundary around those who can articulate true reliable knowledge 10 By defining a deficient public as recipients of knowledge the scientists get to emphasize their own identity as experts according to Hilgartner Understood in this way science communication may explicitly exist to connect scientists with the rest of society but science communication may reinforce the boundary between the public and the experts according to work by Brian Wynne in 1992 13 and Massimiano Bucchi in 1998 14 In 2016 the scholarly journal Public Understanding of Science ran an essay competition on the deficit model or deficit concept of science communication and published a series of articles answering the question In science communication why does the idea of a public deficit always return in different ways 15 for example Carina Cortassa s essay argued that the deficit model of science communication is just a special case of an omnipresent problem studied in social epistemology of testimony the problem of epistemic asymmetry which arises whenever some people know more about some things than other people 16 Science communication is just one kind of attempt to reduce epistemic asymmetry between people who may know more and people who may know less about a certain subject 16 Biologist Randy Olson said in 2009 that anti science groups can often be so motivated and so well funded that the impartiality of science organizations in politics can lead to crises of public understanding of science 4 He cited examples of denialism for instance climate change denial to support this worry 4 Journalist Robert Krulwich likewise argued in 2008 that the stories scientists tell compete with the efforts of people such as Turkish creationist Adnan Oktar 17 Krulwich explained that attractive easy to read and cheap creationist textbooks were sold by the thousands to schools in Turkey despite their strong secular tradition due to the efforts of Oktar 17 5 Astrobiologist David Morrison has spoken of repeated disruption of his work by popular anti scientific phenomena having been called upon to assuage public fears of an impending cataclysm involving an unseen planetary object first in 2008 and again in 2012 and 2017 18 Methods Edit source source source source source source track track track Walter Lewin demonstrates conservation of potential energy It can be difficult to captivatingly share good scientific thinking as well as scientifically accurate information Krulwich and Olson believe scientists must rise to that challenge using metaphor and story telling 4 17 5 Science popularization figures such as Carl Sagan and Neil deGrasse Tyson are partly responsible for the view of science or a specific science discipline within the general public However the degree of knowledge and experience a science popularizer has can vary greatly Because of this some science communication can depend on sensationalism As a Forbes contributor put it The main job of physics popularizers is the same as it is for any celebrity get more famous 19 Another point in the controversy of popular science is the idea of how public debate can affect public opinion A relevant and highly public example of this is climate change A science communication study appearing in The New York Times proves that even a fractious minority wields enough power to skew a reader s perception of a science news story and that even firmly worded but not uncivil disagreements between commenters affected readers perception of science 20 This causes some to worry about the popularizing of science in the public questioning whether the further popularization of science will cause pressure towards generalization or sensationalism 20 Marine biologist and film maker Randy Olson published Don t Be Such a Scientist Talking Substance in an Age of Style In the book he describes how there has been an unproductive negligence when it comes to teaching scientists to communicate Don t be Such a Scientist is written to his fellow scientists and he says they need to lighten up He adds that scientists are ultimately the most responsible for promoting and explaining science to the public and media This Olson says should be done according to a good grasp of social science scientists must use persuasive and effective means like story telling Olson acknowledges that the stories told by scientists need not only be compelling but also accurate to modern science and says this added challenge must simply be confronted He points to figures like Carl Sagan as effective popularizers partly because such figures actively cultivate a likeable image 4 At his commencement address to Caltech students journalist Robert Krulwich delivered a speech entitled Tell me a story 17 Krulwich says that scientists are actually given many opportunities to explain something interesting about science or their work and that they must seize such opportunities He says scientists must resist shunning the public as Sir Isaac Newton did in his writing and instead embrace metaphors the way Galileo did Krulwich suggests that metaphors only become more important as the science gets more difficult to understand He adds that telling stories of science in practice of scientists success stories and struggles helps convey that scientists are real people Finally Krulwich advocates for the importance of scientific values in general and helping the public to understand that scientific views are not mere opinions but hard won knowledge 5 Actor Alan Alda helped scientists and PhD students get more comfortable with communication with the help of drama coaches they use the acting techniques of Viola Spolin 6 Matthew Nisbet described the use of opinion leaders as intermediaries between scientists and the public as a way to reach the public via trained individuals who are more closely engaged with their communities such as teachers business leaders attorneys policymakers neighborhood leaders students and media professionals 21 Examples of initiatives that have taken this approach include Science amp Engineering Ambassadors sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences and Science Booster Clubs coordinated by the National Center for Science Education 21 Evidence based practices Edit Similar to how evidence based medicine gained a foothold in medical communication decades ago researchers Eric Jensen and Alexander Gerber have argued that science communication would benefit from evidence based prescriptions since the field faces related challenges 7 In particular they argued that the lack of collaboration between researchers and practitioners is a problem Ironically the challenges begin with communication about science communication evidence 7 2 The overall effectiveness of the science communication field is limited by the lack of effective transfer mechanisms for practitioners to apply research in their work and perhaps even investigate together with researchers communication strategies Jensen and Gerber said 7 Closer collaboration could enrich the spectrum of science communication research and increase the existing methodological toolbox including more longitudinal and experimental studies 7 Evidence based science communication would combine the best available evidence from systematic research underpinned by established theory as well as practitioners acquired skills and expertise reducing the double disconnect between scholarship and practice 22 Neither adequately take into account the other side s priorities needs and possible solutions Jensen and Gerber argued bridging the gap and fostering closer collaboration could allow for mutual learning enhancing the overall advancements of science communication as a young field 7 Imagining science s publics Edit In the preface of The Selfish Gene Richard Dawkins wrote Three imaginary readers looked over my shoulder while I was writing and I now dedicate the book to them First the general reader the layman second the expert and third the student Students explain science projects to visitors Susanna Hornig promotes the message that anyone can meaningfully engage with science even without going as deeply into it as the researchers themselves do 23 Many criticisms of the public understanding of science movement have emphasized that this thing they were calling the public was somewhat of an unhelpful black box Approaches to the public changed with the move away from the public understanding of science Science communication researchers and practitioners now often showcase their desire to listen to non scientists as well as acknowledging an awareness of the fluid and complex nature of post late modern social identities 24 At the very least people will use plurals publics or audiences As the editor of the scholarly journal Public Understanding of Science put it in a special issue on publics We have clearly moved from the old days of the deficit frame and thinking of publics as monolithic to viewing publics as active knowledgeable playing multiple roles receiving as well as shaping science Einsiedel 2007 5 25 However Einsiedel goes on to suggest both views of the public are monolithic in their own way they both choose to declare what something called the public is Some promoters of public understanding of science might have ridiculed publics for their ignorance but an alternative public engagement with science and technology romanticizes its publics for their participatory instincts intrinsic morality or simple collective wisdom As Susanna Hornig Priest concluded in her 2009 introduction essay on science s contemporary audiences the job of science communication might be to help non scientists feel they are not excluded as opposed to always included that they can join in if they want rather than that there is a necessity to spend their lives engaging 23 The process of quantifiably surveying public opinion of science is now largely associated with the public understanding of science movement some would say unfairly 26 In the US Jon Miller is the name most associated with such work and well known for differentiating between identifiable attentive or interested publics that is to say science fans and those who do not care much about science and technology Miller s work questioned whether the American public had the following four attributes of scientific literacy knowledge of basic textbook scientific factual knowledge an understanding of scientific method appreciated the positive outcomes of science and technology rejected superstitious beliefs such as astrology or numerology 27 In some respects John Durant s work surveying British public applied similar ideas to Miller However they were slightly more concerned with attitudes to science and technology rather than just how much knowledge people had 28 They also looked at public confidence in their knowledge considering issues such as the gender of those ticking don t know boxes We can see aspects of this approach as well as a more public engagement with science and technology influenced one reflected within the Eurobarometer studies of public opinion These have been running since 1973 to monitor public opinion in the member states with the aim of helping the preparation of policy and evaluation of policy They look at a host of topics not just science and technology but also defense the euro enlargement of the European Union and culture Eurobarometer s 2008 study of Europeans Attitudes to Climate Change is a good example 29 It focuses on respondents subjective level of information asking personally do you think that you are well informed or not about rather than checking what people knew Frame analysis Edit Science communication can be analyzed through frame analysis a research method used to analyze how people understand situations and activities Some features of this analysis are listed below Public accountability placing a blame on public actions for value e g political gain in the climate change debate Runaway technology creating a certain view of technological advancements e g photos of an exploded nuclear power plant Scientific uncertainty questioning the reliability of a scientific theory e g arguing how bad global climate change can be if humans are still alive 30 Heuristics Edit People make an enormous number of decisions every day and to approach all of them in a careful methodical manner is impractical They therefore often use mental shortcuts known as heuristics to quickly arrive at acceptable inferences 31 Tversky and Kahneman originally proposed three heuristics listed below although there are many others that have been discussed in later research 32 Representativeness used to make assumptions about probability based on relevancy e g how likely item A is to be a member of category B is Kim a chef or that event C resulted from process D could the sequence of coin tosses H H T T have occurred randomly Availability used to estimate how frequent or likely an event is based on how quickly one can conjure examples of the event For example if one were asked to approximate the number of people in your age group that are currently in college your judgment would be affected by how many of your own acquaintances are in college Anchoring and adjustment used when making judgments with uncertainties One will start with an anchoring point then adjust it to reach an assumption For example if you are asked to estimate how many people will take Dr Smith s biology class this spring you may recall that 38 students took the class in the fall and adjust your estimation based on whether the class is more popular in the spring or in the fall The most effective science communication efforts take into account the role that heuristics play in everyday decision making Many outreach initiatives focus solely on increasing the public s knowledge but studies have found little if any correlation between knowledge levels and attitudes towards scientific issues 33 34 Inclusive communication and cultural differences Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it November 2020 Science communication is often influenced by the implicit inequities embedded in the production of scientific knowledge itself Maori researcher Linda Tuhiwai Smith details how scientific research is inextricably linked to European imperialism and colonialism 35 and Collin Bjork notes that this oppressive framework is linked to science communication in part because European colonizers employed both the English language and western science as tools for subjugating others 36 The inequalities in the systems that produce science and science communication persist to today and were recently amplified during the initial waves of the Covid 19 pandemic when studies found that women researchers submitted proportionally fewer manuscripts than men 37 to peer reviewed journals which is likely due to the unequal professional and sociocultural burdens faced by women scientists There is a cultural side to science communication There is a necessity to consider cultural differences such as how individuals feel about the distance between humans and nature 38 A code of ethics for communicators of science would have to transcend cultural boundaries 39 Inclusive science communication seeks to build further methods for reaching marginalized groups that are often left out by typical top down science communication 40 The Metcalf Institute for Marine amp Environmental Reporting at the University of Rhode Island produced a survey of these practices in 2020 40 Complementary methods for including diverse voices include the use of poetry 41 participatory arts 42 film 43 and games 44 all of which have been used to engage various publics by monitoring deliberating and responding to their attitudes toward science and scientific discourse Science in popular culture and the media Edit This diagram designed by Thomas Edison in 1880 is intended to depict the workings of a light bulb Birth of public science Edit While scientific study began to emerge as a popular discourse following the Renaissance and the Enlightenment science was not widely funded or exposed to the public until the nineteenth century 45 Most science prior to this was funded by individuals under private patronage and was studied in exclusive groups like the Royal Society Public science emerged due to a gradual social change resulting from the rise of the middle class in the nineteenth century As scientific inventions like the conveyor belt and the steam locomotive entered and enhanced the lifestyle of people in the nineteenth century scientific inventions began to be widely funded by universities and other public institutions in an effort to increase scientific research 46 Since scientific achievements were beneficial to society the pursuit of scientific knowledge resulted in science as a profession Scientific institutions like the National Academy of Sciences or the British Association for the Advancement of Science are examples of leading platforms for the public discussion of science 47 David Brewster founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science believed in regulated publications in order to effectively communicate their discoveries so that scientific students may know where to begin their labours 48 As the communication of science reached a wider audience due to the professionalization of science and its introduction to the public sphere the interest in the subject increased Scientific media in the 19th century Edit There was a change in media production in the nineteenth century The invention of the steam powered printing press enabled more pages to be printed per hour which resulted in cheaper texts Book prices gradually dropped which gave the working classes the ability to purchase them 49 No longer reserved for the elite affordable and informative texts were made available to a mass audience Historian Aileen Fyfe noted that as the nineteenth century experienced a set of social reforms that sought to improve the lives of those in the working classes the availability of public knowledge was valuable for intellectual growth 50 As a result there were reform efforts to further the knowledge of the less educated The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge led by Henry Brougham attempted to organize a system for widespread literacy for all classes 51 Additionally weekly periodicals like the Penny Magazine were aimed to educate the general public on scientific achievements in a comprehensive manner 52 Fredrich Koenig s steam powered printing press 1814 As the audience for scientific texts expanded the interest in public science did as well Extension lectures were installed in some universities like Oxford and Cambridge which encouraged members of the public to attend lectures 53 In America traveling lectures were a common occurrence in the nineteenth century and attracted hundreds of viewers These public lectures were a part of the lyceum movement and demonstrated basic scientific experiments which advanced scientific knowledge for both the educated and uneducated viewers 54 Not only did the popularization of public science enlighten the general public through mass media but it also enhanced communication within the scientific community Although scientists had been communicating their discoveries and achievements through print for centuries publications with a variety of subjects decreased in popularity 55 Alternatively publications in discipline specific journals were crucial for a successful career in the sciences in the nineteenth century As a result scientific journals such as Nature or National Geographic possessed a large readership and received substantial funding by the end of the nineteenth century as the popularization of science continued 56 Science communication in contemporary media Edit Science can be communicated to the public in many different ways According to Karen Bultitude a science communication lecturer at University College London these can be broadly categorized into three groups traditional journalism live or face to face events and online interaction 57 Traditional journalism Edit Traditional journalism for example newspapers magazines television and radio has the advantage of reaching large audiences in the past this is way most people regularly accessed information about science 57 58 Traditional media is also more likely to produce information that is high quality well written or presented as it will have been produced by professional journalists Traditional journalism is often also responsible for setting agendas and having an impact on government policy 57 The traditional journalistic method of communication is one way so there can be no dialogue with the public and science stories can often be reduced in scope so that there is a limited focus for a mainstream audience who may not be able to comprehend the bigger picture from a scientific perspective 57 59 However there is new research now available on the role of newspapers and television channels in constituting scientific public spheres which enable participation of a wide range of actors in public deliberations 60 Another disadvantage of traditional journalism is that once a science story is taken up by mainstream media the scientist s involved no longer has any direct control over how his or her work is communicated which may lead to misunderstanding or misinformation 57 59 Research in this area demonstrates how the relationship between journalists and scientists has been strained in some instances 61 On one hand scientists have reported being frustrated with things like journalists oversimplifying or dramatizing of their work while on the other hand journalists find scientists difficult to work with and ill equipped to communicate their work to a general audience 62 61 Despite this potential tension a comparison of scientists from several countries has shown that many scientists are pleased with their media interactions and engage often 63 However the use of traditional media sources like newspapers and television has steadily declined as primary sources for science information while the internet has rapidly increased in prominence 64 In 2016 55 of Americans reported using the internet as their primary source to learn about science and technology compared to 24 reporting TV and 4 reporting newspapers were their primary sources 64 Additionally traditional media outlets have dramatically decreased the number of or in some cases eliminated science journalists and the amount of science related content they publish 65 Live or face to face events Edit The second category is live or face to face events such as public lectures in museums or universities 66 debates science busking 67 sci art exhibits 68 Science Cafes and science festivals Citizen science or crowd sourced science scientific research conducted in whole or in part by amateur or nonprofessional scientists can be done with a face to face approach online or as a combination of the two to engage in science communication 57 Research has shown that members of the public seek out science information that is entertaining but also helping citizens to critically participate in risk regulation and S amp T governance 69 Therefore it is important to bear this aspect in mind when communicating scientific information to the public for example through events combining science communication and comedy such as Festival of the Spoken Nerd 70 or during scientific controversies 58 The advantages of this approach are that it is more personal and allows scientists to interact with the public allowing for two way dialogue Scientists are also better able to control content using this method Disadvantages of this method include the limited reach it can also be resource intensive and costly and also it may be that only audiences with an existing interest in science will be attracted 57 Online interaction Edit The third category is online interaction for example websites blogs wikis and podcasts can be used for science communication as can other social media Online methods of communicating science have the potential to reach huge audiences can allow direct interaction between scientists and the public 71 and the content is always accessible and can be somewhat controlled by the scientist Additionally online communication of science can help boost scientists reputation through increased citations better circulation of articles and establishing new collaborations 62 61 Online communication also allows for both one way and two way communication depending on the audience s and the author s preferences However there are disadvantages in that it is difficult to control how content is picked up by others and regular attention and updating is needed 57 When considering whether or not to engage in science communication online scientists should review what science communication research has shown to be the potential positive and negative outcomes Online communication has given rise to movements like open science which advocates for making science more accessible However when engaging in communication about science online scientists should consider not publicizing or reporting findings from their research until it has been peer reviewed and published as journals may not accept the work after it has been circulated under the Ingelfinger rule Other considerations revolve around how scientists will be perceived by other scientists for engaging in communication For example some scholars have criticized engaged popular scholars using concepts like the Sagan effect or Kardashian Index Despite these criticisms many scientists are taking to communicating their work on online platforms a sign of potentially changing norms in the field 72 ArtAccording to Lesen et all 2016 73 art has been an increasingly used tool to attract the public to science Either formally or in an informal context an integration between artists and scientists could potentially raise awareness of the general public 74 about current topics in the Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics STEM The arts have the power of creating emotional links between the public and a research topic and create a collaborative atmosphere that can activate science in a different way 75 Learning through the affection domain in contrast to the cognitive domain increases motivation 76 and using the arts to communicate scientific knowledge this way could increase dramatically engagement 77 Social media science communication Edit By using Twitter scientists and science communicators can discuss scientific topics with many types of audiences with various points of view 78 Studies published in 2012 by Gunther Eysenbach shed light on how Twitter not only communicates science to the public but also affects advances in the science community 79 Alison Bert editor in chief of Elsevier Connect wrote a 2014 news article titled How to use social media for science that reported on a panel about social media at that year s AAAS meeting in which panelists Maggie Koerth Baker Kim Cobb and Danielle N Lee noted some potential benefits and drawbacks to scientists of sharing their research on Twitter 80 Koerth Baker for example commented on the importance of keeping public and private personas on social media separate in order to maintain professionalism online 80 Interviewed in 2014 Karen Peterson director of Scientific Career Development at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center stressed the importance for scientists of using social networks such as Facebook and Twitter to establish an online presence 81 Kimberly Collins et al writing in PLOS One in 2016 explained reasons why some scientists were hesitant to join Twitter 82 Some scientists were hesitant to use social media outlets such as Twitter due to lack of knowledge of the platform and inexperience with how to make meaningful posts 82 Some scientists did not see the meaning in using Twitter as a platform to share their research or have the time to add the information into the accounts themselves 82 In 2016 Elena Milani created the SciHashtag Project which is a condensed collection of Twitter hashtags about science communication 83 In 2017 a study done by the Pew Research Center found that about a quarter of social media users 26 follow science accounts on social media 84 This group of users places both more importance and comparatively more trust on science news that comes to them through social media 84 Scientists have also used other social media platforms including Instagram and Reddit to establish a connection with the public and discuss science 85 86 87 The public understanding of science movement Edit Michael Faraday giving a Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution circa 1855 Public understanding of science public awareness of science and public engagement with science and technology are all terms coined with a movement involving governments and societies in the late 20th century During the late 19th century science became a professional subject and influenced by governmental suggestions Prior to this public understanding of science was very low on the agenda However some well known figures such as Michael Faraday ran lectures aimed at the non expert public his being the famous Christmas Lectures which began in 1825 The 20th century saw groups founded on the basis they could position science in a broader cultural context and allow scientists to communicate their knowledge in a way that could reach and be understood by the general public In the UK The Bodmer Report or The Public Understanding of Science as it is more formally known published in 1985 by The Royal Society changed the way scientists communicated their work to the public The report was designed to review the nature and extent of the public understanding of science in the United Kingdom and its adequacy for an advanced democracy 9 5 7 Chaired by the geneticist Sir Walter Bodmer alongside famous scientists as well as broadcaster Sir David Attenborough the report was evidenced by all of the major sectors concerned scientists politicians journalists and industrialists but not the general public 9 5 7 One of the main assumptions drawn from the report was everybody should have some grasp of science and this should be introduced from a young age by teachers who are suitably qualified in the subject area 88 The report also asked for further media coverage of science including via newspapers and television which has ultimately led to the establishment of platforms such as the Vega Science Trust In both the UK and the United States following the second world war public views of scientists swayed from great praise to resentment Therefore the Bodmer Report highlighted concerns from the scientific community that their withdrawal from society was causing scientific research funding to be weak 89 Bodmer promoted the communication of science to a wider more general public by expressing to British scientists that it was their responsibility to publicize their research 89 An upshot of the publication of the report was the creation of the Committee on the Public Understanding of Science COPUS a collaboration between the British Association for the Advancement of Science the Royal Society and the Royal Institution The engagement between these individual societies caused the necessity for a public understanding of science movement to be taken seriously COPUS also awarded grants for specific outreach activities allowing the public understanding to come to the fore 90 Ultimately leading to a cultural shift in the way scientists publicized their work to the wider non expert community 91 Although COPUS no longer exists within the UK the name has been adopted in the US by the Coalition on the Public Understanding of Science An organization which is funded by the US National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation and focuses on popular science projects such as science cafes festivals magazines and citizen science schemes In the European Union public views on public funded research and the role of governmental institutions in funding scientific activities were being questioned as the budget allocated was increasing 92 Therefore the European Commission encouraged strongly and later obligated research organizations to communicate about their research activities and results widely and to the general public This is being done by integrating a communication plan into their research project that increases the public visibility of the project using an accessible language and adapted channels and materials 93 See also EditConversazione Hype in science List of popularizers of science Public awareness of science Science to business marketingNotes and references Edit Illingworth Sam Allen Grant 2020 2016 Introduction Effective science communication a practical guide to surviving as a scientist 2nd ed Bristol UK Philadelphia IOP Publishing pp 1 5 doi 10 1088 978 0 7503 2520 2ch1 ISBN 9780750325189 OCLC 1172776633 This chapter provides a clearer distinction between the two aspects of science communication that are discussed in this book that which is aimed at engaging scientists inward facing and that which is aimed at engaging non scientists outward facing Bjork Collin 2022 Book Review H Glasman Deal Science Research Writing for Native and Non Native Speakers of English Journal of Second Language Writing 56 doi 10 1016 j jslw 2022 100877 S2CID 247394793 Lewenstein Bruce V 2022 Is Citizen Science a Remedy for Inequality The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 700 183 194 doi 10 1177 00027162221092697 S2CID 248562327 a b c d e 23 October 2009 Randy Olson Don t Be Such a Scientist Includes podcast Pointofinquiry org Accessed May 2012 a b c d Miller Lulu 29 July 2008 Tell Me a Story Includes podcast Radiolab org Accessed May 2012 a b Grushkin Daniel 5 August 2010 Try acting like a scientist The Scientist Magazine Accessed May 2012 archive accessed Jan 2022 a b c d e f g h i Jensen Eric A Gerber Alexander 2020 Evidence Based Science Communication Frontiers in Communication 4 doi 10 3389 fcomm 2019 00078 ISSN 2297 900X Text was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License The first detailed empirical analysis of the international research field was commissioned by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research Gerber Alexander 2020 Science Communication Research an Empirical Field Analysis Germany Edition innovare ISBN 978 3 947540 02 0 Retrieved 11 January 2021 a b c d e f g h i Gregory Jane Miller Steve 1998 Science in Public Communication Culture and Credibility New York Plenum Trade ISBN 0306458608 OCLC 38478554 a b c Hilgartner Stephen 1990 The Dominant View of Popularization Conceptual Problems Political Uses Social Studies of Science 20 3 519 539 doi 10 1177 030631290020003006 S2CID 144068473 Coon Jo Thompson Orr Noreen Shaw Liz Hunt Harriet Garside Ruth Nunns Michael Groppel Wegener Alke Whear Becky 4 April 2022 Bursting out of our bubble using creative techniques to communicate within the systematic review process and beyond Systematic Reviews 11 1 56 doi 10 1186 s13643 022 01935 2 ISSN 2046 4053 PMC 8977563 PMID 35379331 Thomas Geoffrey Durant John Summer 1987 Why should we promote the public understanding of science PDF Scientific Literacy Papers A Journal of Research in Science Education and the Public 1 1 14 Archived from the original PDF on 18 September 2019 Retrieved 18 September 2019 Wynne Brian 1992 Misunderstood misunderstanding Social identities and public uptake of science Public Understanding of Science vol 1 3 281 304 See also Irwin Alan amp Wynne Brian eds 1996 Misunderstanding Science Cambridge amp New York Cambridge University Press Massimiano Bucchi 1998 Science and the Media London amp New York Routledge Public Understanding of Science Volume 25 Number 4 May 2016 Retrieved 18 September 2019 a b Cortassa Carina May 2016 In science communication why does the idea of a public deficit always return the eternal recurrence of the public deficit Public Understanding of Science 25 4 447 459 doi 10 1177 0963662516629745 PMID 27117772 S2CID 36739598 a b c d Krulwich Robert Fall 2008 Tell me a story PDF Engineering and Science Caltech Magazine 71 3 10 16 Selk Avi Please stop annoying this NASA scientist with your ridiculous Planet X doomsday theories The Washington Post Retrieved 18 December 2017 What is Neil deGrasse Tyson s Role in the Scientific Community Forbes Retrieved 29 November 2018 a b Walsh Lynda 2015 The Double Edged Sword of Popularization Science Communication 37 5 658 669 doi 10 1177 1075547015581928 S2CID 144140159 a b Nisbet Matthew 2018 Ambassadors for Science Harnessing the Power of Opinion Leaders across Communities Skeptical Inquirer 42 2 30 31 Retrieved 1 June 2018 Gerber Alexander 2014 Science Caught Flat Footed How Academia Struggles with Open Science Communication In Bartling Sonke Friesike Sascha eds Opening Science The Evolving Guide on How the Internet is Changing Research Collaboration and Scholarly Publishing Cham Springer International Publishing pp 73 80 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 00026 8 4 ISBN 978 3 319 00026 8 a b Priest Susanna Hornig 2009 Reinterpreting the audiences for media messages about science in Richard Holliman et al eds Investigating Science Communication in the Information Age Implications for Public Engagement and Popular Media Oxford Oxford University Press 223 236 For example see Irwin Alan amp Michael Mike 2003 Science Social Theory and Public Knowledge Maidenhead amp Philadelphia Open University Press chapter 6 Einsiedel Edna 2005 Editorial Of Publics and Science Public Understanding of Science 16 1 5 6 doi 10 1177 0963662506071289 S2CID 143626350 Martin Bauer Nick Allum and Steve Miller What can we learn from 25 years of PUS survey research Liberating and expanding the agenda Public Understanding of Science volume 16 2007 pages 79 95 Martin Bauer Nick Allum and Steve Miller What can we learn from 25 years of PUS survey research Liberating and expanding the agenda Public Understanding of Science volume 16 2007 pages 80 81 For example Durant John R Evans Geoffrey A Thomas Geoffrey P July 1989 The public understanding of science Nature 340 6228 11 14 Bibcode 1989Natur 340 11D doi 10 1038 340011a0 PMID 2739718 S2CID 5239829 September 2008 Europeans attitudes towards climate change European Parliament and European Commission accessed in May 2012 See for example Nisbet Matthew C March April 2009 Communicating Climate Change Why Frames Matter for Public Engagement Environment Retrieved 20 October 2010 Fiske S T amp Taylor S E 1991 Social Cognition 2nd ed New York McGraw Hill Tversky Amos Kahneman Daniel 27 September 1974 Judgment under Uncertainty Heuristics and Biases Science 185 4157 1124 1131 Bibcode 1974Sci 185 1124T doi 10 1126 science 185 4157 1124 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 17835457 S2CID 143452957 Brossard Dominique Lewenstein Bruce Bonney Rick 1 January 2005 Scientific knowledge and attitude change The impact of a citizen science project International Journal of Science Education 27 9 1099 1121 Bibcode 2005IJSEd 27 1099B doi 10 1080 09500690500069483 ISSN 0950 0693 S2CID 16830396 Scheufele D A 2006 Messages and heuristics How audiences form attitudes about emerging technologies In J Turney Ed Engaging science Thoughts deeds analysis and action pp 20 25 London The Wellcome Trust Tuhiwai Smith Linda 2021 Decolonizing Methodologies Research and Indigenous Peoples 3rd ed Bloomsbury p 1 Bjork Collin 2022 Book Review H Glasman Deal Science Research Writing for Native and Non Native Speakers of English Journal of Second Language Writing 56 doi 10 1016 j jslw 2022 100877 S2CID 247394793 Flaminio Squazzoni Giangiacomo Bravo Francisco Grimaldo Daniel Garcia Costa Mike Farjam Bahar Mehmani 2021 Gender gap in journal submissions and peer review during the first wave of the COVID 19 pandemic A study on 2329 Elsevier journals PLOS ONE 16 10 e0257919 Bibcode 2021PLoSO 1657919S doi 10 1371 journal pone 0257919 PMC 8528305 PMID 34669713 SSRN 3712813 Lewenstein Bruce V 15 November 1997 International Perspectives on Science Communication Ethics Frontiers The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 3 1 170 179 doi 10 36366 frontiers v3i1 52 ISSN 2380 8144 Aikenhead G S 2001 Science Communication with the Public A Cross Cultural Event Science Communication in Theory and Practice Contemporary Trends and Issues in Science Education Vol 14 Dordrecht Springer Netherlands pp 23 45 doi 10 1007 978 94 010 0620 0 2 ISBN 978 1 4020 0131 4 a b Canfield Katherine Menezes Sunshine November 2020 The State of Inclusive Science Communication A Landscape Study PDF Technical report Kingston RI Metcalf Institute University of Rhode Island Bell Alice Capstick Stuart Corner Adam Forster Piers Illingworth Sam Leigh Rosie Lorono Leturiondo Maria Muller Catherine Richardson Harriett Shuckburg Emily 2018 Representing the majority and not the minority the importance of the individual in communicating climate change Geoscience Communication 1 1 9 24 doi 10 5194 gc 1 9 2018 S2CID 55809517 Birke Miriam Ockwell David Whitmarsh Lorraine 2018 Participatory arts and affective engagement with climate change The missing link in achieving climate compatible behaviour change PDF Global Environmental Change 49 95 105 doi 10 1016 j gloenvcha 2018 02 007 S2CID 158655069 Howell Rachel 2011 Lights camera action Altered attitudes and behaviour in response to the climate change film The Age of Stupid PDF Global Environmental Change 21 1 177 187 doi 10 1016 j gloenvcha 2010 09 004 hdl 20 500 11820 ca1502ff 23de 4e17 b37f ce6baedf528e S2CID 153661142 Illingworth Sam Wake Paul 2021 Ten simple rules for designing analogue science games PLOS Computational Biology 17 6 e1009009 Bibcode 2021PLSCB 17E9009I doi 10 1371 journal pcbi 1009009 PMC 8192012 PMID 34111111 Who pays for science www berkeley edu Berkeley University Retrieved 29 October 2016 Science Technology Timeline www victorianweb org 2002 Retrieved 25 October 2016 BAAS www victorianweb org 2002 Retrieved 25 October 2016 British Science Association History www britishscienceassociation org British Science Association Retrieved 30 October 2016 Landow George P 25 May 2005 A Review of Aileen Fyfe s Science and Salvation Evangelical Popular Science Publishing in Victorian Britain www victorianweb org Retrieved 1 November 2016 Fyfe Aileen Science Publishing www victorianweb org National University of Ireland Retrieved 29 October 2016 Ashton Rosemary 2004 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge act 1826 1846 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 59807 Retrieved 2 November 2016 Subscription or UK public library membership required Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 2012 The Penny Magazine of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge archive org Retrieved 1 November 2016 About the University Nineteenth and twentieth centuries University of Cambridge University of Cambridge 28 January 2013 Retrieved 31 October 2016 Showing off Scientific Lecturing in the 19th century The Dickinsonia History Project Dickinson College Retrieved 2 November 2016 Fyfe Aileen Science Publishing Brown University Retrieved 29 October 2016 Brown Melinda 2015 Making Nature The History of a Scientific Journal Chicago USA University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226261454 a b c d e f g h Bultitude Karen 2011 The Why and How of Science Communication PDF Archived from the original PDF on 13 August 2012 Retrieved 25 October 2016 a b Ipsos MORI 2011 Public Attitudes to Science 2011 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 21 July 2015 Retrieved 27 October 2016 a b McCartney Margaret 25 January 2016 Margaret McCartney Who gains from the media s misrepresentation of science BMJ 352 i355 doi 10 1136 bmj i355 ISSN 1756 1833 PMID 26810502 Shiju Sam Varughese 2017 Contested Knowledge Science Media and Democracy in Kerala Oxford University Press New Delhi a b c Dudo Anthony 1 September 2015 Scientists the Media and the Public Communication of Science Sociology Compass 9 9 761 775 doi 10 1111 soc4 12298 ISSN 1751 9020 a b Jamieson Kathleen Hall Kahan Dan M Scheufele Dietram A 2017 The Oxford handbook of the science of science communication Jamieson Kathleen Hall Kahan Dan M Scheufele Dietram New York NY United States of America ISBN 9780190497620 OCLC 962750268 Peters Hans Peter Brossard Dominique Cheveigne Suzanne de Dunwoody Sharon Kallfass Monika Miller Steve Tsuchida Shoji 11 July 2008 Interactions with the Mass Media Science 321 5886 204 205 doi 10 1126 science 1157780 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 18625578 S2CID 29943089 a b S amp E Indicators 2018 NSF National Science Foundation www nsf gov Retrieved 28 March 2018 National Academies Of Sciences Engineering Division of Behavioral Social Sciences Education Committee on the Science of Science Communication A Research Agenda 13 December 2016 Communicating Science Effectively A Research Agenda National Academies Press doi 10 17226 23674 ISBN 9780309451024 PMID 28406600 Rawlinson Katherine 2021 Family focused campus based university event increases perceived knowledge science capital and aspirations across a wide demographic International Journal of Science Education Part B 11 3 273 291 doi 10 1080 21548455 2021 1971319 Illingworth Sam October 2017 Delivering effective science communication advice from a professional science communicator PDF Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 70 10 16 doi 10 1016 j semcdb 2017 04 002 PMID 28412537 Science busking these take the form of a series of science street performances where science is used to draw in a crowd and explain a topic to them a little like a close hand magic show for science Science busking is incredibly portable and flexible but does rely upon the skill of the performer and can occasionally run the risk of wowing rather than explaining discussing SciArt Initiative sciartinitiative org Retrieved 18 September 2019 Shiju Sam Varughese 2017 Contested Knowledge Science Media and Democracy in Kerala Oxford University Press New Delhi Commissariat Tushna February 2018 Of graphs and giggles Physics World 31 2 42 Bibcode 2018PhyW 31b 42C doi 10 1088 2058 7058 31 2 33 Konneker Carsten Lugger Beatrice 4 October 2013 Public Science 2 0 Back to the Future Science 342 6154 49 50 Bibcode 2013Sci 342 49K doi 10 1126 science 1245848 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 24092719 Science Gone Social The Scientist Magazine October 2014 Retrieved 18 September 2019 Lesen Amy E Rogan Ama Blum Michael J September 2016 Science Communication Through Art Objectives Challenges and Outcomes Trends in Ecology amp Evolution 31 9 657 660 doi 10 1016 j tree 2016 06 004 ISSN 0169 5347 PMID 27377601 Root Bernstein Bob Siler Todd Brown Adam Snelson Kenneth June 2011 ArtScience Integrative Collaboration to Create a Sustainable Future Leonardo 44 3 192 doi 10 1162 leon e 00161 ISSN 0024 094X S2CID 57564224 Schwartz Brian 21 August 2014 Communicating Science through the Performing Arts Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 39 3 275 289 Bibcode 2014ISRv 39 275S doi 10 1179 0308018814z 00000000089 ISSN 0308 0188 S2CID 108406259 Torner Gunter 2014 The Affective Domain MasterClass in Mathematics Education Bloomsbury Publishing Plc doi 10 5040 9781350284807 ch 006 ISBN 978 1 44117 975 3 Friedman Alan J January 2013 Reflections on Communicating Science through Art Curator The Museum Journal 56 1 3 9 doi 10 1111 cura 12001 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Retrieved 12 December 2017 Jarreau Paige Brown Cancellare Imogene A Carmichael Becky J Porter Lance Toker Daniel Yammine Samantha Z 10 May 2019 Using selfies to challenge public stereotypes of scientists PLOS One 14 5 e0216625 Bibcode 2019PLoSO 1416625J doi 10 1371 journal pone 0216625 PMC 6510418 PMID 31075155 Hara Noriko Abbazio Jessica Perkins Kathryn 15 May 2019 An emerging form of public engagement with science Ask Me Anything AMA sessions on Reddit r science PLOS One 14 5 e0216789 Bibcode 2019PLoSO 1416789H doi 10 1371 journal pone 0216789 PMC 6519800 PMID 31091264 Britton Ben Jackson Chris Wade Jessica August 2019 The reward and risk of social media for academics Nature Reviews Chemistry 3 8 459 461 doi 10 1038 s41570 019 0121 3 hdl 10044 1 71949 S2CID 198137018 Short Daniel 2013 The public understanding of science 30 years of the Bodmer Report The School Science Review 95 39 43 a b Ipsos MORI Public Attitudes to Science 2011 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 21 July 2015 Retrieved 27 October 2016 Bodmer Walter 20 September 2010 Public Understanding of Science The BA the Royal Society and COPUS Notes and Records of the Royal Society 64 Suppl 1 S151 S161 doi 10 1098 rsnr 2010 0035 ISSN 0035 9149 Science and Technology Third Review parliament uk The impact of publicly funded research on innovation PDF Eurosfaire Retrieved 11 July 2019 Viallon Maxence What makes a good communication dissemination and exploitation plan of a research project Part 1 Communication Leitat Projects Blog Retrieved 11 July 2019 Further reading EditBauer M amp Bucchi M eds 2007 Journalism Science and Society London amp New York Routledge Bucchi M amp Trench B eds 2014 Handbook of Public Communication of Science and Technology 2nd ed London amp New York Routledge Cartwright JH amp Baker B 2005 Literature and Science Social Impact and Interaction Santa Barbara ABC CLIO Drake JL et al eds 2013 New Trends in Earth Science Outreach and Engagement The Nature of Communication Cham Switzerland Springer Fortenberry RC 2018 Complete Science Communication A Guide to Connecting with Scientists Journalists and the Public London Royal Society of Chemistry Gregory J amp Miller S 1998 Science in Public Communication Culture and Credibility New York Plenum Holliman R et al eds 2009 Investigating Science Communication in the Information Age Implications for Public Engagement and Popular Media Oxford Oxford University Press National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine 2016 Communicating Science Effectively A Research Agenda Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 10 17226 23674 Nelkin D 1995 Selling Science How the Press Covers Science amp Technology 2nd edition New York WH Freeman Wilson A et al eds 1998 Handbook of Science Communication Bristol Philadelphia Institute of Physics Portal Science Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Science communication amp oldid 1143437210, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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