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Science journalism

June 02, 2023

"Science writing" redirects here. Not to be confused with Scientific writing.
For broader coverage of this topic, see Science communication.

Science journalism conveys reporting about science to the public.[2] The field typically involves interactions between scientists, journalists and the public.

Emma Reh (1896–1982) was a science journalist for the Science Service in the 1920s and 1930s. Here she can be seen reporting on an archaeological site in Oaxaca for Science News.[1]

Origins

Modern science journalism originated in weather and other natural history observations, as well as reports of new scientific findings, reported by almanacs and other news writing in the centuries following the advent of the printing press. One early example dates back to Digdarshan (means showing the direction), which was an educational monthly magazine that started publication in 1818 from Srirampore, Bengal, India. Digdarshan carried articles on different aspects of science, such as plants, steam boat, etc. It was available in Bengali, Hindi and English languages. [3] In the U.S., Scientific American was founded in 1845, in another early example. One of the occasions an article was attributed to a 'scientific correspondent' was "A Gale in the Bay of Biscay" by William Crookes which appeared in The Times on 18 January 1871, page 7.[4] Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) and John Tyndall (1820–1893) were scientists who were greatly involved in journalism and Peter Chalmers Mitchell (1864–1945) was Scientific Correspondent for The Times from 1918 to 1935.[5] However it was with James Crowther's appointment as the 'scientific correspondent' of The Manchester Guardian by C. P. Scott in 1928 that science journalism really took shape. Crowther related that Scott had declared that there was "no such thing" as science journalism, at which point Crowther replied that he intended to invent it. Scott was convinced and then employed him.[5]

Aims

Science values detail, precision, the impersonal, the technical, the lasting, facts, numbers and being right. Journalism values brevity, approximation, the personal, the colloquial, the immediate, stories, words and being right now. There are going to be tensions.

— Quentin Cooper, of BBC Radio 4's Material World, [6]

The aim of a science journalist is to render very detailed, specific, and often jargon-laden information produced by scientists into a form that non-scientists can understand and appreciate while still communicating the information accurately. One way science journalism can achieve that is to avoid an information deficit model of communication, which assumes a top-down, one-way direction of communicating information that limits an open dialogue between knowledge holders and the public. One such way of sparking an inclusive dialogue between science and society that leads to a broader uptake of post-high school science discoveries is science blogs.[7] Science journalists face an increasing need to convey factually correct information through storytelling techniques in order to tap into both the rational and emotional side of their audiences, the latter of which to some extent ensuring that the information uptake persists.[8]

Science journalists often have training in the scientific disciplines that they cover. Some have earned a degree in a scientific field before becoming journalists or exhibited talent in writing about science subjects. However, good preparation for interviews and even deceptively simple questions such as "What does this mean to the people on the street?" can often help a science journalist develop material that is useful for the intended audience. [9]

Status

With budget cuts at major newspapers and other media, there are fewer working science journalists employed by traditional print and broadcast media than before.[10] Similarly, there are currently very few journalists in traditional media outlets that write multiple articles on emerging science, such as nanotechnology.

In 2011, there were 459 journalists who had written a newspaper article covering nanotechnology, of whom 7 wrote about the topic more than 25 times.[11]

In January 2012, just a week after The Daily Climate reported that worldwide coverage of climate change continued a three-year slide in 2012[12] and that among the five largest US dailies, the New York Times published the most stories and had the biggest increase in coverage,[13] that newspaper announced that it was dismantling its environmental desk and merging its journalists with other departments.[14]

News coverage on science by traditional media outlets, such as newspapers, magazines, radio and news broadcasts is being replaced by online sources. In April 2012, the New York Times was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for content published by Politico and The Huffington Post (now HuffPost) both online sources, a sign of the platform shift by the media outlet.

Science information continues to be widely available to the public online. The increase in access to scientific studies and findings causes science journalism to adapt. "In many countries the public's main source of information about science and technology is the mass media."[15] Science journalists must compete for attention with other stories that are perceived as more entertaining. Science information cannot always be sensationalized to capture attention and the sheer amount of available information can cause important findings to be buried. The general public does not typically search for science information unless it is mentioned or discussed in mainstream media first.[15] However, the mass media are the most important or only source of scientific information for people after completing their education.[16]

A common misconception about public interest surrounds science journalism. Those who choose which news stories are important typically assume the public is not as interested in news written by a scientist and would rather receive news stories that are written by general reporters instead. The results of a study conducted comparing public interest between news stories written by scientists and stories written by reporters concluded there is no significant difference.[15] The public was equally interested in news stories written by a reporter and a scientist. This is a positive finding for science journalism because it shows it is increasingly relevant and is relied upon by the public to make informed decisions. "The vast majority of non-specialists obtain almost all their knowledge about science from journalists, who serve as the primary gatekeepers for scientific information."[17] Ethical and accurate reporting by science journalists is vital to keeping the public informed.

Science journalism is reported differently than traditional journalism. Conventionally, journalism is seen as more ethical if it is balanced reporting and includes information from both sides of an issue. Science journalism has moved to an authoritative type of reporting where they present information based on peer reviewed evidence and either ignore the conflicting side or point out their lack of evidence. Science journalism continues to adapt to a slow journalism method that is very time-consuming but contains higher quality information from peer reviewed sources. They also practice sustainable journalism that focuses on solutions rather than only the problem.[18] Presenting information from both sides of the issue can confuse readers on what the actual findings show. Balanced reporting can actually lead to unbalanced reporting because it gives attention to extreme minority views in the science community, implying that the both sides have an equal number of supporters. It can give the false impression that an opposing minority viewpoint is valid.[19]

For example, a 2019 survey of scientists' views on climate change yielded a 100% consensus that global warming is human-caused. However, articles like "Climate Change: A Scientist and Skeptic Exchange Viewpoints," published by Divided We Fall in 2018, may unintentionally foster doubt in readers, as this particular scientist "did not say, as the media and the political class has said, that the science is settled."[20]

The public benefits from an authoritative reporting style in guiding them to make informed decisions about their lifestyle and health.

Tracking the remaining experienced science journalists is becoming increasingly difficult. For example, in Australia, the number of science journalists has decreased to abysmal numbers: "you need less than one hand to count them."[21] Due to the rapidly decreasing number of science journalists, experiments on ways to improve science journalism are also rare. However, in one of the few experiments conducted with science journalists, when the remaining population of science journalists networked online, they produced more accurate articles than when in isolation.[22] New communication environments provide essentially unlimited information on a large number of issues, which can be obtained anywhere and with relatively limited effort. The web also offers opportunities for citizens to connect with others through social media and other 2.0-type tools to make sense of this information.

"After a lot of hand wringing about the newspaper industry about six years ago, I take a more optimistic view these days," said Cristine Russell, president of the Council for the Advancement of Science Writing. "The world is online. Science writers today have the opportunity to communicate not just with their audience but globally".[23]

Blog-based science reporting is filling in to some degree, but has problems of its own.[24]

One of the main findings is about the controversy surrounding climate change and how the media affects people's opinions on this topic. Survey and experimental research have discovered connections between exposure to cable and talk show radio channels and views on global warming. However, early subject analyses noticed that U.S. media outlets over exaggerate the dispute that surrounds global warming actually existing. A majority of Americans view global warming as an outlying issue that will essentially affect future generations of individuals in other countries.[25] This is a problem considering that they are getting most of their information from these media sources that are opinionated and not nearly as concerned with supplying facts to their viewers. Research found that after people finish their education, the media becomes the most significant, and for many individuals, the sole source of information regarding science, scientific findings and scientific processes.[16] Many people fail to realize that information about science included from online sources is not always credible.

Since the 1980s, climate science and mass media have transformed into an increasingly politicized sphere.[26] In the United States, Conservatives and Liberals understand global warming differently. Democrats often accept the evidence for global warming and think that it's caused by humans, while not many Republicans believe this. Democrats and liberals have higher and more steady trust in scientists, while conservative Republicans' trust in scientists has been declining.[25] However, in the United Kingdom, mass media do not have nearly the impact on people's opinions as in the United States. They have a different attitude towards the environment which prompted them to approve the Kyoto Protocol, which works to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, while the U.S., the world's largest creator of carbon dioxide, has not done so.[26]

The content of news stories regarding climate change are affected by journalistic norms including balance, impartiality, neutrality and objectivity. Balanced reporting, which involves giving equal time to each opposing side of a debate over an issue, has had a rather harmful impact on the media coverage of climate science.[18]

Chocolate hoax

Main article: John Bohannon § Intentionally misleading chocolate study

In 2015, John Bohannon produced a deliberately bad study to see how a low-quality open access publisher and the media would pick up their findings. He worked with a film-maker Peter Onneken who was making a film about junk science in the diet industry with fad diets becoming headline news despite terrible study design and almost no evidence.[27] He invented a fake "diet institute" that lacks even a website, used the pen name "Johannes Bohannon" and fabricated a press release.[28]

Criticism

See also: Media coverage of climate change

Science journalists keep the public informed of scientific advancements and assess the appropriateness of scientific research. However, this work comes with a set of criticisms. Science journalists regularly come under criticism for misleading reporting of scientific stories. All three groups of scientists, journalists and the public often criticize science journalism for bias and inaccuracies. However, with the increasing collaborations online between science journalists there may be potential with removing inaccuracies.[29] The 2010 book Merchants of Doubt by historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway argues that in topics like the global warming controversy, tobacco smoking, acid rain, DDT and ozone depletion, contrarian scientists have sought to "keep the controversy alive" in the public arena by demanding that reporters give false balance to the minority side. Very often, such as with climate change, this leaves the public with the impression that disagreement within the scientific community is much greater than it actually is.[30] Science is based on experimental evidence and testing, and disputation is a normal activity.[31]

Scholars have criticized science journalists for:

  • Uncritical reporting[32]
  • Emphasizing frames of scientific progress and economic prospect[33]
  • Not presenting a range of expert opinion[34]
  • Having preferences toward positive messages[35]
  • Reporting unrealistic timelines and engaging in the production of a "cycle of hype"[36]

Science journalists can be seen as the gatekeepers of scientific information. Just like traditional journalists, science journalists are responsible for what truths reach the public.

Scientific information is often costly to access. This is counterproductive to the goals of science journalism. Open science, a movement for "free availability and usability of scholarly publications," seeks to counteract the accessibility issues of valuable scientific information.[37] Freely accessible scientific journals will decrease the public's reliance on potentially biased popular media for scientific information.

Many science magazines, along with Newspapers like The New York Times and popular science shows like PBS Nova tailor their content to relatively highly educated audiences.[38] Many universities and research institutions focus much of their media outreach efforts on coverage in such outlets. Some government departments require journalists to gain clearance to interview a scientist, and require that a press secretary listen in on phone conversations between government funded scientists and journalists.[39]

Many pharmaceutical marketing representatives have come under fire for offering free meals to doctors in order to promote new drugs.[40][41] Critics of science journalists have argued that they should disclose whether industry groups have paid for a journalist to travel, or has received free meals or other gifts.[42]

Science journalism finds itself under a critical eye due to the fact that it combines the necessary tasks of a journalist along with the investigative process of a scientist.

Science journalist responsibility

Science journalists offer important contributions to the open science movement by using the Value Judgement Principle (VJP).[43] Science journalists are responsible for "identifying and explaining major value judgments for members of the public." In other words, science journalists must make judgments such as what is good and bad (right and wrong). This is a very significant role because it helps "equip non-specialists to draw on scientific information and make decisions that accord with their own values".[37] While scientific information is often portrayed in quantitative terms and can be interpreted by experts, the audience must ultimately decide how to feel about the information. Most science journalists begin their careers as either a scientist or a journalist and transition to science communication.[44] One area in which science journalists seem to support varying sides of an issue is in risk communication. Science journalists may choose to highlight the amount of risk that studies have uncovered while others focus more on the benefits depending on audience and framing. Science journalism in contemporary risk societies leads to the institutionalisation of mediated scientific public spheres which exclusively discuss science and technology related issues.[45] This also leads to the development of new professional relationship between scientists and journalists, which is mutually beneficial.[45]

Types

There are many different examples of science writing. A few examples include feature writing, risk communication, blogs, science books, scientific journals, science podcasts and science magazines.

Notable science journalists

Main category: Science journalists
See also: Category:Science writers

See also

References

  1. ^ "Emma Reh (1896–1982)". Smithsonian Institution Archives. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
  2. ^ "What is science journalism". gcu.edu. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
  3. ^ (Patairiya M.K. 1990)
  4. ^ Becker, Barbara J. (2011). Unravelling Starlight: William and Margaret Huggins and the Rise of the New Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 169. ISBN 9781139497251.
  5. ^ a b Gristock, J. (2006) "J.G. Crowther, Kuhn and Systems of Mediation", paper presented at the Scientists and Social Commitment Conference, Science Museum, London, 15–17 September.
  6. ^ . London: Blogs.independent.co.uk. 27 September 2011. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
  7. ^ Angler, Martin W. (14 June 2017). Science Journalism : An Introduction. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315671338. ISBN 978-1-315-67133-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  8. ^ Angler, Martin W. (13 March 2020). Telling Science Stories : Reporting, Crafting and Editing for Journalists and Scientists. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781351035101. ISBN 978-1-351-03510-1. S2CID 243084507.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. ^ "Science journalism: A remedy for lack of reliable, trustworthy information in the media?". MC_ONLINE. 29 April 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  10. ^ Zara, Christopher (10 January 2013). "Remember Newspaper Science Sections? They're Almost All Gone". International Business Times. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
  11. ^ Dudo, A. D.; Dunwoody, S. & Scheufele, D. A. (2011). "The emergence of nano news: Tracking thematic trends and changes in U.S. newspaper coverage of nanotechnology". Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. 88 (1): 55–75. doi:10.1177/107769901108800104. S2CID 143289969.
  12. ^ Fischer, Douglas. . Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
  13. ^ "MEDIA COVERAGE OF CLIMATE CHANGE/GLOBAL WARMING". Center for Science and Technology Policy Research.
  14. ^ Bagley, Katherine (11 January 2013). "New York Times Dismantles Its Environment Desk: Times says demise of the nine-person team, created in 2009, won't affect climate coverage". Inside Climate News. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
  15. ^ a b c Barel-Ben David, Yael; Garty, Erez S.; Baram-Tsabari, Ayelet (8 January 2020). Zollo, Fabiana (ed.). "Can scientists fill the science journalism void? Online public engagement with science stories authored by scientists". PLOS ONE. 15 (1): e0222250. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1522250B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222250. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6948730. PMID 31914124.
  16. ^ a b Guenther, Lars; Bischoff, Jenny; Löwe, Anna; Marzinkowski, Hanna; Voigt, Marcus (2 January 2019). "Scientific Evidence and Science Journalism: Analysing the representation of (un)certainty in German print and online media". Journalism Studies. 20 (1): 40–59. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2017.1353432. ISSN 1461-670X. S2CID 197684574.
  17. ^ Elliott, Kevin C. (20 November 2019). "Science Journalism, Value Judgments, and the Open Science Movement". Frontiers in Communication. 4: 71. doi:10.3389/fcomm.2019.00071. ISSN 2297-900X. S2CID 208176666.
  18. ^ a b Brüggemann, Michael (26 April 2017), "Shifting Roles of Science Journalists Covering Climate Change", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.354, ISBN 978-0-19-022862-0, retrieved 16 November 2020
  19. ^ Boykoff, Maxwell T; Rajan, S Ravi (March 2007). "Signals and noise: Mass‐media coverage of climate change in the USA and the UK". EMBO Reports. 8 (3): 207–211. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400924. ISSN 1469-221X. PMC 1808044. PMID 17330062.
  20. ^ Gibbs, Meryl; Wilkes, Robert; Wilkes, Meryl Gibbs and Robert (20 August 2018). "The Great Climate Change Debate". Divided We Fall. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  21. ^ Leach, J. (20 June 2017). "Science journalism is in Australia's interest, but needs support to thrive". The Conversation. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  22. ^ Novin, Alamir (17 August 2013). "DEBATECITED: An empirical experiment into the value of open-source research methods and peer collaboration to science journalism" (PDF). Spectrum. Masters Thesis, Concordia University.
  23. ^ Zara, Christopher (10 January 2013). "Remember Newspaper Science Sections? They're Almost All Gone". International Business Times. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
  24. ^ "Unpopular Science", by Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum, The Nation, 17 Aug. 2009
  25. ^ a b Hmielowski JD, Feldman L, Myers TA, Leiserowitz A, Maibach E. An attack on science? Media use, trust in scientists, and perceptions of global warming. Public Understanding of Science. 2014;23(7):866-883. doi:10.1177/0963662513480091
  26. ^ a b Boykoff, M. T., & Rajan, S. R. (2007). Signals and noise. EMBO Reports, 8(3), 207–211. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400924
  27. ^ John Bohannon. "I Fooled Millions into Thinking Chocolate Helps Weight Loss. Here's How". Io9.
  28. ^ . instituteofdiet.com. Archived from the original on 12 December 2015.
  29. ^ Novin, A., Secko, D. (25 November 2012). "Debate Cited: A First Exploration of a Web Application to Enhance the Production of Science Journalism Students". Journalism Interest Group. CCA/Groupe d’intérêt en journalisme, ACC Conference Proceedings (2012). Retrieved 8 September 2016.
  30. ^ Peter T. Doran & Maggie Kendall Zimmerman (20 January 2009). "Examining the Scientific Consensus on Climate Change" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2009.
  31. ^ "Bad science | Science". The Guardian. London. 27 July 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
  32. ^ Racine, Eric; Gareau, Isabelle; Doucet, Hubert; Laudy, Danielle; Jobin, Guy; Schraedley-Desmond, Pamela (March 2006). "Hyped biomedical science or uncritical reporting? Press coverage of genomics (1992–2001) in Québec". Social Science & Medicine. 62 (5): 1278–1290. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.07.024. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 16174544.
  33. ^ Nisbet, Matthew C.; Lewenstein, Bruce V. (June 2002). "Biotechnology and the American Media". Science Communication. 23 (4): 359–391. doi:10.1177/107554700202300401. ISSN 1075-5470. S2CID 145193488.
  34. ^ Holtzman, Neil A.; Bernhardt, Barbara A.; Mountcastle-Shah, Eliza; Rodgers, Joann E.; Tambor, Ellen; Geller, Gail (2005). "The Quality of Media Reports on Discoveries Related to Human Genetic Diseases". Public Health Genomics. 8 (3): 133–144. doi:10.1159/000086756. ISSN 1662-4246. PMID 16113530. S2CID 24862730.
  35. ^ Nicholls, James (7 September 2010). "UK news reporting of alcohol: An analysis of television and newspaper coverage". Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy. 18 (3): 200–206. doi:10.3109/09687631003796453. ISSN 0968-7637. S2CID 143454575.
  36. ^ Bubela, Tania (2009). "Science Communication Reconsidered". Nature Biotechnology. 27 (6): 514–518. doi:10.1038/nbt0609-514. PMID 19513051. S2CID 510676 – via Pubmed.
  37. ^ a b Elliott, Kevin C. (20 November 2019). "Science Journalism, Value Judgments, and the Open Science Movement". Frontiers in Communication. 4. doi:10.3389/fcomm.2019.00071. ISSN 2297-900X. S2CID 208176666.
  38. ^ "Science Needs a Storyline". Columbia Journalism Review.
  39. ^ "Transparency Watch: A Closed Door". Columbia Journalism Review.
  40. ^ Coyle, Susan L. (2002). "Physician–Industry Relations. Part 1: Individual Physicians". Annals of Internal Medicine. 136 (5): 396–402. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-136-5-200203050-00014. PMID 11874314. S2CID 23108561.
  41. ^ De Ferrari, A; Gentille, C; Davalos, L; Huayanay, L; Malaga, G (2014). "Attitudes and Relationship between Physicians and the Pharmaceutical Industry in a Public General Hospital in Lima, Peru". PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e100114. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j0114D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100114. PMC 4076259. PMID 24978481.
  42. ^ "Where do science journalists draw the line?". Columbia Journalism Review.
  43. ^ Elliott, Kevin C. (2019). "Science Journalism, Value Judgments, and the Open Science Movement". Frontiers in Communication. 4. doi:10.3389/fcomm.2019.00071. ISSN 2297-900X.
  44. ^ Zivkovic, Bora."The Line Between Science and Journalism is Getting Blurry Again","Science Progress", 21 December 2010.
  45. ^ a b Shiju Sam Varughese. 2017. Contested Knowledge: Science, Media, and Democracy in Kerala. Oxford University Press, New Delhi
  46. ^ "Community Resources for Justice". crj.org.
  47. ^ "Being a Science Journalist". ksj.mit.edu.
  48. ^ "Why Science Journalism Matters". undark.org. 17 March 2016.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Science journalists.
  • Science Publications at Curlie

Further reading

  • Brainard, Curtis (20 March 2009). "Nature's Artificial Divide". Columbia Journalism Review.
  • Yong, Ed (29 July 2010). "On the Origin of Science Writers". National Geographic Phenomena Blog.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

June 02, 2023
science, journalism, science, writing, redirects, here, confused, with, scientific, writing, broader, coverage, this, topic, science, communication, this, article, need, rewritten, comply, with, wikipedia, quality, standards, help, talk, page, contain, suggest. Science writing redirects here Not to be confused with Scientific writing For broader coverage of this topic see Science communication This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia s quality standards You can help The talk page may contain suggestions August 2011 Science journalism conveys reporting about science to the public 2 The field typically involves interactions between scientists journalists and the public Emma Reh 1896 1982 was a science journalist for the Science Service in the 1920s and 1930s Here she can be seen reporting on an archaeological site in Oaxaca for Science News 1 Contents 1 Origins 2 Aims 3 Status 3 1 Chocolate hoax 3 2 Criticism 3 3 Science journalist responsibility 4 Types 5 Notable science journalists 6 See also 7 References 8 External links 9 Further readingOrigins EditModern science journalism originated in weather and other natural history observations as well as reports of new scientific findings reported by almanacs and other news writing in the centuries following the advent of the printing press One early example dates back to Digdarshan means showing the direction which was an educational monthly magazine that started publication in 1818 from Srirampore Bengal India Digdarshan carried articles on different aspects of science such as plants steam boat etc It was available in Bengali Hindi and English languages 3 In the U S Scientific American was founded in 1845 in another early example One of the occasions an article was attributed to a scientific correspondent was A Gale in the Bay of Biscay by William Crookes which appeared in The Times on 18 January 1871 page 7 4 Thomas Henry Huxley 1825 1895 and John Tyndall 1820 1893 were scientists who were greatly involved in journalism and Peter Chalmers Mitchell 1864 1945 was Scientific Correspondent for The Times from 1918 to 1935 5 However it was with James Crowther s appointment as the scientific correspondent of The Manchester Guardian by C P Scott in 1928 that science journalism really took shape Crowther related that Scott had declared that there was no such thing as science journalism at which point Crowther replied that he intended to invent it Scott was convinced and then employed him 5 Aims EditScience values detail precision the impersonal the technical the lasting facts numbers and being right Journalism values brevity approximation the personal the colloquial the immediate stories words and being right now There are going to be tensions Quentin Cooper of BBC Radio 4 s Material World 6 The aim of a science journalist is to render very detailed specific and often jargon laden information produced by scientists into a form that non scientists can understand and appreciate while still communicating the information accurately One way science journalism can achieve that is to avoid an information deficit model of communication which assumes a top down one way direction of communicating information that limits an open dialogue between knowledge holders and the public One such way of sparking an inclusive dialogue between science and society that leads to a broader uptake of post high school science discoveries is science blogs 7 Science journalists face an increasing need to convey factually correct information through storytelling techniques in order to tap into both the rational and emotional side of their audiences the latter of which to some extent ensuring that the information uptake persists 8 Science journalists often have training in the scientific disciplines that they cover Some have earned a degree in a scientific field before becoming journalists or exhibited talent in writing about science subjects However good preparation for interviews and even deceptively simple questions such as What does this mean to the people on the street can often help a science journalist develop material that is useful for the intended audience 9 Status EditWith budget cuts at major newspapers and other media there are fewer working science journalists employed by traditional print and broadcast media than before 10 Similarly there are currently very few journalists in traditional media outlets that write multiple articles on emerging science such as nanotechnology In 2011 there were 459 journalists who had written a newspaper article covering nanotechnology of whom 7 wrote about the topic more than 25 times 11 In January 2012 just a week after The Daily Climate reported that worldwide coverage of climate change continued a three year slide in 2012 12 and that among the five largest US dailies the New York Times published the most stories and had the biggest increase in coverage 13 that newspaper announced that it was dismantling its environmental desk and merging its journalists with other departments 14 News coverage on science by traditional media outlets such as newspapers magazines radio and news broadcasts is being replaced by online sources In April 2012 the New York Times was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for content published by Politico and The Huffington Post now HuffPost both online sources a sign of the platform shift by the media outlet Science information continues to be widely available to the public online The increase in access to scientific studies and findings causes science journalism to adapt In many countries the public s main source of information about science and technology is the mass media 15 Science journalists must compete for attention with other stories that are perceived as more entertaining Science information cannot always be sensationalized to capture attention and the sheer amount of available information can cause important findings to be buried The general public does not typically search for science information unless it is mentioned or discussed in mainstream media first 15 However the mass media are the most important or only source of scientific information for people after completing their education 16 A common misconception about public interest surrounds science journalism Those who choose which news stories are important typically assume the public is not as interested in news written by a scientist and would rather receive news stories that are written by general reporters instead The results of a study conducted comparing public interest between news stories written by scientists and stories written by reporters concluded there is no significant difference 15 The public was equally interested in news stories written by a reporter and a scientist This is a positive finding for science journalism because it shows it is increasingly relevant and is relied upon by the public to make informed decisions The vast majority of non specialists obtain almost all their knowledge about science from journalists who serve as the primary gatekeepers for scientific information 17 Ethical and accurate reporting by science journalists is vital to keeping the public informed Science journalism is reported differently than traditional journalism Conventionally journalism is seen as more ethical if it is balanced reporting and includes information from both sides of an issue Science journalism has moved to an authoritative type of reporting where they present information based on peer reviewed evidence and either ignore the conflicting side or point out their lack of evidence Science journalism continues to adapt to a slow journalism method that is very time consuming but contains higher quality information from peer reviewed sources They also practice sustainable journalism that focuses on solutions rather than only the problem 18 Presenting information from both sides of the issue can confuse readers on what the actual findings show Balanced reporting can actually lead to unbalanced reporting because it gives attention to extreme minority views in the science community implying that the both sides have an equal number of supporters It can give the false impression that an opposing minority viewpoint is valid 19 For example a 2019 survey of scientists views on climate change yielded a 100 consensus that global warming is human caused However articles like Climate Change A Scientist and Skeptic Exchange Viewpoints published by Divided We Fall in 2018 may unintentionally foster doubt in readers as this particular scientist did not say as the media and the political class has said that the science is settled 20 The public benefits from an authoritative reporting style in guiding them to make informed decisions about their lifestyle and health Tracking the remaining experienced science journalists is becoming increasingly difficult For example in Australia the number of science journalists has decreased to abysmal numbers you need less than one hand to count them 21 Due to the rapidly decreasing number of science journalists experiments on ways to improve science journalism are also rare However in one of the few experiments conducted with science journalists when the remaining population of science journalists networked online they produced more accurate articles than when in isolation 22 New communication environments provide essentially unlimited information on a large number of issues which can be obtained anywhere and with relatively limited effort The web also offers opportunities for citizens to connect with others through social media and other 2 0 type tools to make sense of this information After a lot of hand wringing about the newspaper industry about six years ago I take a more optimistic view these days said Cristine Russell president of the Council for the Advancement of Science Writing The world is online Science writers today have the opportunity to communicate not just with their audience but globally 23 Blog based science reporting is filling in to some degree but has problems of its own 24 One of the main findings is about the controversy surrounding climate change and how the media affects people s opinions on this topic Survey and experimental research have discovered connections between exposure to cable and talk show radio channels and views on global warming However early subject analyses noticed that U S media outlets over exaggerate the dispute that surrounds global warming actually existing A majority of Americans view global warming as an outlying issue that will essentially affect future generations of individuals in other countries 25 This is a problem considering that they are getting most of their information from these media sources that are opinionated and not nearly as concerned with supplying facts to their viewers Research found that after people finish their education the media becomes the most significant and for many individuals the sole source of information regarding science scientific findings and scientific processes 16 Many people fail to realize that information about science included from online sources is not always credible Since the 1980s climate science and mass media have transformed into an increasingly politicized sphere 26 In the United States Conservatives and Liberals understand global warming differently Democrats often accept the evidence for global warming and think that it s caused by humans while not many Republicans believe this Democrats and liberals have higher and more steady trust in scientists while conservative Republicans trust in scientists has been declining 25 However in the United Kingdom mass media do not have nearly the impact on people s opinions as in the United States They have a different attitude towards the environment which prompted them to approve the Kyoto Protocol which works to reduce carbon dioxide emissions while the U S the world s largest creator of carbon dioxide has not done so 26 The content of news stories regarding climate change are affected by journalistic norms including balance impartiality neutrality and objectivity Balanced reporting which involves giving equal time to each opposing side of a debate over an issue has had a rather harmful impact on the media coverage of climate science 18 Chocolate hoax Edit Main article John Bohannon Intentionally misleading chocolate study In 2015 John Bohannon produced a deliberately bad study to see how a low quality open access publisher and the media would pick up their findings He worked with a film maker Peter Onneken who was making a film about junk science in the diet industry with fad diets becoming headline news despite terrible study design and almost no evidence 27 He invented a fake diet institute that lacks even a website used the pen name Johannes Bohannon and fabricated a press release 28 Criticism Edit See also Media coverage of climate change Science journalists keep the public informed of scientific advancements and assess the appropriateness of scientific research However this work comes with a set of criticisms Science journalists regularly come under criticism for misleading reporting of scientific stories All three groups of scientists journalists and the public often criticize science journalism for bias and inaccuracies However with the increasing collaborations online between science journalists there may be potential with removing inaccuracies 29 The 2010 book Merchants of Doubt by historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M Conway argues that in topics like the global warming controversy tobacco smoking acid rain DDT and ozone depletion contrarian scientists have sought to keep the controversy alive in the public arena by demanding that reporters give false balance to the minority side Very often such as with climate change this leaves the public with the impression that disagreement within the scientific community is much greater than it actually is 30 Science is based on experimental evidence and testing and disputation is a normal activity 31 Scholars have criticized science journalists for Uncritical reporting 32 Emphasizing frames of scientific progress and economic prospect 33 Not presenting a range of expert opinion 34 Having preferences toward positive messages 35 Reporting unrealistic timelines and engaging in the production of a cycle of hype 36 Science journalists can be seen as the gatekeepers of scientific information Just like traditional journalists science journalists are responsible for what truths reach the public Scientific information is often costly to access This is counterproductive to the goals of science journalism Open science a movement for free availability and usability of scholarly publications seeks to counteract the accessibility issues of valuable scientific information 37 Freely accessible scientific journals will decrease the public s reliance on potentially biased popular media for scientific information Many science magazines along with Newspapers like The New York Times and popular science shows like PBS Nova tailor their content to relatively highly educated audiences 38 Many universities and research institutions focus much of their media outreach efforts on coverage in such outlets Some government departments require journalists to gain clearance to interview a scientist and require that a press secretary listen in on phone conversations between government funded scientists and journalists 39 Many pharmaceutical marketing representatives have come under fire for offering free meals to doctors in order to promote new drugs 40 41 Critics of science journalists have argued that they should disclose whether industry groups have paid for a journalist to travel or has received free meals or other gifts 42 Science journalism finds itself under a critical eye due to the fact that it combines the necessary tasks of a journalist along with the investigative process of a scientist Science journalist responsibility Edit Science journalists offer important contributions to the open science movement by using the Value Judgement Principle VJP 43 Science journalists are responsible for identifying and explaining major value judgments for members of the public In other words science journalists must make judgments such as what is good and bad right and wrong This is a very significant role because it helps equip non specialists to draw on scientific information and make decisions that accord with their own values 37 While scientific information is often portrayed in quantitative terms and can be interpreted by experts the audience must ultimately decide how to feel about the information Most science journalists begin their careers as either a scientist or a journalist and transition to science communication 44 One area in which science journalists seem to support varying sides of an issue is in risk communication Science journalists may choose to highlight the amount of risk that studies have uncovered while others focus more on the benefits depending on audience and framing Science journalism in contemporary risk societies leads to the institutionalisation of mediated scientific public spheres which exclusively discuss science and technology related issues 45 This also leads to the development of new professional relationship between scientists and journalists which is mutually beneficial 45 Types EditThere are many different examples of science writing A few examples include feature writing risk communication blogs science books scientific journals science podcasts and science magazines Notable science journalists EditMain category Science journalists See also Category Science writers Natalie Angier a science journalist for The New York Times Philip Ball English science writer Jules Bergman a science journalist for ABC News Christopher Bird David Bodanis known for his microphotographic style David Bradley UK journalist William Broad a science journalist for The New York Times Deborah Byrd of the Earth amp Sky radio series Peter Calamai science journalist for the Toronto Star Nigel Calder Siri Carpenter Marcus Chown Wilson da Silva editor and co founder of Cosmos magazine Claudia Dreifus David Ewing Duncan Gregg Easterbrook Dan Fagin Kitty Ferguson Timothy Ferris science writer most often on astronomical topics Albrecht Folsing Ben Goldacre Gina Kolata science journalist for The New York Times Robert Krulwich Robert Kunzig Duncan Lunan Katherine McAlpine Bob McDonald Canadian science journalist host of Quirks amp Quarks Steve Mirsky columnist for Scientific American Chris Mooney science journalist and author Michelle Nijhuis Dennis Overbye of The New York Times Peter Hadfield freelance journalist and ex geologist known for his YouTube channel Potholer54 Michael Pollan David Quammen science nature and travel writer Mary Roach Matt Ridley science journalist and author columnist at the Wall Street Journal Kirsten Sanford Rebecca Skloot Meredith Small John Timmer Nicholas Wade a science journalist for The New York Times Robyn Williams Carl Zimmer Nagendra VijaySee also Edit Journalism portalColumbia Journalism Review 46 False balance Frontiers of Science defunct illustrated comic strip Further research is needed MATTER magazine Knight Science Journalism Fellowships 47 a science journalism fellowship program launched in 1983 Open science Popular science Public awareness of science Science by press conference Science communication Scientific literature Science Writing Undark Magazine 48 science magazine published under the auspices of the Knight Science Journalism Fellowship programReferences Edit Emma Reh 1896 1982 Smithsonian Institution Archives Smithsonian Institution Retrieved 11 July 2013 What is science journalism gcu edu Retrieved 17 January 2023 Patairiya M K 1990 Becker Barbara J 2011 Unravelling Starlight William and Margaret Huggins and the Rise of the New Astronomy Cambridge University Press p 169 ISBN 9781139497251 a b Gristock J 2006 J G Crowther Kuhn and Systems of Mediation paper presented at the Scientists and Social Commitment Conference Science Museum London 15 17 September Science and the media an uncomfortable fit By Sallie Robbins London Blogs independent co uk 27 September 2011 Archived from the original on 28 September 2011 Retrieved 6 July 2013 Angler Martin W 14 June 2017 Science Journalism An Introduction London Routledge doi 10 4324 9781315671338 ISBN 978 1 315 67133 8 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint date and year link Angler Martin W 13 March 2020 Telling Science Stories Reporting Crafting and Editing for Journalists and Scientists London Routledge doi 10 4324 9781351035101 ISBN 978 1 351 03510 1 S2CID 243084507 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint date and year link Science journalism A remedy for lack of reliable trustworthy information in the media MC ONLINE 29 April 2021 Retrieved 4 May 2023 Zara Christopher 10 January 2013 Remember Newspaper Science Sections They re Almost All Gone International Business Times Retrieved 10 May 2013 Dudo A D Dunwoody S amp Scheufele D A 2011 The emergence of nano news Tracking thematic trends and changes in U S newspaper coverage of nanotechnology Journalism amp Mass Communication Quarterly 88 1 55 75 doi 10 1177 107769901108800104 S2CID 143289969 Fischer Douglas Climate coverage dominated by weird weather falls further in 2012 Archived from the original on 15 May 2013 Retrieved 10 May 2013 MEDIA COVERAGE OF CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL WARMING Center for Science and Technology Policy Research Bagley Katherine 11 January 2013 New York Times Dismantles Its Environment Desk Times says demise of the nine person team created in 2009 won t affect climate coverage Inside Climate News Retrieved 10 May 2013 a b c Barel Ben David Yael Garty Erez S Baram Tsabari Ayelet 8 January 2020 Zollo Fabiana ed Can scientists fill the science journalism void Online public engagement with science stories authored by scientists PLOS ONE 15 1 e0222250 Bibcode 2020PLoSO 1522250B doi 10 1371 journal pone 0222250 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 6948730 PMID 31914124 a b Guenther Lars Bischoff Jenny Lowe Anna Marzinkowski Hanna Voigt Marcus 2 January 2019 Scientific Evidence and Science Journalism Analysing the representation of un certainty in German print and online media Journalism Studies 20 1 40 59 doi 10 1080 1461670X 2017 1353432 ISSN 1461 670X S2CID 197684574 Elliott Kevin C 20 November 2019 Science Journalism Value Judgments and the Open Science Movement Frontiers in Communication 4 71 doi 10 3389 fcomm 2019 00071 ISSN 2297 900X S2CID 208176666 a b Bruggemann Michael 26 April 2017 Shifting Roles of Science Journalists Covering Climate Change Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780190228620 013 354 ISBN 978 0 19 022862 0 retrieved 16 November 2020 Boykoff Maxwell T Rajan S Ravi March 2007 Signals and noise Mass media coverage of climate change in the USA and the UK EMBO Reports 8 3 207 211 doi 10 1038 sj embor 7400924 ISSN 1469 221X PMC 1808044 PMID 17330062 Gibbs Meryl Wilkes Robert Wilkes Meryl Gibbs and Robert 20 August 2018 The Great Climate Change Debate Divided We Fall Retrieved 4 May 2023 Leach J 20 June 2017 Science journalism is in Australia s interest but needs support to thrive The Conversation Retrieved 18 March 2019 Novin Alamir 17 August 2013 DEBATECITED An empirical experiment into the value of open source research methods and peer collaboration to science journalism PDF Spectrum Masters Thesis Concordia University Zara Christopher 10 January 2013 Remember Newspaper Science Sections They re Almost All Gone International Business Times Retrieved 13 May 2013 Unpopular Science by Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum The Nation 17 Aug 2009 a b Hmielowski JD Feldman L Myers TA Leiserowitz A Maibach E An attack on science Media use trust in scientists and perceptions of global warming Public Understanding of Science 2014 23 7 866 883 doi 10 1177 0963662513480091 a b Boykoff M T amp Rajan S R 2007 Signals and noise EMBO Reports 8 3 207 211 https doi org 10 1038 sj embor 7400924 John Bohannon I Fooled Millions into Thinking Chocolate Helps Weight Loss Here s How Io9 International Press Release Slim by Chocolate instituteofdiet com Archived from the original on 12 December 2015 Novin A Secko D 25 November 2012 Debate Cited A First Exploration of a Web Application to Enhance the Production of Science Journalism Students Journalism Interest Group CCA Groupe d interet en journalisme ACC Conference Proceedings 2012 Retrieved 8 September 2016 Peter T Doran amp Maggie Kendall Zimmerman 20 January 2009 Examining the Scientific Consensus on Climate Change PDF Archived from the original PDF on 3 February 2009 Bad science Science The Guardian London 27 July 2007 Retrieved 6 July 2013 Racine Eric Gareau Isabelle Doucet Hubert Laudy Danielle Jobin Guy Schraedley Desmond Pamela March 2006 Hyped biomedical science or uncritical reporting Press coverage of genomics 1992 2001 in Quebec Social Science amp Medicine 62 5 1278 1290 doi 10 1016 j socscimed 2005 07 024 ISSN 0277 9536 PMID 16174544 Nisbet Matthew C Lewenstein Bruce V June 2002 Biotechnology and the American Media Science Communication 23 4 359 391 doi 10 1177 107554700202300401 ISSN 1075 5470 S2CID 145193488 Holtzman Neil A Bernhardt Barbara A Mountcastle Shah Eliza Rodgers Joann E Tambor Ellen Geller Gail 2005 The Quality of Media Reports on Discoveries Related to Human Genetic Diseases Public Health Genomics 8 3 133 144 doi 10 1159 000086756 ISSN 1662 4246 PMID 16113530 S2CID 24862730 Nicholls James 7 September 2010 UK news reporting of alcohol An analysis of television and newspaper coverage Drugs Education Prevention and Policy 18 3 200 206 doi 10 3109 09687631003796453 ISSN 0968 7637 S2CID 143454575 Bubela Tania 2009 Science Communication Reconsidered Nature Biotechnology 27 6 514 518 doi 10 1038 nbt0609 514 PMID 19513051 S2CID 510676 via Pubmed a b Elliott Kevin C 20 November 2019 Science Journalism Value Judgments and the Open Science Movement Frontiers in Communication 4 doi 10 3389 fcomm 2019 00071 ISSN 2297 900X S2CID 208176666 Science Needs a Storyline Columbia Journalism Review Transparency Watch A Closed Door Columbia Journalism Review Coyle Susan L 2002 Physician Industry Relations Part 1 Individual Physicians Annals of Internal Medicine 136 5 396 402 doi 10 7326 0003 4819 136 5 200203050 00014 PMID 11874314 S2CID 23108561 De Ferrari A Gentille C Davalos L Huayanay L Malaga G 2014 Attitudes and Relationship between Physicians and the Pharmaceutical Industry in a Public General Hospital in Lima Peru PLOS ONE 9 6 e100114 Bibcode 2014PLoSO 9j0114D doi 10 1371 journal pone 0100114 PMC 4076259 PMID 24978481 Where do science journalists draw the line Columbia Journalism Review Elliott Kevin C 2019 Science Journalism Value Judgments and the Open Science Movement Frontiers in Communication 4 doi 10 3389 fcomm 2019 00071 ISSN 2297 900X Zivkovic Bora The Line Between Science and Journalism is Getting Blurry Again Science Progress 21 December 2010 a b Shiju Sam Varughese 2017 Contested Knowledge Science Media and Democracy in Kerala Oxford University Press New Delhi Community Resources for Justice crj org Being a Science Journalist ksj mit edu Why Science Journalism Matters undark org 17 March 2016 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Science journalists Science Publications at CurlieFurther reading EditBrainard Curtis 20 March 2009 Nature s Artificial Divide Columbia Journalism Review Yong Ed 29 July 2010 On the Origin of Science Writers National Geographic Phenomena Blog a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Science journalism amp oldid 1158127725, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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