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Roberto Cofresí

May 10, 2023

Roberto Cofresí y Ramírez de Arellano[a][b] (June 17, 1791 – March 29, 1825), better known as El Pirata Cofresí, was a pirate from Puerto Rico. He was born into a noble family, but the political and economic difficulties faced by the island as a colony of the Spanish Empire during the Latin American wars of independence meant that his household was poor. Cofresí worked at sea from an early age which familiarized him with the region's geography, but it provided only a modest salary, and he eventually decided to abandon the sailor's life and became a pirate. He had previous links to land-based criminal activities, but the reason for Cofresí's change of vocation is unknown; historians speculate that he may have worked as a privateer aboard El Scipión, a ship owned by one of his cousins.

Roberto Cofresí
Monument of Roberto Cofresí located in Boquerón Bay.
Born(1791-06-17)June 17, 1791
Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico
DiedMarch 29, 1825(1825-03-29) (aged 33)
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Piratical career
NicknameEl Pirata Cofresí
Other namesCofrecina(s)
TypeCaribbean pirate
AllegianceNone
RankCaptain
Base of operationsBarrio de Pedernales
Isla de Mona
Vieques
CommandsFlotilla of unidentified vessels
Caballo Blanco
Neptune
Anne
Battles/warsCapture of the Anne
Wealth4,000 pieces of eight (hidden remnants of a larger fortune)

At the height of his career, Cofresí evaded capture by vessels from Spain, Gran Colombia, the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, and the United States.[2] He commanded several small-draft vessels, the best known a fast six-gun sloop named Anne, and he had a preference for speed and maneuverability over firepower. He manned them with small, rotating crews which most contemporaneous documents numbered at 10 to 20. He preferred to outrun his pursuers, but his flotilla engaged the West Indies Squadron twice, attacking the schooners USS Grampus and USS Beagle. Most crew members were recruited locally, although men occasionally joined them from the other Antilles, Central America, and Europe. He never confessed to murder, but he reportedly boasted about his crimes, and 300 to 400 people died as a result of his pillaging, mostly foreigners.

Cofresí proved too much for local authorities, who accepted international help to capture the pirate; Spain created an alliance with the West Indies Squadron and the Danish government of Saint Thomas. On March 5, 1825, the alliance set a trap which forced Anne into a naval battle. After 45 minutes, Cofresí abandoned his ship and escaped overland; he was recognized by a resident who ambushed and injured him. Cofresí was captured and imprisoned, making a last unsuccessful attempt to escape by trying to bribe an official with part of a hidden stash. The pirates were sent to San Juan, Puerto Rico, where a brief military tribunal found them guilty and sentenced them to death. On March 29, 1825, Cofresí and most of his crew were executed by firing squad.

He inspired stories and myths after his death, most emphasizing a Robin Hood-like "steal from the rich, give to the poor" philosophy which became associated with him. This portrayal has grown into legend, commonly accepted as fact in Puerto Rico and throughout the West Indies. Some of these claim that Cofresí became part of the Puerto Rican independence movement and other secessionist initiatives, including Simón Bolívar's campaign against Spain. Historical and mythical accounts of his life have inspired songs, poems, plays, books, and films. In Puerto Rico, caves, beaches, and other alleged hideouts or locations of buried treasure have been named after Cofresí, and a resort town is named for him near Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic.

Early years

Lineage

 
The Kupferschein family's coat of arms (1549)

In 1945, historian Enrique Ramírez Brau speculated that Cofresí may have had Jewish ancestry.[3] A theory, held by David Cuesta and historian Ursula Acosta (a member of the Puerto Rican Genealogy Society), held that the name Kupferstein ("copper stone") may have been chosen by his family when the 18th-century European Jewish population adopted surnames.[3] The theory was later discarded when their research uncovered a complete family tree prepared by Cofresí's cousin, Luigi de Jenner,[4] indicating that their name was spelled Kupferschein (not Kupferstein).[3][5] Originally from Prague, Cofresí paternal patriarch Cristoforo Kupferschein received a recognition and coat of arms from Ferdinand I of Austria in December 1549 and eventually moved to Trieste.[6] His last name was probably adapted from the town of Kufstein.[7] After its arrival, the family became one of Trieste's early settlers.[6] Cristoforo's son Felice was recognized as a noble in 1620, becoming Edler von Kupferschein.[6] The family gained prestige and became one of the city's wealthiest, with the next generation receiving the best possible education and marrying into other influential families.[8] Cofresí's grandfather, Giovanni Giuseppe Stanislao de Kupferschein, held several offices in the police, military and municipal administration.[9] According to Acosta, Cofresí's father Francesco Giuseppe Fortunato von Kupferschein received a lateinschule education and left at age 19 for Frankfurt (probably in search of a university or legal practice).[10] In Frankfurt he mingled with influential figures such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,[11] returning to Trieste two years later.[11]

As a cosmopolitan, mercantile city Trieste was a probable hub of illicit trade,[12] and Francesco was forced to leave after he killed Josephus Steffani on July 31, 1778.[13] Although Steffani's death is commonly attributed to a duel, given their acquaintanceship (both worked at a criminal court) it may have been related to illegal activity.[14] Francesco's name and those of four sailors soon became linked to the murder.[13] Convicted in absentia, the fugitive remained in touch with his family.[15] Francesco went to Barcelona, reportedly learning Spanish there.[15] By 1784 he had settled in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico, a harbor town recently separated from the municipality of San Germán and made the seat of an eponymous municipality, where he was accepted by the local aristocracy[16] with the Spanish honorific Don ("of noble origin").[17] Francesco's name was Hispanicized to Francisco José Cofresí (his third given name was not), which was easier for his neighbors to pronounce.[15][18] Since he was linked to illegal commerce in his homeland, he probably relocated to Cabo Rojo for strategic reasons; its harbor was far from San Juan, the capital.[19] Francisco soon met María Germana Ramírez de Arellano y Segarra, and they married. His wife was born to Clemente Ramírez de Arellano y del Toro y Quiñones Rivera, a noble and first cousin of town founder Nicolás Ramírez de Arellano y Martínez de Matos.[14] Her paternal family, descended from the Jimena royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Navarre and the first royal house of the Kingdom of Aragón (said house was established by a Jimena prince), owned a significant amount of land in Cabo Rojo.[20][21] After their marriage the couple settled in El Tujao (or El Tujado), near the coast.[22] Francisco's father Giovanni died in 1789, and a petition pardoning him for Steffani's murder a decade before was granted two years later (enabling him to return to Trieste).[23] However, no evidence exists that Francisco ever returned to the city.[23]

Penniless nobleman and marauder

The Latin American wars of independence had repercussions in Puerto Rico; due to widespread privateering and other naval warfare, maritime commerce suffered heavily.[24] Cabo Rojo was among the municipalities affected most, with its ports at a virtual standstill.[24] African slaves took to the sea in an attempt at freedom;[25] merchants were assessed higher taxes and harassed by foreigners.[24] Under these conditions, Cofresí was born to Francisco and María Germana. The youngest of four children, he had one sister (Juana) and two brothers (Juan Francisco and Juan Ignacio). Cofresí was baptized into the Catholic Church by José de Roxas, the first priest in Cabo Rojo, when he was fifteen days old.[26] María died when Cofresí was four years old, and an aunt assumed his upbringing.[27] Francisco then began a relationship with María Sanabria, the mother of his last child Julián.[28] A don by birth, Cofresí's education was above average;[29] since there is no evidence of a school in Cabo Rojo at that time, Francisco may have educated his children or hired a tutor.[29] The Cofresís, raised in a multicultural environment, probably knew Dutch and Italian.[30][31] In November 1814 Francisco died,[25] leaving a modest estate;[17] Roberto was probably homeless, with no income.[32]

On January 14, 1815, three months after his father's death, Cofresí married Juana Creitoff in San Miguel Arcángel parish, Cabo Rojo.[16][25] Contemporary documents are unclear about her birthplace; although it is also listed as Curaçao, she was probably born in Cabo Rojo to Dutch parents.[33] After their marriage, the couple moved to a residence bought for 50 pesos by Creitoff's father, Geraldo.[25] Months later Cofresí's father in-law lost his humble home in a fire, plunging the family into debt.[34] Three years after his marriage Cofresí owned no property and lived with his mother-in-law, Anna Cordelia.[32][35] He established ties with residents of San Germán, including his brothers-in-law: the wealthy merchant Don Jacobo Ufret and Don Manuel Ufret.[34] The couple struggled to begin a family of their own, conceiving two sons (Juan and Francisco Matías) who died soon after birth.[16]

Although he belonged to a prestigious family, Cofresí was not wealthy.[36] In 1818 he paid 17 maravedís in taxes, spending most of his time at sea and earning a low wage.[34][37] According to historian Walter Cardona Bonet, Cofresí probably worked in a number of fishing corrals in Boquerón Bay.[37] The corrals belonged to the aristocrat Cristóbal Pabón Dávila, a friend of municipal port captain José Mendoza.[38] This connection is believed to have later protected Cofresí, since Mendoza was godfather to several of his brother Juan Francisco's children.[38] The following year he first appeared on a government registry as a sailor,[37] and there is no evidence linking him to any other jobs in Cabo Rojo.[39] Although Cofresí's brothers were maritime merchants and sailed a boat, Avispa, he probably worked as an able fisherman.[40] On December 28, 1819, Cofresí was registered on Ramona, ferrying goods between the southern municipalities.[35] In addition, her frequent voyages to the Mona Passage and Cofresí's recognition by local residents indicate that he occasionally accompanied Avispa[41] That year, Cofresí and Juana lived in Barrio del Pueblo and paid higher taxes than the previous year: five reales.[34]

Political changes in Spain affected Puerto Rico's stability during the first two decades of the 19th century.[42] Europeans and refugees from the American colonies began arriving after the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, changing the archipelago's economic and political environments.[42] With strategic acquisitions, the new arrivals triggered a rise in prices.[43] Food distribution was inefficient, particularly in non-agricultural areas.[44] Unmotivated and desperate, the local population drifted toward crime and dissipation.[42] By 1816, governor Salvador Meléndez Bruna shifted responsibility for law enforcement from the Captaincy General of Puerto Rico to the mayors.[42] Driven by hunger and poverty, highway robbers continued to roam southern and central Puerto Rico.[44] In 1817 wealthy San Germán residents requested help with the criminals, who were invading houses and shops.[45] The following year, Meléndez established a high-security prison at El Arsenal in San Juan.[44] During the next few years, the governor transferred repeat offenders to San Juan.[44] Cabo Rojo, with its high crime rate,[43] also dealt with civil strife, inefficient law enforcement and corrupt officials.[43] While he was still a don, Cofresí led a criminal gang in San Germán which stole cattle, food and crops.[46] He was linked to an organization operating near the Hormigueros barrio since at least 1818 and to another nobleman, Juan Geraldo Bey.[46] Among Cofresí's associates were Juan de los Reyes, José Cartagena and Francisco Ramos,[44] and the criminals continued to thrive in 1820.[45] The situation worsened with the arrival of unauthorized street vendors from nearby municipalities, who were soon robbed.[45] A series of storms and droughts drove residents away from Cabo Rojo, worsening the already-poor economy;[45] authorities retrained the unemployed and underemployed as night watchmen.[43]

The regional harvest was destroyed by a September 28, 1820, hurricane, triggering the region's largest crime wave to date.[47] Newly appointed Puerto Rican governor Gonzalo Aróstegui Herrera immediately ordered Lieutenant Antonio Ordóñez to round up as many criminals as possible.[47] On November 22, 1820, a group of fifteen men from Cabo Rojo participated in the highway robbery of Francisco de Rivera, Nicolás Valdés and Francisco Lamboy on the outskirts of Yauco.[47] Cofresí is believed to have been involved in this incident because of its timing and the criminals' link to an area headed by his friend, Cristóbal Pabón Dávila.[48] The incident sparked an uproar in towns throughout the region, and convinced the governor that the authorities were conspiring with the criminals.[49] Among measures taken by Aróstegui were a mayoral election in Cabo Rojo (Juan Evangelista Ramírez de Arellano, one of Cofresí's relatives, was elected) and an investigation of the former mayor.[50] The incoming mayor was ordered to control crime in the region, an unrealistic demand with the resources at his disposal.[50] Bernardo Pabón Davila, a friend of Cofresí and relative of Cristóbal, was assigned to prosecute the Yauco incident.[51] Bernardo reportedly protected the accused and argued against pursuing the case, saying that according to "private confidences" they were fleeing to the United States.[51] Other initiatives to capture highway robbers in Cabo Rojo were more successful, resulting in over a dozen arrests;[52] among them was the nobleman Bey, who was charged with murder.[53] Known as "El Holandés", Bey testified that Cofresí led a criminal gang.[51] Cofresí's primary collaborators were the Ramírez de Arellano family, who prevented his capture[54] as Cabo Rojo's founding family with high positions in politics and law enforcement.[54] The central government issued wanted posters for Cofresí,[54] and in July 1821 he and the rest of his gang were captured;[51] Bey escaped, becoming a fugitive.[51] Cofresí and his men were tried in San Germán's courthouse, where their connection to several crimes was proven.[51]

On August 17, 1821 (while Cofresí was in prison) Juana gave birth to their only daughter, Bernardina.[16][55][56] Due to his noble status, Cofresí probably received a pass for the birth[55] and took the opportunity to escape;[55] in alternative theories, he broke out or was released on parole.[55] While Cofresí was a fugitive, Bernardo Pabón Davila was Bernardina's godfather and Felícita Asencio her godmother.[57][58] On December 4, 1821, a wanted poster was circulated by San Germán mayor Pascacio Cardona.[59] There is little documentation of Cofresí's whereabouts in 1822.[60] Historians have suggested that he exploited his upper-class connections to remain concealed;[61] the Ramírez de Arellano family held most regional public offices, and their influence extended beyond the region.[61] Other wealthy families, including the Beys, had similarly protected their relatives and Cofresí may have hidden in plain sight due to the inertia of Cabo Rojo authorities.[61] When he became a wanted man, he moved Juana and Anna to her brothers' houses and would visit in secret;[62] Juana also visited him at his headquarters in the rural ward of Pedernales in Cabo Rojo.[62] It is unknown how far Cofresí traveled during this time, but he had associates on the east coast and may have taken advantage of eastern migration from Cabo Rojo.[63] Although he may have been captured and imprisoned in San Juan, he does not appear in contemporary records.[60] However, Cofresí's associates Juan "El Indio" de los Reyes, Francisco Ramos and José "Pepe" Cartagena were released only months before his recorded reappearance.[60]

"Last of the West India pirates"

Establishing a reputation

By 1823 Cofresí was probably on the crew of the corsair barquentine El Scipión, captained by José Ramón Torres and managed by his cousin (the first mayor of Mayagüez, José María Ramírez de Arellano).[nb 1][33][65] Historians agree, since several of his friends and family members benefited from the sale of stolen goods.[66] Cofresí may have joined to evade the authorities, honing skills he would use later in life.[66] El Scipión employed questionable tactics later associated with the pirate, such as flying the flag of Gran Colombia so other ships would lower their guard (as she did in capturing the British frigate Aurora and the American brigantine Otter).[67] The capture of Otter led to a court order requiring restitution, affecting the crew.[68] At this time, Cofresí turned to piracy.[69] Although the reasons behind his decision are unclear, several theories have been proposed by researchers.[69] In Orígenes portorriqueños Ramírez Brau speculates that Cofresí's time aboard El Scipión, or seeing a family member become a privateer, may have influenced his decision to become a pirate[33] after the crew's pay was threatened by the lawsuit. According to Acosta, a lack of work for privateers ultimately pushed Cofresí into piracy.[69]

The timing of this decision was crucial in establishing him as the dominant Caribbean pirate of the era. Cofresí began his new career in early 1823, filling a role vacant in the Spanish Main since the death of Jean Lafitte, and was the last major target of West Indies anti-piracy operations. While piracy was heavily monitored and most pirates were rarely successful, Cofresí was confirmed to have plundered at least eight vessels and has been credited with over 70 captures.[70] Unlike his predecessors, Cofresí is not known to have imposed a pirate code on his crew; his leadership was enhanced by an audacious personality, a trait acknowledged even by his pursuers. According to 19th-century reports he had a rule of engagement that when a vessel was captured, only those willing to join his crew were permitted to live. Cofresí's influence extended to a large number of civil informants and associates, forming a network which took 14 years after his death to fully dismantle.

The earliest document linked to Cofresí's modus operandi is a letter dated July 5, 1823, from Aguadilla, Puerto Rico, which was published in the St. Thomas Gazette.[71] The letter reported that a brigantine, loaded with coffee and West Indian indigo from La Guaira, was boarded by pirates on June 12.[71] The hijackers ordered the ship brought to Isla de Mona (incorrectly anglicized as "Monkey Island"), a small island in the eponymous passage between Puerto Rico and Hispaniola,[72][73] where its captain and crew were ordered to unload the cargo.[71] After this was done, the pirates reportedly killed the sailors and sank the brigantine.[71] Both of Cofresí's brothers were soon involved in his operation, helping him move plunder and deal with captured ships.[41] Juan Francisco was able to gather information about maritime traffic in his work at the port, presumably forwarding it to his brother.[38] The pirates communicated with their cohorts through coastal signs, and their associates on land warned them of danger;[74] the system was probably used to identify loaded vessels as well.[75] According to Puerto Rican historian Aurelio Tió, Cofresí shared his loot with the needy (especially family members and close friends) and was considered the Puerto Rican equivalent of Robin Hood.[56] Acosta disagrees, saying that any acts of generosity were probably opportunistic.[76] Cardona Bonet's research suggests that Cofresí organized improvised markets in Cabo Rojo, where plunder would be informally sold;[77] according to this theory, merchant families would buy goods for resale to the public.[77] The process was facilitated by local collaborators, such as French smuggler Juan Bautista Buyé.[78]

On October 28, 1823, months after the El Scipión case was settled, Cofresí attacked a ship registered to the harbor of Patillas[79] and robbed the small fishing boat of 800 pesos in cash.[79] Cofresí attacked with other members of his gang and that of another pirate, Manuel Lamparo, who was connected to British pirate Samuel McMorren (also known as Juan Bron).[80] That week he also led the capture of John, an American schooner. Out of Newburyport and captained by Daniel Knight, on its way to Mayagüez the ship was intercepted by a ten-ton schooner armed with a swivel gun near Desecheo Island.[81] Cofresí's group, consisting of seven pirates armed with sabers and muskets, stole $1,000 in cash, tobacco, tar and other provisions and the vessel's square rig and mainsail.[81] Cofresí ordered the crew to head for Santo Domingo, threatening to kill everyone aboard if they were seen at any Puerto Rican port.[81] Despite the threat, Knight went to Mayagüez and reported the incident.[81]

 
Map of the area where Cofresí and his men usually operated: Puerto Rico, Mona, Vieques (Crab Island), Culebra, Saona, Hispaniola and Saint Thomas

It was soon established that some of the pirates were from Cabo Rojo, since they disembarked there.[82] Undercover agents were sent to the town to track them, and new mayor Juan Font y Soler requested resources to deal with a larger group which was out of control.[82] Links between the pirates and local sympathizers made arresting them difficult.[82] The central government, frustrated with Cabo Rojo's inefficiency, demanded the pirates' capture[83] and western Puerto Rico military commander José Rivas was ordered to exert pressure on local authorities.[83] Although Cofresí was tracked to the beach in Peñones, near his brothers' homes in Guaniquilla, the operation only recovered the John's sails, meat, flour, cheese, lard, butter and candles;[83] the pirates escaped aboard a schooner.[84] A detachment caught Juan José Mateu and charged him with conspiracy;[80] his confession linked Cofresí to the two hijackings.[80]

Cofresí's sudden success was an oddity, nearly a century after the end of the Golden Age of Piracy. By this time, joint governmental efforts had eradicated rampant buccaneering by Anglo-French seamen (primarily based on Jamaica and Tortuga), which had turned the Caribbean into a haven for pirates attacking shipments from the region's Spanish colonies; this made his capture a priority. By late 1823, the pursuit on land probably forced Cofresí to move his main base of operations to Mona; the following year, he was often there.[72] This base, initially a temporary haven with Barrio Pedernales his stable outpost, became more heavily used.[72] Easily accessible from Cabo Rojo, Mona had been associated with pirates for more than a century; it was visited by William Kidd, who landed in 1699 after fleeing with a load of gold, silver and iron.[85] A second pirate base was found at Saona, an island south of Hispaniola.[86]

In November a number of sailors aboard El Scipión took advantage of her officers' shore leave and mutinied, seizing control of the ship.[87] The vessel, repurposed as a pirate ship, began operating in the Mona Passage and was later seen at Mayagüez before disappearing from the record.[68] Cofresí was linked to El Scipión by pirate Jaime Márquez, who admitted under police questioning on Saint Thomas that boatswain Manuel Reyes Paz was a Cofresí associate.[88] The confession hints that the ship was captured by Hispaniola authorities.[88] Cofresí is recorded in eastern Hispaniola (then part of the unified Republic of Haiti, modern-day Dominican Republic), where his crew reportedly rested off Puerto Plata province.[89] On one excursion, the pirates were intercepted by Spanish patrol boats off the coast of Samaná Province.[90] With no apparent escape route, Cofresí is said to have ordered the vessel's sinking and it sailed into Bahía de Samaná before coming to rest near the town of Punta Gorda.[90] This created a diversion, allowing him and his crew to escape in skiffs they rowed to shore and adjacent wetlands (where the larger Spanish ships could not follow).[90] The remains of the ship, reportedly full of plunder, have not been found.[90]

In an article in the May 9, 1936, issue of Puerto Rico Ilustrado, Eugenio Astol described an 1823 incident between Cofresí and Puerto Rican physician and politician Pedro Gerónimo Goyco.[91] The 15-year-old Goyco traveled alone on a schooner to a Santo Domingo school for his secondary education.[91] In mid-voyage, Cofresí intercepted the ship and the pirates boarded it.[91] Cofresí assembled the passengers, asking their names and those of their parents.[91] When he learned that Goyco was among them, the pirate ordered a change of course; they landed on a beach near Mayagüez,[91] where Goyco was freed. Cofresí explained that he knew Goyco's father, an immigrant from Herceg Novi named Gerónimo Goicovich who had settled in Mayagüez.[91] Goyco returned home safely, later attempting the voyage again. The elder Goicovich had favored members of Cofresí's family, despite their association with a pirate.[91] Goyco grew up to become a militant abolitionist, similar to Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis.[91]

 
Cofresí's pivot gun cannon, as documented by Ángel Rivero Méndez while exhibited in an Artillery Museum.

Cofresí's actions quickly gained the attention of the Anglo-American nations, who called him "Cofrecinas" (a mistranslated, onomatopoeic variant of his last name).[92] Commercial agent and US Consul Judah Lord wrote to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, describing the El Scipión situation and the capture of John.[93] Adams relayed the information to Commodore David Porter, leader of the anti-piracy West Indies Squadron, who sent several ships to Puerto Rico.[93] On November 27 Cofresí sailed from his base on Mona with two sloops (armed with pivot gun cannons) and assaulted another American ship, the brigantine William Henry.[86] The Salem Gazette reported that the following month a schooner sailed from Santo Domingo to Saona, capturing 18 pirates (including Manuel Reyes Paz) and a "considerable quantity" of leather, coffee, indigo, and cash.[94]

International manhunt

Cofresí's victims were locals and foreigners, and the region was economically destabilized. When he boarded Spanish vessels he usually targeted immigrants brought by the royal decree of 1815, ignoring his fellow criollos.[95] The situation was complicated by several factors, most of them geopolitical. The Spanish Empire had lost most of its possessions in the New World, and her last two territories (Puerto Rico and Cuba) faced economic problems and political unrest. To undermine the commerce of former colonies, Spain stopped issuing letters of marque; this left sailors unemployed, and they gravitated towards Cofresí and piracy.[96][97] On the diplomatic front, the pirates assaulted foreign ships while flying the Flag of Spain (angering nations who had reached an agreement about the return of ships captured by corsairs and compensation for losses).[98] Aware that the problem had developed international overtones, Spanish-appointed governor of Puerto Rico Lt. Gen. Miguel Luciano de la Torre y Pando (1822–1837) made Cofresí's capture a priority.[98] By December 1823 other nations joined the effort to combat Cofresí, sending warships to the Mona Passage.[99] Gran Colombia sent two corvettes, Bocayá and Bolívar, under the command of former privateer and Jean Lafitte associate Renato Beluche.[99] The British assigned the brig-sloop HMS Scout to the region after the William Henry incident.[100]

On January 23, 1824, de la Torre implemented anti-piracy measures in response to Spanish losses and political pressure from the United States,[101][102] ordering that pirates be tried in a military tribunal with the defendants considered enemy combatants.[103] De la Torre ordered the pursuit of pirates, bandits, and those aiding them,[104] issuing medals, certificates and bounties in gold and silver as rewards.[105] Manuel Lamparo was captured on Puerto Rico's east coast,[104] and some of his crew joined Cofresí and other fugitives.[104]

United States Secretary of the Navy Samuel L. Southard ordered David Porter to assign ships to the Mona Passage, and the commodore sent the schooner USS Weasel and the brigantine USS Spark.[94] The ships were to investigate the zone, gathering information at Saint Barthélemy and St. Thomas with the goal of destroying the base at Mona.[94] Although Porter warned that the pirates were reportedly well-armed and -supplied, he said the crews would probably not find plunder at the base because of the proximity of eastern Puerto Rican ports.[106] On February 8, 1824, the Spark arrived at Mona, conducted reconnaissance and landed.[106] A suspicious schooner was seen, but captain John T. Newton decided not to chase her.[106] The crew found a small settlement with an empty hut and other buildings, a chest of medicine, sails, books, an anchor and documents from William Henry.[106] Newton ordered the base and a large canoe found in the vicinity destroyed,[64][106] and reported his findings to the Secretary of the Navy.[106] According to another report, the ship sent was the USS Beagle;[85] in this account, several pirates eluded the Beagle's crew.[85] Undeterred, Cofresí quickly resettled on Mona.[64]

Attacks on two brigantines were reported by Renato Beluche on February 12, 1824, and published in El Colombiano several days later.[97] The first was Boniton, captained by Alexander Murdock, which sailed with a load of cocoa from Trinidad and was intercepted en route to Gibraltar.[97] The second, Bonne Sophie, sailed from Havre de Grace under the command of a man named Chevanche with dry goods bound for Martinique.[97] In both cases, the sailors were beaten and imprisoned and the ships plundered.[107] The ships were part of a convoy escorted by the Bolívar off Puerto Real, Cabo Rojo,[108] and Cofresí captained a ship identified by Beluche as a pailebot (a small schooner).[nb 2][109] Although Bolívar could not capture her, her crew described the vessel as painted black, armed with a rotating cannon and having a crew of twenty unidentified Puerto Rican men.[107] Cofresí was presumably leading the vessels to dock at Pedernales, where Mendoza and his brother could facilitate the distribution of loot with the aid of official inertia.[97] From there, other associates usually used Boquerón Bay for transportation and ensured that the loot reached stores in Cabo Rojo and nearby towns.[97]

In this region Cofresí's influence extended to government and the military, with the Ramírez de Arellano family involved in the smuggling and sale of his loot.[54] On land the loot, hidden in sacks and barrels, was brought to Mayagüez, Hormigueros or San Germán for distribution.[54] When Beluche returned to Colombia, he published an article critical of the situation in the press.[97] La Gaceta de Puerto Rico countered, accusing him of stealing Bonne Sophie and connecting him to the pirates.[nb 3][110]

On February 16, 1824, de la Torre mandated a more-aggressive pursuit and prosecution of pirates.[110] In March the governor ordered a search for the schooner Caballo Blanco, reportedly used in the boarding of Boniton and Bonne Sophie and similar attacks.[nb 4][98] In private communication with Mayagüez military commander José Rivas, he asked Rivas to find someone trustworthy who could launch a mission to capture "the so-called Cofresin"[98] and to notify him personally of the pirate's arrest.[98] Authorizing the use of force, the governor described Cofresí as "one of the evil ones that I am pursuing" and acknowledged that the pirate was protected by Cabo Rojo authorities.[98] The mayor was unable (or unwilling) to cooperate, despite orders from de la Torre.[98] Rivas tracked Cofresí to his house twice, but found it empty.[111] When the captain lost contact with the pirate and his wife, he was also unable to communicate with the mayor.[111] A similar search was undertaken in San Germán, whose mayor reported to de la Torre on March 12, 1824.[111]

Martinique governor François-Xavier Donzelot wrote to de la Torre on March 22, concerned about the capture of Bonne Sophie and the impact of piracy on maritime commerce.[112] This brought France into the search for Cofresí;[112] on March 23 de la Torre authorized France to patrol the Puerto Rican coast and commissioned a frigate, Flora.[112] The mission was led by a military commander named Mallet, who was ordered to the west coast and pursue the pirates "until he [was] able to trap and destroy them".[112] Although Flora arrived three days after the operation's approval,[113] the attempt was unsuccessful. Rivas then assigned Joaquín Arroyo, a retired Pedernales militiaman, to monitor activity near Cofresí's house.[114]

 
1824 wanted poster, offering a bounty in gold and silver for Cofresí's capture

In April 1824, Rincón mayor Pedro García authorized the sale of a vessel owned by Juan Bautista de Salas to Pedro Ramírez.[115] Ramírez, who may have been a member of the Ramírez de Arellano family, lived in Pedernales and was a neighbor of Cofresí's brothers and Cristobal Pabón Davila.[115] On April 30, shortly after acquiring the ship, Ramírez sold it to Cofresí (who used it as a pirate flagship).[115] The irregularity of the transactions was quickly noticed, prompting an investigation of García.[116] The scandal weakened his already-frail authority, and Matías Conchuela intervened as the governor's representative.[116] De la Torre asked the mayor of Añasco, Thomás de la Concha, to retrieve the records and verify their accuracy.[116] The investigation, led by public prosecutor José Madrazo of the Regimiento de Granada's Military Anti-Piracy Commission, concluded with Bautista's imprisonment and sanctions for García.[117] Several members of the Ramírez de Arellano family were prosecuted, including the former mayors of Añasco and Mayagüez (Manuel and José María), Tómas and Antonio.[117] Others with the same last name but unclear parentage, such as Juan Lorenzo Ramirez, were also linked to Cofresí.[117]

A number of unsuccessful searches were carried out in Cabo Rojo by an urban militia led by Captain Carlos de Espada,[118] and additional searches were made in San Germán.[118] On May 23, 1824, the Mayagüez military commander prepared two vessels and sent them to Pedernales in response to reported sightings of Cofresí.[119] Rivas and the military captain of Mayagüez, Cayetano Castillo y Picado, boarded a ship commanded by Sergeant Sebastián Bausá.[119] Sailor Pedro Alacán, best known as the grandfather of Ramón Emeterio Betances and a neighbor of Cofresí,[120] was captain of the second schooner.[119] The expedition failed, only finding a military deserter named Manuel Fernández de Córdova.[121] Also known as Manuel Navarro, Fernández was connected to Cofresí through Lucas Branstan (a merchant from Trieste who was involved in Bonne Sophie incident).[121] In the meantime, the pirates fled toward southern Puerto Rico.[122] Poorly supplied after his hasty retreat, Cofresí docked at Jobos Bay on June 2, 1824;[122] about a dozen pirates invaded the hacienda of Francisco Antonio Ortiz, stealing his cattle.[122] The group then broke into a second estate, owned by Jacinto Texidor, stole plantains and resupplied their ship.[122] It is now believed that Juan José Mateu gave the pirates refuge in one of his haciendas, near Jobos Bay.[80] The next day the news reached Guayama mayor Francisco Brenes, who quickly contacted the military and requested operations by land and sea.[122] He was told that there were not enough weapons in the municipality for a mission of that scale. Brenes then requested supplies from Patillas,[122] which rushed him twenty guns.[123]

However, the pirates fled the municipality and traveled west.[124] On June 9, 1824, Cofresí led an assault on the schooner San José y Las Animas off the coast of Tallaboa in Peñuelas.[124] The ship was en route between Saint Thomas and Guayanilla with over 6,000 pesos' worth of dry goods for Félix and Miguel Mattei, who were aboard.[114] The Mattei brothers are now thought to have been anti-establishment smugglers related to Henri La Fayette Villaume Ducoudray Holstein and the Ducoudray Holstein Expedition.[114] The schooner, owned by Santos Lucca, sailed with captain Francisco Ocasio and a crew of four.[125] Frequently used to transport cargo throughout the southern region and Saint Thomas, she made several trips to Cabo Rojo.[125] When Cofresí began the chase, Ocasio headed landward; the brothers abandoned ship and swam ashore, from where they watched the ship's plundering.[124] Portugués was second-in-command during the boarding of San José y las Animas, and Joaquín "El Campechano" Hernández was a crew member.[73][126][127] The pirates took most of the merchandise, leaving goods valued at 418 pesos, three reales and 26 maravedi.[124] Governor Miguel de la Torre was visiting nearby municipalities at the time, which occupied the authorities.[128] Cargo from San José y Las Animas (clothing belonging to the brothers and a painting) was later found at Cabo Rojo.[128] Days later, a sloop and a small boat commanded by Luis Sánchez and Francisco Guilfuchi left Guayama in search of Cofresí.[123] Unable to find him, they returned on June 19, 1824.[129] Patillas and Guayama enacted measures, monitored by the governor, which were intended to prevent further visits.[130]

De la Torre continued his tour of the municipalities, ordering Rivas to focus on the Cabo Rojo area when he reached Mayagüez.[131] The task was given to Lieutenant Antonio Madrona, leader of the Mayagüez garrison.[131] Madrona assembled troops and left for Cabo Rojo, launching an operation on June 17 which ended with the arrest of pirate Eustaquio Ventura de Luciano at the home of Juan Francisco.[132] The troops came close to capturing a second associate, Joaquín "El Maracaybero" Gómez.[133] Madrona then began a surprise attack at Pedernales,[131] finding Cofresí and several associates (including Juan Bey, his brother Ignacio and his brother-in-law Juan Francisco Creitoff).[131] The pirates' only option was to flee on foot.[131] The Cofresí brothers escaped, but Creitoff and Bey were captured and tried in San Germán.[131] Troops later visited Creitoff's house, where they found Cofresí's wife and mother-in-law.[132] Under questioning, the women confirmed the brothers' identities.[133] The authorities continued searching the homes of those involved and those of their families, where they found quantities of plunder hidden and prepared for sale.[132] Madrona also found burned loot on a nearby hill.[132] Juan Francisco Cofresí, Ventura de Luciano and Creitoff were sent to San Juan with other suspected associates.[133] Of this group the pirate's brother, Luis de Río and Juan Bautista Buyé were prosecuted as accomplices instead of pirates.[134] Ignacio was later arrested and also charged as an accomplice.[134] The Mattei brothers filed a claim against shopkeeper Francisco Betances that some of his merchandise was cargo from San José y Las Animas.[134]

In response to a tip, José Mendoza and Rivas organized an expedition to Mona.[135] On June 22, 1824, Pedro Alacán assembled a party of eight volunteers (among them Joaquín Arroyo, possibly Mendoza's source).[120][135] He loaned a small sailboat he co-owned (Avispa, once used by Cofresí's brothers) to José Pérez Mendoza and Antonio Gueyh.[40] There were eight volunteers, The locally coordinated operation intended to ambush and apprehend Cofresí in his hideout.[120] The expedition left the coast of Cabo Rojo with Action Stations in place.[120] Despite unfavorable sea conditions, the party arrived at their destination.[120] However, as soon as they disembarked Avispa was lost.[136] Although most of the pirates were captured without incident, Cofresí's second in-command Juan Portugués was shot to death in the back[136] and dismembered by crewmember Lorenzo Camareno.[126] Among the captives was a man identified as José Rodríguez,[137] but Cofresí was not with his crew.[120] Five days later, they returned to Cabo Rojo on a ship confiscated from the pirates with weapons, three prisoners and Portugués' head and right hand (probably for identification when claiming the bounty).[136] Rivas contacted de la Torre, informing him of further measures to track the pirates.[136] The governor publicized the expedition, writing an account which was published in the government newspaper La Gaceta del Gobierno de Puerto Rico on July 9, 1824.[138] Alacán was honored by the Spanish government, receiving the ship recovered from the pirates as compensation for the loss of the Avispa.[120][139] Mendoza and the crew were also honored.[140] Cofresí reportedly escaped in one of his ships with "Campechano" Hernández, resuming his attacks soon after the ambush.[140][141]

Shortly after the Mona expedition, Ponce mayor José Ortíz de la Renta began his own search for Cofresí.[142] On June 30, 1824, the schooner Unión left with 42 sailors commanded by captain Francisco Francheschi.[142] After three days, the search was abandoned and the ship returned to Ponce.[142] The governor enacted more measures to capture the pirates, including the commission of gunboats.[142] De la Torre ordered the destruction of any hut or abandoned ship which might aid Cofresí in his escape attempts, an initiative carried out on the coasts of several municipalities.[142] Again acting on the basis of information obtained by interrogation, the authorities tracked the pirates during the first week of July.[143] Although José "Pepe" Cartagena (a local mulatto) and Juan Geraldo Bey were found in Cabo Rojo and San Germán respectively, Cofresí avoided the troops.[143] On July 6, 1824, Cartagena resisted arrest and was killed in a shootout,[143] with the developments again featured in La Gaceta del Gobierno de Puerto Rico.[144] During the next few weeks, a joint initiative by Rivas and the west coast mayors led to the arrest of Cofresí associates Gregorio del Rosario, Miguel Hernández, Felipe Carnero, José Rodríguez, Gómez, Roberto Francisco Reifles, Sebastián Gallardo, Francisco Ramos, José Vicente and a slave of Juan Nicolás Bey (Juan Geraldo's father) known as Pablo.[144][145][146] However, the pirate again evaded the net. In his confession, Pablo testified that Juan Geraldo Bey was an accomplice of Cofresí.[146] Sebastián Gallardo was captured on July 13, 1824, and tried as a collaborator.[147] The defendants were transported to San Juan, where they were prosecuted by Madrazo in a military tribunal overseen by the governor.[148] The trial was plagued by irregularities, including Gómez' allegation that the public attorney had accepted a bribe of 300 pesos from Juan Francisco.[148]

During the searches, the pirates stole a "sturdy, copper-plated boat" from Cabo Rojo and escaped.[149] The ship was originally stolen in San Juan by Gregorio Pereza and Francisco Pérez (both arrested during the search for Caballo Blanco) and given to Cofresí.[150] When the news became public, mayor José María Hurtado asked local residents for help.[149] On August 5, 1824, Antonio de Irizarry found the boat at Punta Arenas, a cape in the Joyuda barrio.[149] The mayor quickly organized his troops, reaching the location on horseback.[149] Aboard the ship they found three rifles, three guns, a carbine, a cannon, ammunition and supplies.[151] After an unsuccessful search of nearby woods, the mayor sailed the craft to Pedernales and turned it over to Mendoza.[152] A group left behind continued the search, but did not find anyone.[152] Assuming that the pirates had fled inland, Hurtado alerted his colleagues in the region about the find.[152] The mayor resumed the search, but abandoned it due to a rainstorm and poor directions.[152] Peraza, Pérez, José Rivas del Mar, José María Correa and José Antonio Martinez were later arrested, but Cofresí remained free.[150]

On August 5, 1824, the pirate and a skeleton crew captured the sloop María off the coast of Guayama[153] as she completed a run between Guayanilla and Ponce under the command of Juan Camino.[153] After boarding the ship they decided not to plunder her, since a larger craft was sailing towards them.[153] The pirates fled west, intercepting a second sloop (La Voladora) off Morillos.[153] Cofresí did not plunder her either, instead requesting information from captain Rafael Mola.[153] That month a ship commanded by the pirates stalked the port of Fajardo, taking advantage of the lack of gunboats capable of pursuing their shallow-draft vessels.[154] Shortly afterwards, the United States ordered captain Charles Boarman of the USS Weasel to monitor the western waters of Puerto Rico as part of an international force.[154] The schooner located a sloop commanded by the pirates off Culebra, but it fled to Vieques and ran inland into dense vegetation;[154] Boarman could only recover the ship.[154]

The Danish sloop Jordenxiold was intercepted off Isla Palominos on September 3, 1824, as she completed a voyage from Saint Thomas to Fajardo;[155] the pirates stole goods and cash from the passengers.[155] The incident attracted the attention of the Danish government, which commissioned the Santa Cruz (a 16-gun brigantine commanded by Michael Klariman) to monitor the areas off Vieques and Culebra.[155] On September 8–9 a hurricane Nuestra Señora de la Monserrate, struck southern Puerto Rico and passed directly over the Mona Passage.[102][156] Cofresí and his crew were caught in the storm, which drove their ship towards Hispaniola.[102] According to historian Enrique Ramírez Brau, an expedition weeks later by Fajardo commander Ramón Aboy to search Vieques, Culebra and the Windward Islands for pirates was actually after Cofresí.[102] The operation used the schooner Aurora (owned by Nicolás Márquez) and Flor de Mayo, owned by José María Marujo.[102] After weeks of searching, the team failed to locate anything of interest.[102]

Continuing to drift, Cofresí and his crew were captured after his ship reached Santo Domingo. Sentenced to six years in prison, they were sent to a keep named Torre del Homenaje.[157] Cofresí and his men escaped, were recaptured and again imprisoned. The group escaped again, breaking the locks on their cell doors and climbing down the prison walls on a stormy night on a rope made from their clothing.[157] With Cofresí were two other inmates: a man known as Portalatín and Manuel Reyes Paz, former boatswain of El Scipión.[102] After reaching the province of San Pedro de Macorís, the pirates bought a ship.[156] They sailed from Hispaniola in late September to Naguabo, where Portalatín disembarked.[155] From there they went to the island of Vieques, where they set up another hideout and regrouped.

Challenge to the West Indies Squadron

By October 1824 piracy in the region was dramatically reduced, with Cofresí the remaining target of concern.[158] However, that month Peraza, Pérez, Hernández, Gallardo, José Rodríguez and Ramos escaped from jail.[150] Three former members of Lamparo's crew—a man of African descent named Bibián Hernández Morales, Antonio del Castillo and Juan Manuel de Fuentes Rodríguez—also broke out.[150] They were joined by Juan Manuel "Venado" de Fuentes Rodríguez, Ignacio Cabrera, Miguel de la Cruz, Damasio Arroyo, Miguel "El Rasgado" de la Rosa and Juan Reyes.[159] Those traveling east met with Cofresí, who welcomed them on his crew; the pirate was in Naguabo looking for recruits after his return from Hispaniola.[160] Hernández Morales, an experienced knife fighter, was second-in-command of the new crew.[147][161] At the height of their success, they had a flotilla of three sloops and a schooner.[162] The group avoided capture by hiding in Ceiba, Fajardo, Naguabo, Jobos Bay and Vieques,[160] and when Cofresí sailed the east coast he reportedly flew the flag of Gran Colombia.[155]

On October 24, Hernández Morales led a group of six pirates in the robbery of Cabot, Bailey & Company in Saint Thomas, making off with US$5,000.[163] On October 26 the USS Beagle, commanded by Charles T. Platt, navigated by John Low and carrying shopkeeper George Bedford (with a list of plundered goods, which were reportedly near Naguabo) left Saint Thomas.[163] Platt sailed to Vieques, following a tip about a pirate sloop.[163] Beagle opened fire, interrupting the capture of a sloop from Saint Croix, but the pirates docked at Punta Arenas in Vieques and fled inland; one, identified as Juan Felis, was captured after a shootout.[164] When Platt disembarked in Fajardo to contact Juan Campos, a local associate of Bedford, the authorities accused him of piracy and detained him.[164] The officer was later freed, but the pirates escaped.[165] Commodore Porter's reaction to what was later known as the Fajardo Affair led to a diplomatic crisis which threatened war between Spain and the United States; Campos was later found to be involved in the distribution of loot.[166]

With more ships, Cofresí's activity near Culebra and Vieques peaked by November 1824.[100] The international force reacted by sending more warships to patrol the zone; France provided the Gazelle, a brigantine, and the frigate Constancia.[100] After the Fajardo incident the United States increased its flotilla in the region, with the USS Beagle joined by the schooners USS Grampus and USS Shark in addition to the previously commissioned Santa Cruz and Scout.[100] Despite unprecedented monitoring, Cofresí grew bolder. John D. Sloat, captain of Grampus, received intelligence placing the pirates in a schooner out of Cabo Rojo.[75] On the evening of January 25, 1825, Cofresí sailed a sloop towards Grampus, which was patrolling the west coast.[75] In position, the pirate commanded his crew (armed with sabers and muskets) to open fire and ordered the schooner to stop.[75] When Sloat gave the order to counterattack, Cofresí sailed into the night.[75] Although a skiff and cutters from Grampus were sent after the pirates, they failed to find them after a two-hour search.[167]

The pirates sailed east and docked at Quebrada de las Palmas, a river in Naguabo.[167] From there, Cofresí, Hernández Morales, Juan Francisco "Ceniza" Pizarro and De los Reyes crossed the mangroves and vegetation to the Quebrada barrio in Fajardo. [167][168] Joined by a fugitive, Juan Pedro Espinoza, the group robbed the house of Juan Becerril[nb 5][75] and hid in a house in the nearby Río Abajo barrio.[167] Two days later Cofresí again led his flotilla out to sea[169] and targeted San Vicente, a Spanish sloop making its way back from Saint Thomas.[169] Cofresí attacked with two sloops, ordering his crew to fire muskets and blunderbusses.[169] Sustaining heavy damage, San Vicente finally escaped because she was near port.[167]

On February 10, 1825, Cofresí plundered the sloop Neptune.[nb 6][171] The merchant ship, with a cargo of fabric and provisions, was attacked while its dry goods were unloaded at dockside in Jobos Bay.[170] Neptune was owned by Salvador Pastorisa, who was supervising the unloading. Cofresí began the charge in a sloop, opening musket fire on the crew,[170] and Pastoriza fled in a rowboat.[170] Despite a bullet wound, Pastoriza identified four of the eight to ten pirates (including Cofresí).[172] An Italian living in Puerto Rico, Pedro Salovi, was reportedly[173] second-in-command during the attack.[174] The pirates pursued and shot those who fled.[172] Cofresí sailed Neptune out of Jobos Port, a harbor in Jobos Bay (near Fajardo), and adopted the sloop as a pirate ship.[173]

Guayama mayor Francisco Brenes doubled his patrol.[172] Salovi was soon arrested, and informed on his shipmates.[174] Hernández Morales led another sloop, intercepting Beagle off Vieques.[174] After a battle, the pirate sloop was captured and Hernández Morales was transported to St. Thomas for trial.[175] After being sentenced to death, he escaped from prison and disappeared for years.[176] According to a St. Thomas resident, on February 12, 1825, the pirates retaliated by setting fire to a town on the island.[177] That week, Neptune captured a Danish schooner belonging to W. Furniss (a company based in Saint Thomas) off the Ponce coast with a load of imported merchandise.[173] After the assault, Cofresí and his crew abandoned the ship at sea. Later seen floating with broken masts, it was presumed lost.[173] Some time later Cofresí and his crew boarded another ship owned by the company near Guayama, again plundering and abandoning her.[173] Like its predecessor, it was seen near Caja de Muertos (Dead Man's Chest) before disappearing.

Evading Beagle, Cofresí returned to Jobos Bay;[178] on February 15, 1825, the pirates arrived in Fajardo.[178] Three days later John Low picked up a six-gun sloop, Anne (commonly known by her Spanish name Ana or La Ana), which he had ordered from boat-builder Toribio Centeno and registered in St. Thomas.[nb 7][178] Centeno sailed the sloop to Fajardo, where he received permission to dock at Quebrada de Palmas in Naguabo.[178] As its new owner Low accompanied him, remaining aboard while cargo was loaded.[179] That night Cofresí led a group of eight pirates, stealthily boarded the ship[179] and forced the crew to jump overboard;[157] during the capture, Cofresí reportedly picked $20 from Low's pocket.[173] Despite having to "walk the plank", Low's crew survived[157] and reported the assault to the governor of Saint Thomas.[173] Low probably attracted the pirates' attention by docking near one of their hideouts; his work on the Beagle rankled, and they were hungry for revenge after the capture of Hernández Morales.[180] Low met Centeno at his hacienda, where he told the Spaniard about the incident and later filed a formal complaint in Fajardo.[180] Afterwards, he and his crew sailed to Saint Thomas.[180] Although another account suggests that Cofresí bought Anne from Centeno for twice Low's price,[181] legal documents verify that the builder was paid by Low.[173] Days later, Cofresí led his pirates to the Humacao shipyard[182] and they stole a cannon from a gunboat (ordered by Miguel de la Torre to pursue the pirates) which was under construction.[182] The crew armed themselves with weapons found on the ships they boarded.[181]

After the hijacking, Cofresí adopted Anne as his flagship.[179] Although she is popularly believed to have been renamed El Mosquito, all official documents use her formal name.[183][184] Anne was quickly used to intercept a merchant off the coast of Vieques who was completing a voyage from Saint Croix to Puerto Rico.[182] Like others before it, the fate of the captured ship and its crew is unknown.[182] The Spanish countered with an expedition from the port of Patillas.[182] Captain Sebastián Quevedo commanded a small boat, Esperanza, to find the pirates but was unsuccessful after several days at sea.[182] At the same time, de la Torre pressured the regional military commanders to take action against the pirates and undercover agents monitored maritime traffic in most coastal towns.[182] The pirates docked Anne in Jobos Bay before sunset, a pattern reported by the local militia to southern region commander Tomás de Renovales.[185] At this time the pirates sailed Anne towards Peñuelas, where the ship was recognized.[185] Cofresí's last capture was on March 5, 1825, when he commanded the hijacking of a boat owned by Vicente Antoneti in Salinas.[186]

Capture and trial

Main article: Capture of the sloop Anne
 
Early 20th-century illustration of the capture of Cofresí's flagship, the sloop Anne (right)

By the spring of 1825, the flotilla led by Anne was the last substantial pirate threat in the Caribbean.[187] The incursion which finally ended Cofresí's operation began serendipitously. When Low arrived at his home base in Saint Thomas with news of Anne's hijacking, a Puerto Rican ship reported a recent sighting.[188] Sloat requested three international sloops (with Spanish and Danish papers) from the Danish governor, collaborating with Pastoriza and Pierety. All four of Cofresí's victims left port shortly after the authorization on March 4; the task force was made up of Grampus, San José y Las Animas, an unidentified vessel belonging to Pierety and a third sloop staffed by volunteers from a Colombian frigate.[188] After sighting Anne while they negotiated the involvement of the Spanish government in Puerto Rico, the task force decided to split up.[188]

San José y Las Animas found Cofresí the next day, and mounted a surprise attack. The sailors aboard hid while Cofresí, recognizing the ship as a local merchant vessel, gave the order to attack it.[188] When Anne was within range, the crew of San José y las Animas opened fire. Startled, the pirates countered with cannon and musket fire while attempting to outrun the sloop.[189] Unable to shake off San José y las Animas and having lost two members of his crew, Cofresí grounded Anne and fled inland.[190] Although a third pirate fell during the landing, most scattered throughout rural Guayama and adjacent areas.[189] Cofresí, injured, was accompanied by two crew members.[191] Half his crew was captured shortly afterwards, but the captain remained at large until the following day. At midnight a local trooper, Juan Cándido Garay, and two other members of the Puerto Rican militia spotted Cofresí.[192] The trio ambushed the pirate, who was hit by blunderbuss fire while he was fleeing.[192] Despite his injury, Cofresí fought back with a knife until he was subdued by militia machetes.[192]

After their capture, the pirates were held at a prison in Guayama before their transfer to San Juan.[193] Cofresí met with mayor Francisco Brenes, offering him 4,000 pieces of eight (which he claimed to possess) in exchange for his freedom.[194] Although a key component of modern myth, this is the only historical reference to Cofresí's hiding any treasure.[194] Brenes declined the bribe.[195] Cofresí and his crew remained in Castillo San Felipe del Morro in San Juan for the rest of their lives.[56] On March 21, 1825, the pirate's reputed servant (known only as Carlos) was arrested in Guayama.[196]

Military prosecution

Cofresí received a council of war trial, with no possibility of a civil trial.[197] The only right granted the pirates was to choose their lawyers;[198] the arguments the attorneys could make were limited, and their role was a formality.[198] José Madrazo was again the prosecutor.[199] The case was hurried—an oddity, since other cases as serious (or more so) sometimes took months or years. Cofresí was reportedly tried as an insurgent corsair (and listed as such in a subsequent explanatory action in Spain),[197] in accordance with measures enacted by governor Miguel de la Torre the year before.[101] It is thought that the reason for the irregularities was that the Spanish government was under international scrutiny, with several neutral countries filing complaints about pirate and privateer attacks in Puerto Rican waters;[197] there was additional pressure due to the start of David Porter's court-martial in the United States for invading the municipality of Fajardo.[197] The ministry rushed the Cofresí trial, denying him and his crew defense witnesses or testimony (required by trial protocol).[197] The trial was based on the pirates' confessions, with their legitimacy or circumstances not established.[197]

 
Fort San Felipe del Morro

The other pirates on trial were Manuel Aponte Monteverde of Añasco; Vicente del Valle Carbajal of Punta Espada (or Santo Domingo, depending on the report);[200] Vicente Ximénes of Cumaná; Antonio Delgado of Humacao; Victoriano Saldaña of Juncos; Agustín de Soto of San Germán; Carlos Díaz of Trinidad de Barlovento; Carlos Torres of Fajardo; Juan Manuel Fuentes of Havana, and José Rodríguez of Curaçao.[70] Torres stood out as an African and Cofresí's slave.[201] Among the few sentenced for piracy who were not executed, his sentence was to be sold at public auction with his price earmarked for trial costs.[201] Cofresí confessed to capturing a French sloop in Vieques; a Danish schooner; a sailing ship from St. Thomas; a brigantine and a schooner from eastern Hispaniola; a sloop with a load of cattle in Boca del Infierno; a ship from which he stole 800 pieces of eight in Patillas, and an American schooner with a cargo worth 8,000 pieces of eight (abandoned and burned in Punta de Peñones).[70]

Under pressure, he was adamant that he was unaware of the current whereabouts of the vessels or their crews and that he had never killed anyone; his testimony was corroborated by the other pirates.[70] However, according to a letter sent to Hezekiah Niles' Weekly Register Cofresí admitted off the record that he had killed nearly 400 people (but no Puerto Ricans).[202] The pirate also confessed that he burned the cargo of an American vessel to throw off the authorities.[132] The defendants' social status and association with criminal (or outlaw) elements dictated the course of events. Captain José Madrazo served as judge and prosecutor of the one-day trial.[197] Governor Miguel de la Torre may have influenced the process, negotiating with Madrazo beforehand. On July 14, 1825, U.S. Congressman Samuel Smith accused Secretary of State Henry Clay of pressuring the Spanish governor to execute the pirates.[197]

Death and legacy

On the morning of March 29, 1825, a firing squad was assembled to carry out the sentence handed down to the pirates.[203] The public execution, which had a large number of spectators,[204] was supervised by the Regimiento de Infantería de Granada between eight and nine a.m. Catholic priests were present to hear confessions and offer comfort.[204] As the pirates prayed, they were shot before the silent crowd.[204] Although San Felipe del Morro is the accepted execution site, Alejandro Tapia y Rivera (whose father was a member of the Regimiento de Granada) places their execution near Convento Dominico in the Baluarte de Santo Domingo (part of present-day Old San Juan).[204] According to historian Enrique Ramírez Brau, in a final act of defiance Cofresí refused to have his eyes covered after he was tied to a chair and he was blindfolded by soldiers.[158] Richard Wheeler said that the pirate said that after killing three or four hundred people, it would be strange if he was not accustomed to death.[205] Cofresí supposedly said he had "killed four hundred persons with his own hands, but never to his knowledge had he killed a native of Puerto Rico."[206] Cofresí's last words were reportedly, "I have killed hundreds with my own hands, and I know how to die. Fire!"[92]

 
These earrings, worn by Cofresí, are on display at the National Museum of American History.[207]

According to several of the pirates' death certificates, they were buried on the shore next to the Santa María Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery.[208] Hernández Morales and several of his associates received the same treatment.[209] Cofresí and his men were buried behind the cemetery, on what is now a lush green hill overlooking the cemetery wall. Contrary to local lore, they were not buried in Old San Juan Cemetery (Cementerio Antiguo de San Juan); their execution as criminals made them ineligible for burial in the Catholic cemetery.[56] A letter from Sloat to United States Secretary of the Navy Samuel L. Southard implied that at least some of the pirates were intended to be "beheaded and quartered, and their parts sent to all the small ports around the island to be exhibited".[92] Spanish authorities continued to arrest Cofresí associates until 1839.

At this time defendants were required to pay trial expenses, and Cofresí's family was charged 643 pieces of eight, two reales and 12 maravedí.[197] Contemporary documents suggest that Juana Creitoff, with little or no support from Cofresí's brothers and sisters, was left with the debt. His brothers distanced themselves from the trial and their brother's legacy, and Juan Francisco left Cabo Rojo for Humacao. Juan Ignacio also evidently disassociated himself from Creitoff and her daughter,[197] and one of Juan Ignacio's granddaughters ignored Bernardina and her descendants.[57] Due to Cofresí's squandering of his treasure, his only asset the Spanish government could seize was Carlos. Appraised at 200 pesos, he was sold to Juan Saint Just for 133 pesos.[210] After the auction costs were paid, only 108 pesos and 2 reales were left; the remainder was paid by Félix and Miguel Mattei[197] after they made a deal with the authorities giving them the cargo of the San José y las Animas in return for future accountability.[210] Juana Creitoff died a year later.[56]

Bernardina later married a Venezuelan immigrant, Estanislao Asencio Velázquez, continuing Cofresí's blood lineage in Cabo Rojo to this day.[211] She had seven children: José Lucas, María Esterlina, Antonio Salvador, Antonio Luciano, Pablo, María Encarnación and Juan Bernardino.[211] One of Cofresí's most notable descendants was Ana González, better known by her married name Ana G. Méndez.[212] Cofresí's great-granddaughter, Méndez was directly descended from the Cabo Rojo bloodline through her mother Ana González Cofresí.[212] Known for her interest in education, she was the first member of her branch of the Cofresí family to earn a high-school diploma and university degree.[212] A teacher, Méndez founded the Puerto Rico High School of Commerce during the 1940s (when most women did not complete their education).[212] By the turn of the 21st century her initiative had evolved into the Ana G. Méndez University System, the largest group of private universities in Puerto Rico.[212] Other branches of the Cofresí family include Juan Francisco's descendants in Ponce,[213] and Juan Ignacio's lineage persists in the western region.[213] Internationally, the Kupferschein family remains in Trieste.[6] Another family member was Severo Colberg Ramírez, speaker of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico during the 1980s.[214] Colberg made efforts to popularize Cofresí, particularly the heroic legends which followed his death.[214] He was related to the pirate through his sister Juana, who married Germán Colberg.[215]

After Cofresí's death, items associated with him have been preserved or placed on display. His birth certificate is at San Miguel Arcángel Church with those of other notable figures, including Ramón Emeterio Betances and Salvador Brau.[216] Earrings said to have been worn by Cofresí were owned by Ynocencia Ramírez de Arellano, a maternal cousin.[217] Her great-great-grandson, collector Teodoro Vidal Santoni, gave them to the National Museum of American History in 1997 and the institution displayed them in a section devoted to Spanish colonial history. Locally, documents are preserved in the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture's General Archive of Puerto Rico, the Ateneo Puertorriqueño, the University of Puerto Rico's General Library and Historic Investigation Department and the Catholic Church's Parochial Archives. Outside Puerto Rico, records can be found at the National Archives Building and the General Archive of the Indies.[218] However, official documents relating to Cofresí's trial and execution have been lost.[219]

Modern view

Main article: Roberto Cofresí in popular culture
See also: Highwayman § Robbers as heroes
 
Modern portrayal of Cofresí, standing on the deck of a ship and preparing for battle

Few aspects of Cofresí's life and relationships have avoided the romanticism surrounding pirates in popular culture.[220] During his life, attempts by Spanish authorities to portray him as a menacing figure by emphasizing his role as "pirate lord" and nicknaming him the "terror of the seas" planted him in the collective consciousness.[221] This, combined with his boldness, transformed Cofresí into a swashbuckler differing from late-19th-century fictional accounts of pirates.[222] The legends are inconsistent in their depiction of historical facts, often contradicting each other.[223] Cofresí's race, economic background, personality and loyalties are among variable aspects of these stories.[224][225] However, the widespread use of these myths in the media has resulted in their general acceptance as fact.[226]

The myths and legends surrounding Cofresí fall into two categories: those portraying him as a generous thief or anti-hero and those describing him as overwhelmingly evil.[227] A subcategory represents him as an adventurer, world traveler or womanizer.[228] Reports by historians such as Tió of the pirate sharing his loot with the needy have evolved into a detailed mythology. These apologetics attempt to justify his piracy, blaming it on poverty, revenge or a desire to restore his family's honor,[229] and portray Cofresí as a class hero defying official inequality and corruption.[230] He is said to have been a protector and benefactor of children, women and the elderly,[227] with some accounts describing him as a rebel hero and supporter of independence from imperial power.[231]

Legends describing Cofresí as malevolent generally link him to supernatural elements acquired through witchcraft, mysticism or a deal with the Devil.[232] This horror fiction emphasizes his ruthlessness while alive or his unwillingness to remain dead.[233] Cofresí's ghost has a fiery aura or extraordinary powers of manifestation, defending the locations of his hidden treasure or roaming aimlessly.[234] Cofresí has been vilified by merchants.[235] Legends portraying him as benign figure are more prevalent near Cabo Rojo; in other areas of Puerto Rico, they focus on his treasure and depict him as a cutthroat.[236] Most of the hidden-treasure stories have a moral counseling against greed; those trying to find the plunder are killed, dragged to Davy Jones' Locker or attacked by the ghost of Cofresí or a member of his crew.[237] Rumors about the locations of hidden treasure flourish, with dozens of coves, beaches and buildings linked to pirates in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. [238]

The 20th century revived interest in Cofresí's piracy as a tourist attraction, with municipalities in Puerto Rico highlighting their historical connection to the pirates.[239] By the second half of the century, beaches and sports teams (especially in his native Cabo Rojo, which features a monument in his honor) were named for him; in the Dominican Republic, a resort town was named after the pirate.[240] Cofresí's name has been commercialized, with a number of products and businesses adopting it and its associated legends.[241] Puerto Rico's first flag carrier seaplane was named for him.[242][243] Several attempts have been made to portray Cofresí's life on film, based on legend.[244]

Coplas, songs and plays have been adapted from the oral tradition, and formal studies of the historical Cofresí and the legends surrounding him have appeared in book form.[218] Historians Cardona Bonet, Acosta, Salvador Brau, Ramón Ibern Fleytas, Antonio S. Pedreira, Bienvenido Camacho, Isabel Cuchí Coll, Fernando Géigel Sabat, Ramírez Brau and Cayetano Coll y Toste have published the results of their research.[218] Others inspired by the pirate include poets Cesáreo Rosa Nieves and the brothers Luis and Gustavo Palés Matos.[218] Educators Juan Bernardo Huyke and Robert Fernández Valledor have also published on Cofresí.[218] In mainstream media Cofresí has recently been discussed in the newspapers El Mundo, El Imparcial, El Nuevo Día, Primera Hora, El Periódico de Catalunya, Die Tageszeitung, Tribuna do Norte and The New York Times,[218][245][246][247] and the magazines Puerto Rico Ilustrado, Fiat Lux and Proceedings have published articles on the pirate.[218]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ This name uses Spanish naming customs: the first or paternal family name is Cofresí and the second or maternal family name is Ramírez de Arellano.
  2. ^ During his lifetime his name was frequently confused, giving rise to variants including Roverto Cofresin, Roverto Cufresín, Ruberto Cofresi, Rovelto Cofusci, Cofresy, Cofrecín, Cofreci, Coupherseing, Couppersing, Koffresi, Confercin, Confersin, Cofresin, Cofrecis, Cofreín, Cufresini, and Corfucinas.[1]
  1. ^ This ship is also known as Esscipión or Escipión.[64]
  2. ^ Despite having an etymology based on pilot boat, the term "pailebot" is used in Spanish to describe a small schooner.
  3. ^ The Spanish referred to the vessel as the Princesa Buena Sofia.
  4. ^ This ship was also listed as Los Dos Amigos
  5. ^ Espinoza had previous ties with Pedro Salovi, another of Cofresí's associates
  6. ^ This ship was also known as Esperanza.[170]
  7. ^ Anne is frequently referred to as a schooner.

Citations

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Bibliography

  • Acosta, Ursula (1987). New Voices of Old- Five centuries of Puerto Rican Cultural History. Permanent Press. ISBN 0915393204.
  • Acosta, Ursula (1991). Cofresí y Ducoudray: Hombres al margen de la historia. Editorial Edil. ISBN 9780317616286.
  • Cardona Bonet, Walter A. (1991). El Marinero, Bandolero, Pirata y Contrabandista Roberto Cofresí (1819–1825). Sociedad Puertorriqueña de Genealogía. ISBN 9781933545059.
  • Clammer, Paul; Grosberg, Michael; Porup, Jens (2008). Dominican Republic & Haiti. Ediz. Inglese. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978174104292-4.
  • Fernández Valledor, Roberto (1978). El mito de Cofresí en la narrativa antillana. Publisher: Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de Puerto Rico. ISBN 0847705560.
  • Fernández Valledor, Roberto (2006). Cofresí: El pirata Cofresí mitificado por la tradición oral puertorriqueña. Casa Paoli. ISBN 0847705560.
  • Ojeda Reyes, Félix (2001). El Desterrado de París: Biografía del Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances (1827–1898). Ediciones Puerto. ISBN 0942347471.
  • Pariser, Harry S. (1995). Adventure Guide to Dominican Republic. Hunter Publishing, Inc. ISBN 1-55650-277-X.
  • Singer, Gerald (2004). Vieques: A Photographically Illustrated. Sombrero Publishing Company. ISBN 0964122049.

Further reading

  • José Morales-Dorta (2006). El Morro, testigo inconquistable. Isla Negra Editores. ISBN 1932271791.

External links

  • Roberto Cofresí: El pirata caborrojeño
  • Puerto Rico's History: 1800–1849

May 10, 2023
roberto, cofresí, ramírez, arellano, june, 1791, march, 1825, better, known, pirata, cofresí, pirate, from, puerto, rico, born, into, noble, family, political, economic, difficulties, faced, island, colony, spanish, empire, during, latin, american, wars, indep. Roberto Cofresi y Ramirez de Arellano a b June 17 1791 March 29 1825 better known as El Pirata Cofresi was a pirate from Puerto Rico He was born into a noble family but the political and economic difficulties faced by the island as a colony of the Spanish Empire during the Latin American wars of independence meant that his household was poor Cofresi worked at sea from an early age which familiarized him with the region s geography but it provided only a modest salary and he eventually decided to abandon the sailor s life and became a pirate He had previous links to land based criminal activities but the reason for Cofresi s change of vocation is unknown historians speculate that he may have worked as a privateer aboard El Scipion a ship owned by one of his cousins Roberto CofresiMonument of Roberto Cofresi located in Boqueron Bay Born 1791 06 17 June 17 1791Cabo Rojo Puerto RicoDiedMarch 29 1825 1825 03 29 aged 33 San Juan Puerto RicoPiratical careerNicknameEl Pirata CofresiOther namesCofrecina s TypeCaribbean pirateAllegianceNoneRankCaptainBase of operationsBarrio de PedernalesIsla de MonaViequesCommandsFlotilla of unidentified vesselsCaballo BlancoNeptuneAnneBattles warsCapture of the AnneWealth4 000 pieces of eight hidden remnants of a larger fortune At the height of his career Cofresi evaded capture by vessels from Spain Gran Colombia the United Kingdom Denmark France and the United States 2 He commanded several small draft vessels the best known a fast six gun sloop named Anne and he had a preference for speed and maneuverability over firepower He manned them with small rotating crews which most contemporaneous documents numbered at 10 to 20 He preferred to outrun his pursuers but his flotilla engaged the West Indies Squadron twice attacking the schooners USS Grampus and USS Beagle Most crew members were recruited locally although men occasionally joined them from the other Antilles Central America and Europe He never confessed to murder but he reportedly boasted about his crimes and 300 to 400 people died as a result of his pillaging mostly foreigners Cofresi proved too much for local authorities who accepted international help to capture the pirate Spain created an alliance with the West Indies Squadron and the Danish government of Saint Thomas On March 5 1825 the alliance set a trap which forced Anne into a naval battle After 45 minutes Cofresi abandoned his ship and escaped overland he was recognized by a resident who ambushed and injured him Cofresi was captured and imprisoned making a last unsuccessful attempt to escape by trying to bribe an official with part of a hidden stash The pirates were sent to San Juan Puerto Rico where a brief military tribunal found them guilty and sentenced them to death On March 29 1825 Cofresi and most of his crew were executed by firing squad He inspired stories and myths after his death most emphasizing a Robin Hood like steal from the rich give to the poor philosophy which became associated with him This portrayal has grown into legend commonly accepted as fact in Puerto Rico and throughout the West Indies Some of these claim that Cofresi became part of the Puerto Rican independence movement and other secessionist initiatives including Simon Bolivar s campaign against Spain Historical and mythical accounts of his life have inspired songs poems plays books and films In Puerto Rico caves beaches and other alleged hideouts or locations of buried treasure have been named after Cofresi and a resort town is named for him near Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic Contents 1 Early years 1 1 Lineage 1 2 Penniless nobleman and marauder 2 Last of the West India pirates 2 1 Establishing a reputation 2 2 International manhunt 2 3 Challenge to the West Indies Squadron 3 Capture and trial 3 1 Military prosecution 4 Death and legacy 5 Modern view 6 See also 7 References 7 1 Notes 7 2 Citations 7 3 Bibliography 7 4 Further reading 8 External linksEarly years EditLineage Edit The Kupferschein family s coat of arms 1549 In 1945 historian Enrique Ramirez Brau speculated that Cofresi may have had Jewish ancestry 3 A theory held by David Cuesta and historian Ursula Acosta a member of the Puerto Rican Genealogy Society held that the name Kupferstein copper stone may have been chosen by his family when the 18th century European Jewish population adopted surnames 3 The theory was later discarded when their research uncovered a complete family tree prepared by Cofresi s cousin Luigi de Jenner 4 indicating that their name was spelled Kupferschein not Kupferstein 3 5 Originally from Prague Cofresi paternal patriarch Cristoforo Kupferschein received a recognition and coat of arms from Ferdinand I of Austria in December 1549 and eventually moved to Trieste 6 His last name was probably adapted from the town of Kufstein 7 After its arrival the family became one of Trieste s early settlers 6 Cristoforo s son Felice was recognized as a noble in 1620 becoming Edler von Kupferschein 6 The family gained prestige and became one of the city s wealthiest with the next generation receiving the best possible education and marrying into other influential families 8 Cofresi s grandfather Giovanni Giuseppe Stanislao de Kupferschein held several offices in the police military and municipal administration 9 According to Acosta Cofresi s father Francesco Giuseppe Fortunato von Kupferschein received a lateinschule education and left at age 19 for Frankfurt probably in search of a university or legal practice 10 In Frankfurt he mingled with influential figures such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 11 returning to Trieste two years later 11 As a cosmopolitan mercantile city Trieste was a probable hub of illicit trade 12 and Francesco was forced to leave after he killed Josephus Steffani on July 31 1778 13 Although Steffani s death is commonly attributed to a duel given their acquaintanceship both worked at a criminal court it may have been related to illegal activity 14 Francesco s name and those of four sailors soon became linked to the murder 13 Convicted in absentia the fugitive remained in touch with his family 15 Francesco went to Barcelona reportedly learning Spanish there 15 By 1784 he had settled in Cabo Rojo Puerto Rico a harbor town recently separated from the municipality of San German and made the seat of an eponymous municipality where he was accepted by the local aristocracy 16 with the Spanish honorific Don of noble origin 17 Francesco s name was Hispanicized to Francisco Jose Cofresi his third given name was not which was easier for his neighbors to pronounce 15 18 Since he was linked to illegal commerce in his homeland he probably relocated to Cabo Rojo for strategic reasons its harbor was far from San Juan the capital 19 Francisco soon met Maria Germana Ramirez de Arellano y Segarra and they married His wife was born to Clemente Ramirez de Arellano y del Toro y Quinones Rivera a noble and first cousin of town founder Nicolas Ramirez de Arellano y Martinez de Matos 14 Her paternal family descended from the Jimena royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Navarre and the first royal house of the Kingdom of Aragon said house was established by a Jimena prince owned a significant amount of land in Cabo Rojo 20 21 After their marriage the couple settled in El Tujao or El Tujado near the coast 22 Francisco s father Giovanni died in 1789 and a petition pardoning him for Steffani s murder a decade before was granted two years later enabling him to return to Trieste 23 However no evidence exists that Francisco ever returned to the city 23 Penniless nobleman and marauder Edit The Latin American wars of independence had repercussions in Puerto Rico due to widespread privateering and other naval warfare maritime commerce suffered heavily 24 Cabo Rojo was among the municipalities affected most with its ports at a virtual standstill 24 African slaves took to the sea in an attempt at freedom 25 merchants were assessed higher taxes and harassed by foreigners 24 Under these conditions Cofresi was born to Francisco and Maria Germana The youngest of four children he had one sister Juana and two brothers Juan Francisco and Juan Ignacio Cofresi was baptized into the Catholic Church by Jose de Roxas the first priest in Cabo Rojo when he was fifteen days old 26 Maria died when Cofresi was four years old and an aunt assumed his upbringing 27 Francisco then began a relationship with Maria Sanabria the mother of his last child Julian 28 A don by birth Cofresi s education was above average 29 since there is no evidence of a school in Cabo Rojo at that time Francisco may have educated his children or hired a tutor 29 The Cofresis raised in a multicultural environment probably knew Dutch and Italian 30 31 In November 1814 Francisco died 25 leaving a modest estate 17 Roberto was probably homeless with no income 32 On January 14 1815 three months after his father s death Cofresi married Juana Creitoff in San Miguel Arcangel parish Cabo Rojo 16 25 Contemporary documents are unclear about her birthplace although it is also listed as Curacao she was probably born in Cabo Rojo to Dutch parents 33 After their marriage the couple moved to a residence bought for 50 pesos by Creitoff s father Geraldo 25 Months later Cofresi s father in law lost his humble home in a fire plunging the family into debt 34 Three years after his marriage Cofresi owned no property and lived with his mother in law Anna Cordelia 32 35 He established ties with residents of San German including his brothers in law the wealthy merchant Don Jacobo Ufret and Don Manuel Ufret 34 The couple struggled to begin a family of their own conceiving two sons Juan and Francisco Matias who died soon after birth 16 Although he belonged to a prestigious family Cofresi was not wealthy 36 In 1818 he paid 17 maravedis in taxes spending most of his time at sea and earning a low wage 34 37 According to historian Walter Cardona Bonet Cofresi probably worked in a number of fishing corrals in Boqueron Bay 37 The corrals belonged to the aristocrat Cristobal Pabon Davila a friend of municipal port captain Jose Mendoza 38 This connection is believed to have later protected Cofresi since Mendoza was godfather to several of his brother Juan Francisco s children 38 The following year he first appeared on a government registry as a sailor 37 and there is no evidence linking him to any other jobs in Cabo Rojo 39 Although Cofresi s brothers were maritime merchants and sailed a boat Avispa he probably worked as an able fisherman 40 On December 28 1819 Cofresi was registered on Ramona ferrying goods between the southern municipalities 35 In addition her frequent voyages to the Mona Passage and Cofresi s recognition by local residents indicate that he occasionally accompanied Avispa 41 That year Cofresi and Juana lived in Barrio del Pueblo and paid higher taxes than the previous year five reales 34 Political changes in Spain affected Puerto Rico s stability during the first two decades of the 19th century 42 Europeans and refugees from the American colonies began arriving after the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 changing the archipelago s economic and political environments 42 With strategic acquisitions the new arrivals triggered a rise in prices 43 Food distribution was inefficient particularly in non agricultural areas 44 Unmotivated and desperate the local population drifted toward crime and dissipation 42 By 1816 governor Salvador Melendez Bruna shifted responsibility for law enforcement from the Captaincy General of Puerto Rico to the mayors 42 Driven by hunger and poverty highway robbers continued to roam southern and central Puerto Rico 44 In 1817 wealthy San German residents requested help with the criminals who were invading houses and shops 45 The following year Melendez established a high security prison at El Arsenal in San Juan 44 During the next few years the governor transferred repeat offenders to San Juan 44 Cabo Rojo with its high crime rate 43 also dealt with civil strife inefficient law enforcement and corrupt officials 43 While he was still a don Cofresi led a criminal gang in San German which stole cattle food and crops 46 He was linked to an organization operating near the Hormigueros barrio since at least 1818 and to another nobleman Juan Geraldo Bey 46 Among Cofresi s associates were Juan de los Reyes Jose Cartagena and Francisco Ramos 44 and the criminals continued to thrive in 1820 45 The situation worsened with the arrival of unauthorized street vendors from nearby municipalities who were soon robbed 45 A series of storms and droughts drove residents away from Cabo Rojo worsening the already poor economy 45 authorities retrained the unemployed and underemployed as night watchmen 43 The regional harvest was destroyed by a September 28 1820 hurricane triggering the region s largest crime wave to date 47 Newly appointed Puerto Rican governor Gonzalo Arostegui Herrera immediately ordered Lieutenant Antonio Ordonez to round up as many criminals as possible 47 On November 22 1820 a group of fifteen men from Cabo Rojo participated in the highway robbery of Francisco de Rivera Nicolas Valdes and Francisco Lamboy on the outskirts of Yauco 47 Cofresi is believed to have been involved in this incident because of its timing and the criminals link to an area headed by his friend Cristobal Pabon Davila 48 The incident sparked an uproar in towns throughout the region and convinced the governor that the authorities were conspiring with the criminals 49 Among measures taken by Arostegui were a mayoral election in Cabo Rojo Juan Evangelista Ramirez de Arellano one of Cofresi s relatives was elected and an investigation of the former mayor 50 The incoming mayor was ordered to control crime in the region an unrealistic demand with the resources at his disposal 50 Bernardo Pabon Davila a friend of Cofresi and relative of Cristobal was assigned to prosecute the Yauco incident 51 Bernardo reportedly protected the accused and argued against pursuing the case saying that according to private confidences they were fleeing to the United States 51 Other initiatives to capture highway robbers in Cabo Rojo were more successful resulting in over a dozen arrests 52 among them was the nobleman Bey who was charged with murder 53 Known as El Holandes Bey testified that Cofresi led a criminal gang 51 Cofresi s primary collaborators were the Ramirez de Arellano family who prevented his capture 54 as Cabo Rojo s founding family with high positions in politics and law enforcement 54 The central government issued wanted posters for Cofresi 54 and in July 1821 he and the rest of his gang were captured 51 Bey escaped becoming a fugitive 51 Cofresi and his men were tried in San German s courthouse where their connection to several crimes was proven 51 On August 17 1821 while Cofresi was in prison Juana gave birth to their only daughter Bernardina 16 55 56 Due to his noble status Cofresi probably received a pass for the birth 55 and took the opportunity to escape 55 in alternative theories he broke out or was released on parole 55 While Cofresi was a fugitive Bernardo Pabon Davila was Bernardina s godfather and Felicita Asencio her godmother 57 58 On December 4 1821 a wanted poster was circulated by San German mayor Pascacio Cardona 59 There is little documentation of Cofresi s whereabouts in 1822 60 Historians have suggested that he exploited his upper class connections to remain concealed 61 the Ramirez de Arellano family held most regional public offices and their influence extended beyond the region 61 Other wealthy families including the Beys had similarly protected their relatives and Cofresi may have hidden in plain sight due to the inertia of Cabo Rojo authorities 61 When he became a wanted man he moved Juana and Anna to her brothers houses and would visit in secret 62 Juana also visited him at his headquarters in the rural ward of Pedernales in Cabo Rojo 62 It is unknown how far Cofresi traveled during this time but he had associates on the east coast and may have taken advantage of eastern migration from Cabo Rojo 63 Although he may have been captured and imprisoned in San Juan he does not appear in contemporary records 60 However Cofresi s associates Juan El Indio de los Reyes Francisco Ramos and Jose Pepe Cartagena were released only months before his recorded reappearance 60 Last of the West India pirates EditEstablishing a reputation Edit By 1823 Cofresi was probably on the crew of the corsair barquentine El Scipion captained by Jose Ramon Torres and managed by his cousin the first mayor of Mayaguez Jose Maria Ramirez de Arellano nb 1 33 65 Historians agree since several of his friends and family members benefited from the sale of stolen goods 66 Cofresi may have joined to evade the authorities honing skills he would use later in life 66 El Scipion employed questionable tactics later associated with the pirate such as flying the flag of Gran Colombia so other ships would lower their guard as she did in capturing the British frigate Aurora and the American brigantine Otter 67 The capture of Otter led to a court order requiring restitution affecting the crew 68 At this time Cofresi turned to piracy 69 Although the reasons behind his decision are unclear several theories have been proposed by researchers 69 In Origenes portorriquenos Ramirez Brau speculates that Cofresi s time aboard El Scipion or seeing a family member become a privateer may have influenced his decision to become a pirate 33 after the crew s pay was threatened by the lawsuit According to Acosta a lack of work for privateers ultimately pushed Cofresi into piracy 69 The timing of this decision was crucial in establishing him as the dominant Caribbean pirate of the era Cofresi began his new career in early 1823 filling a role vacant in the Spanish Main since the death of Jean Lafitte and was the last major target of West Indies anti piracy operations While piracy was heavily monitored and most pirates were rarely successful Cofresi was confirmed to have plundered at least eight vessels and has been credited with over 70 captures 70 Unlike his predecessors Cofresi is not known to have imposed a pirate code on his crew his leadership was enhanced by an audacious personality a trait acknowledged even by his pursuers According to 19th century reports he had a rule of engagement that when a vessel was captured only those willing to join his crew were permitted to live Cofresi s influence extended to a large number of civil informants and associates forming a network which took 14 years after his death to fully dismantle The earliest document linked to Cofresi s modus operandi is a letter dated July 5 1823 from Aguadilla Puerto Rico which was published in the St Thomas Gazette 71 The letter reported that a brigantine loaded with coffee and West Indian indigo from La Guaira was boarded by pirates on June 12 71 The hijackers ordered the ship brought to Isla de Mona incorrectly anglicized as Monkey Island a small island in the eponymous passage between Puerto Rico and Hispaniola 72 73 where its captain and crew were ordered to unload the cargo 71 After this was done the pirates reportedly killed the sailors and sank the brigantine 71 Both of Cofresi s brothers were soon involved in his operation helping him move plunder and deal with captured ships 41 Juan Francisco was able to gather information about maritime traffic in his work at the port presumably forwarding it to his brother 38 The pirates communicated with their cohorts through coastal signs and their associates on land warned them of danger 74 the system was probably used to identify loaded vessels as well 75 According to Puerto Rican historian Aurelio Tio Cofresi shared his loot with the needy especially family members and close friends and was considered the Puerto Rican equivalent of Robin Hood 56 Acosta disagrees saying that any acts of generosity were probably opportunistic 76 Cardona Bonet s research suggests that Cofresi organized improvised markets in Cabo Rojo where plunder would be informally sold 77 according to this theory merchant families would buy goods for resale to the public 77 The process was facilitated by local collaborators such as French smuggler Juan Bautista Buye 78 On October 28 1823 months after the El Scipion case was settled Cofresi attacked a ship registered to the harbor of Patillas 79 and robbed the small fishing boat of 800 pesos in cash 79 Cofresi attacked with other members of his gang and that of another pirate Manuel Lamparo who was connected to British pirate Samuel McMorren also known as Juan Bron 80 That week he also led the capture of John an American schooner Out of Newburyport and captained by Daniel Knight on its way to Mayaguez the ship was intercepted by a ten ton schooner armed with a swivel gun near Desecheo Island 81 Cofresi s group consisting of seven pirates armed with sabers and muskets stole 1 000 in cash tobacco tar and other provisions and the vessel s square rig and mainsail 81 Cofresi ordered the crew to head for Santo Domingo threatening to kill everyone aboard if they were seen at any Puerto Rican port 81 Despite the threat Knight went to Mayaguez and reported the incident 81 Map of the area where Cofresi and his men usually operated Puerto Rico Mona Vieques Crab Island Culebra Saona Hispaniola and Saint Thomas It was soon established that some of the pirates were from Cabo Rojo since they disembarked there 82 Undercover agents were sent to the town to track them and new mayor Juan Font y Soler requested resources to deal with a larger group which was out of control 82 Links between the pirates and local sympathizers made arresting them difficult 82 The central government frustrated with Cabo Rojo s inefficiency demanded the pirates capture 83 and western Puerto Rico military commander Jose Rivas was ordered to exert pressure on local authorities 83 Although Cofresi was tracked to the beach in Penones near his brothers homes in Guaniquilla the operation only recovered the John s sails meat flour cheese lard butter and candles 83 the pirates escaped aboard a schooner 84 A detachment caught Juan Jose Mateu and charged him with conspiracy 80 his confession linked Cofresi to the two hijackings 80 Cofresi s sudden success was an oddity nearly a century after the end of the Golden Age of Piracy By this time joint governmental efforts had eradicated rampant buccaneering by Anglo French seamen primarily based on Jamaica and Tortuga which had turned the Caribbean into a haven for pirates attacking shipments from the region s Spanish colonies this made his capture a priority By late 1823 the pursuit on land probably forced Cofresi to move his main base of operations to Mona the following year he was often there 72 This base initially a temporary haven with Barrio Pedernales his stable outpost became more heavily used 72 Easily accessible from Cabo Rojo Mona had been associated with pirates for more than a century it was visited by William Kidd who landed in 1699 after fleeing with a load of gold silver and iron 85 A second pirate base was found at Saona an island south of Hispaniola 86 In November a number of sailors aboard El Scipion took advantage of her officers shore leave and mutinied seizing control of the ship 87 The vessel repurposed as a pirate ship began operating in the Mona Passage and was later seen at Mayaguez before disappearing from the record 68 Cofresi was linked to El Scipion by pirate Jaime Marquez who admitted under police questioning on Saint Thomas that boatswain Manuel Reyes Paz was a Cofresi associate 88 The confession hints that the ship was captured by Hispaniola authorities 88 Cofresi is recorded in eastern Hispaniola then part of the unified Republic of Haiti modern day Dominican Republic where his crew reportedly rested off Puerto Plata province 89 On one excursion the pirates were intercepted by Spanish patrol boats off the coast of Samana Province 90 With no apparent escape route Cofresi is said to have ordered the vessel s sinking and it sailed into Bahia de Samana before coming to rest near the town of Punta Gorda 90 This created a diversion allowing him and his crew to escape in skiffs they rowed to shore and adjacent wetlands where the larger Spanish ships could not follow 90 The remains of the ship reportedly full of plunder have not been found 90 In an article in the May 9 1936 issue of Puerto Rico Ilustrado Eugenio Astol described an 1823 incident between Cofresi and Puerto Rican physician and politician Pedro Geronimo Goyco 91 The 15 year old Goyco traveled alone on a schooner to a Santo Domingo school for his secondary education 91 In mid voyage Cofresi intercepted the ship and the pirates boarded it 91 Cofresi assembled the passengers asking their names and those of their parents 91 When he learned that Goyco was among them the pirate ordered a change of course they landed on a beach near Mayaguez 91 where Goyco was freed Cofresi explained that he knew Goyco s father an immigrant from Herceg Novi named Geronimo Goicovich who had settled in Mayaguez 91 Goyco returned home safely later attempting the voyage again The elder Goicovich had favored members of Cofresi s family despite their association with a pirate 91 Goyco grew up to become a militant abolitionist similar to Ramon Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis 91 Cofresi s pivot gun cannon as documented by Angel Rivero Mendez while exhibited in an Artillery Museum Cofresi s actions quickly gained the attention of the Anglo American nations who called him Cofrecinas a mistranslated onomatopoeic variant of his last name 92 Commercial agent and US Consul Judah Lord wrote to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams describing the El Scipion situation and the capture of John 93 Adams relayed the information to Commodore David Porter leader of the anti piracy West Indies Squadron who sent several ships to Puerto Rico 93 On November 27 Cofresi sailed from his base on Mona with two sloops armed with pivot gun cannons and assaulted another American ship the brigantine William Henry 86 The Salem Gazette reported that the following month a schooner sailed from Santo Domingo to Saona capturing 18 pirates including Manuel Reyes Paz and a considerable quantity of leather coffee indigo and cash 94 International manhunt Edit Cofresi s victims were locals and foreigners and the region was economically destabilized When he boarded Spanish vessels he usually targeted immigrants brought by the royal decree of 1815 ignoring his fellow criollos 95 The situation was complicated by several factors most of them geopolitical The Spanish Empire had lost most of its possessions in the New World and her last two territories Puerto Rico and Cuba faced economic problems and political unrest To undermine the commerce of former colonies Spain stopped issuing letters of marque this left sailors unemployed and they gravitated towards Cofresi and piracy 96 97 On the diplomatic front the pirates assaulted foreign ships while flying the Flag of Spain angering nations who had reached an agreement about the return of ships captured by corsairs and compensation for losses 98 Aware that the problem had developed international overtones Spanish appointed governor of Puerto Rico Lt Gen Miguel Luciano de la Torre y Pando 1822 1837 made Cofresi s capture a priority 98 By December 1823 other nations joined the effort to combat Cofresi sending warships to the Mona Passage 99 Gran Colombia sent two corvettes Bocaya and Bolivar under the command of former privateer and Jean Lafitte associate Renato Beluche 99 The British assigned the brig sloop HMS Scout to the region after the William Henry incident 100 On January 23 1824 de la Torre implemented anti piracy measures in response to Spanish losses and political pressure from the United States 101 102 ordering that pirates be tried in a military tribunal with the defendants considered enemy combatants 103 De la Torre ordered the pursuit of pirates bandits and those aiding them 104 issuing medals certificates and bounties in gold and silver as rewards 105 Manuel Lamparo was captured on Puerto Rico s east coast 104 and some of his crew joined Cofresi and other fugitives 104 United States Secretary of the Navy Samuel L Southard ordered David Porter to assign ships to the Mona Passage and the commodore sent the schooner USS Weasel and the brigantine USS Spark 94 The ships were to investigate the zone gathering information at Saint Barthelemy and St Thomas with the goal of destroying the base at Mona 94 Although Porter warned that the pirates were reportedly well armed and supplied he said the crews would probably not find plunder at the base because of the proximity of eastern Puerto Rican ports 106 On February 8 1824 the Spark arrived at Mona conducted reconnaissance and landed 106 A suspicious schooner was seen but captain John T Newton decided not to chase her 106 The crew found a small settlement with an empty hut and other buildings a chest of medicine sails books an anchor and documents from William Henry 106 Newton ordered the base and a large canoe found in the vicinity destroyed 64 106 and reported his findings to the Secretary of the Navy 106 According to another report the ship sent was the USS Beagle 85 in this account several pirates eluded the Beagle s crew 85 Undeterred Cofresi quickly resettled on Mona 64 Attacks on two brigantines were reported by Renato Beluche on February 12 1824 and published in El Colombiano several days later 97 The first was Boniton captained by Alexander Murdock which sailed with a load of cocoa from Trinidad and was intercepted en route to Gibraltar 97 The second Bonne Sophie sailed from Havre de Grace under the command of a man named Chevanche with dry goods bound for Martinique 97 In both cases the sailors were beaten and imprisoned and the ships plundered 107 The ships were part of a convoy escorted by the Bolivar off Puerto Real Cabo Rojo 108 and Cofresi captained a ship identified by Beluche as a pailebot a small schooner nb 2 109 Although Bolivar could not capture her her crew described the vessel as painted black armed with a rotating cannon and having a crew of twenty unidentified Puerto Rican men 107 Cofresi was presumably leading the vessels to dock at Pedernales where Mendoza and his brother could facilitate the distribution of loot with the aid of official inertia 97 From there other associates usually used Boqueron Bay for transportation and ensured that the loot reached stores in Cabo Rojo and nearby towns 97 In this region Cofresi s influence extended to government and the military with the Ramirez de Arellano family involved in the smuggling and sale of his loot 54 On land the loot hidden in sacks and barrels was brought to Mayaguez Hormigueros or San German for distribution 54 When Beluche returned to Colombia he published an article critical of the situation in the press 97 La Gaceta de Puerto Rico countered accusing him of stealing Bonne Sophie and connecting him to the pirates nb 3 110 On February 16 1824 de la Torre mandated a more aggressive pursuit and prosecution of pirates 110 In March the governor ordered a search for the schooner Caballo Blanco reportedly used in the boarding of Boniton and Bonne Sophie and similar attacks nb 4 98 In private communication with Mayaguez military commander Jose Rivas he asked Rivas to find someone trustworthy who could launch a mission to capture the so called Cofresin 98 and to notify him personally of the pirate s arrest 98 Authorizing the use of force the governor described Cofresi as one of the evil ones that I am pursuing and acknowledged that the pirate was protected by Cabo Rojo authorities 98 The mayor was unable or unwilling to cooperate despite orders from de la Torre 98 Rivas tracked Cofresi to his house twice but found it empty 111 When the captain lost contact with the pirate and his wife he was also unable to communicate with the mayor 111 A similar search was undertaken in San German whose mayor reported to de la Torre on March 12 1824 111 Martinique governor Francois Xavier Donzelot wrote to de la Torre on March 22 concerned about the capture of Bonne Sophie and the impact of piracy on maritime commerce 112 This brought France into the search for Cofresi 112 on March 23 de la Torre authorized France to patrol the Puerto Rican coast and commissioned a frigate Flora 112 The mission was led by a military commander named Mallet who was ordered to the west coast and pursue the pirates until he was able to trap and destroy them 112 Although Flora arrived three days after the operation s approval 113 the attempt was unsuccessful Rivas then assigned Joaquin Arroyo a retired Pedernales militiaman to monitor activity near Cofresi s house 114 1824 wanted poster offering a bounty in gold and silver for Cofresi s capture In April 1824 Rincon mayor Pedro Garcia authorized the sale of a vessel owned by Juan Bautista de Salas to Pedro Ramirez 115 Ramirez who may have been a member of the Ramirez de Arellano family lived in Pedernales and was a neighbor of Cofresi s brothers and Cristobal Pabon Davila 115 On April 30 shortly after acquiring the ship Ramirez sold it to Cofresi who used it as a pirate flagship 115 The irregularity of the transactions was quickly noticed prompting an investigation of Garcia 116 The scandal weakened his already frail authority and Matias Conchuela intervened as the governor s representative 116 De la Torre asked the mayor of Anasco Thomas de la Concha to retrieve the records and verify their accuracy 116 The investigation led by public prosecutor Jose Madrazo of the Regimiento de Granada s Military Anti Piracy Commission concluded with Bautista s imprisonment and sanctions for Garcia 117 Several members of the Ramirez de Arellano family were prosecuted including the former mayors of Anasco and Mayaguez Manuel and Jose Maria Tomas and Antonio 117 Others with the same last name but unclear parentage such as Juan Lorenzo Ramirez were also linked to Cofresi 117 A number of unsuccessful searches were carried out in Cabo Rojo by an urban militia led by Captain Carlos de Espada 118 and additional searches were made in San German 118 On May 23 1824 the Mayaguez military commander prepared two vessels and sent them to Pedernales in response to reported sightings of Cofresi 119 Rivas and the military captain of Mayaguez Cayetano Castillo y Picado boarded a ship commanded by Sergeant Sebastian Bausa 119 Sailor Pedro Alacan best known as the grandfather of Ramon Emeterio Betances and a neighbor of Cofresi 120 was captain of the second schooner 119 The expedition failed only finding a military deserter named Manuel Fernandez de Cordova 121 Also known as Manuel Navarro Fernandez was connected to Cofresi through Lucas Branstan a merchant from Trieste who was involved in Bonne Sophie incident 121 In the meantime the pirates fled toward southern Puerto Rico 122 Poorly supplied after his hasty retreat Cofresi docked at Jobos Bay on June 2 1824 122 about a dozen pirates invaded the hacienda of Francisco Antonio Ortiz stealing his cattle 122 The group then broke into a second estate owned by Jacinto Texidor stole plantains and resupplied their ship 122 It is now believed that Juan Jose Mateu gave the pirates refuge in one of his haciendas near Jobos Bay 80 The next day the news reached Guayama mayor Francisco Brenes who quickly contacted the military and requested operations by land and sea 122 He was told that there were not enough weapons in the municipality for a mission of that scale Brenes then requested supplies from Patillas 122 which rushed him twenty guns 123 However the pirates fled the municipality and traveled west 124 On June 9 1824 Cofresi led an assault on the schooner San Jose y Las Animas off the coast of Tallaboa in Penuelas 124 The ship was en route between Saint Thomas and Guayanilla with over 6 000 pesos worth of dry goods for Felix and Miguel Mattei who were aboard 114 The Mattei brothers are now thought to have been anti establishment smugglers related to Henri La Fayette Villaume Ducoudray Holstein and the Ducoudray Holstein Expedition 114 The schooner owned by Santos Lucca sailed with captain Francisco Ocasio and a crew of four 125 Frequently used to transport cargo throughout the southern region and Saint Thomas she made several trips to Cabo Rojo 125 When Cofresi began the chase Ocasio headed landward the brothers abandoned ship and swam ashore from where they watched the ship s plundering 124 Portugues was second in command during the boarding of San Jose y las Animas and Joaquin El Campechano Hernandez was a crew member 73 126 127 The pirates took most of the merchandise leaving goods valued at 418 pesos three reales and 26 maravedi 124 Governor Miguel de la Torre was visiting nearby municipalities at the time which occupied the authorities 128 Cargo from San Jose y Las Animas clothing belonging to the brothers and a painting was later found at Cabo Rojo 128 Days later a sloop and a small boat commanded by Luis Sanchez and Francisco Guilfuchi left Guayama in search of Cofresi 123 Unable to find him they returned on June 19 1824 129 Patillas and Guayama enacted measures monitored by the governor which were intended to prevent further visits 130 De la Torre continued his tour of the municipalities ordering Rivas to focus on the Cabo Rojo area when he reached Mayaguez 131 The task was given to Lieutenant Antonio Madrona leader of the Mayaguez garrison 131 Madrona assembled troops and left for Cabo Rojo launching an operation on June 17 which ended with the arrest of pirate Eustaquio Ventura de Luciano at the home of Juan Francisco 132 The troops came close to capturing a second associate Joaquin El Maracaybero Gomez 133 Madrona then began a surprise attack at Pedernales 131 finding Cofresi and several associates including Juan Bey his brother Ignacio and his brother in law Juan Francisco Creitoff 131 The pirates only option was to flee on foot 131 The Cofresi brothers escaped but Creitoff and Bey were captured and tried in San German 131 Troops later visited Creitoff s house where they found Cofresi s wife and mother in law 132 Under questioning the women confirmed the brothers identities 133 The authorities continued searching the homes of those involved and those of their families where they found quantities of plunder hidden and prepared for sale 132 Madrona also found burned loot on a nearby hill 132 Juan Francisco Cofresi Ventura de Luciano and Creitoff were sent to San Juan with other suspected associates 133 Of this group the pirate s brother Luis de Rio and Juan Bautista Buye were prosecuted as accomplices instead of pirates 134 Ignacio was later arrested and also charged as an accomplice 134 The Mattei brothers filed a claim against shopkeeper Francisco Betances that some of his merchandise was cargo from San Jose y Las Animas 134 In response to a tip Jose Mendoza and Rivas organized an expedition to Mona 135 On June 22 1824 Pedro Alacan assembled a party of eight volunteers among them Joaquin Arroyo possibly Mendoza s source 120 135 He loaned a small sailboat he co owned Avispa once used by Cofresi s brothers to Jose Perez Mendoza and Antonio Gueyh 40 There were eight volunteers The locally coordinated operation intended to ambush and apprehend Cofresi in his hideout 120 The expedition left the coast of Cabo Rojo with Action Stations in place 120 Despite unfavorable sea conditions the party arrived at their destination 120 However as soon as they disembarked Avispa was lost 136 Although most of the pirates were captured without incident Cofresi s second in command Juan Portugues was shot to death in the back 136 and dismembered by crewmember Lorenzo Camareno 126 Among the captives was a man identified as Jose Rodriguez 137 but Cofresi was not with his crew 120 Five days later they returned to Cabo Rojo on a ship confiscated from the pirates with weapons three prisoners and Portugues head and right hand probably for identification when claiming the bounty 136 Rivas contacted de la Torre informing him of further measures to track the pirates 136 The governor publicized the expedition writing an account which was published in the government newspaper La Gaceta del Gobierno de Puerto Rico on July 9 1824 138 Alacan was honored by the Spanish government receiving the ship recovered from the pirates as compensation for the loss of the Avispa 120 139 Mendoza and the crew were also honored 140 Cofresi reportedly escaped in one of his ships with Campechano Hernandez resuming his attacks soon after the ambush 140 141 Shortly after the Mona expedition Ponce mayor Jose Ortiz de la Renta began his own search for Cofresi 142 On June 30 1824 the schooner Union left with 42 sailors commanded by captain Francisco Francheschi 142 After three days the search was abandoned and the ship returned to Ponce 142 The governor enacted more measures to capture the pirates including the commission of gunboats 142 De la Torre ordered the destruction of any hut or abandoned ship which might aid Cofresi in his escape attempts an initiative carried out on the coasts of several municipalities 142 Again acting on the basis of information obtained by interrogation the authorities tracked the pirates during the first week of July 143 Although Jose Pepe Cartagena a local mulatto and Juan Geraldo Bey were found in Cabo Rojo and San German respectively Cofresi avoided the troops 143 On July 6 1824 Cartagena resisted arrest and was killed in a shootout 143 with the developments again featured in La Gaceta del Gobierno de Puerto Rico 144 During the next few weeks a joint initiative by Rivas and the west coast mayors led to the arrest of Cofresi associates Gregorio del Rosario Miguel Hernandez Felipe Carnero Jose Rodriguez Gomez Roberto Francisco Reifles Sebastian Gallardo Francisco Ramos Jose Vicente and a slave of Juan Nicolas Bey Juan Geraldo s father known as Pablo 144 145 146 However the pirate again evaded the net In his confession Pablo testified that Juan Geraldo Bey was an accomplice of Cofresi 146 Sebastian Gallardo was captured on July 13 1824 and tried as a collaborator 147 The defendants were transported to San Juan where they were prosecuted by Madrazo in a military tribunal overseen by the governor 148 The trial was plagued by irregularities including Gomez allegation that the public attorney had accepted a bribe of 300 pesos from Juan Francisco 148 During the searches the pirates stole a sturdy copper plated boat from Cabo Rojo and escaped 149 The ship was originally stolen in San Juan by Gregorio Pereza and Francisco Perez both arrested during the search for Caballo Blanco and given to Cofresi 150 When the news became public mayor Jose Maria Hurtado asked local residents for help 149 On August 5 1824 Antonio de Irizarry found the boat at Punta Arenas a cape in the Joyuda barrio 149 The mayor quickly organized his troops reaching the location on horseback 149 Aboard the ship they found three rifles three guns a carbine a cannon ammunition and supplies 151 After an unsuccessful search of nearby woods the mayor sailed the craft to Pedernales and turned it over to Mendoza 152 A group left behind continued the search but did not find anyone 152 Assuming that the pirates had fled inland Hurtado alerted his colleagues in the region about the find 152 The mayor resumed the search but abandoned it due to a rainstorm and poor directions 152 Peraza Perez Jose Rivas del Mar Jose Maria Correa and Jose Antonio Martinez were later arrested but Cofresi remained free 150 On August 5 1824 the pirate and a skeleton crew captured the sloop Maria off the coast of Guayama 153 as she completed a run between Guayanilla and Ponce under the command of Juan Camino 153 After boarding the ship they decided not to plunder her since a larger craft was sailing towards them 153 The pirates fled west intercepting a second sloop La Voladora off Morillos 153 Cofresi did not plunder her either instead requesting information from captain Rafael Mola 153 That month a ship commanded by the pirates stalked the port of Fajardo taking advantage of the lack of gunboats capable of pursuing their shallow draft vessels 154 Shortly afterwards the United States ordered captain Charles Boarman of the USS Weasel to monitor the western waters of Puerto Rico as part of an international force 154 The schooner located a sloop commanded by the pirates off Culebra but it fled to Vieques and ran inland into dense vegetation 154 Boarman could only recover the ship 154 The Danish sloop Jordenxiold was intercepted off Isla Palominos on September 3 1824 as she completed a voyage from Saint Thomas to Fajardo 155 the pirates stole goods and cash from the passengers 155 The incident attracted the attention of the Danish government which commissioned the Santa Cruz a 16 gun brigantine commanded by Michael Klariman to monitor the areas off Vieques and Culebra 155 On September 8 9 a hurricane Nuestra Senora de la Monserrate struck southern Puerto Rico and passed directly over the Mona Passage 102 156 Cofresi and his crew were caught in the storm which drove their ship towards Hispaniola 102 According to historian Enrique Ramirez Brau an expedition weeks later by Fajardo commander Ramon Aboy to search Vieques Culebra and the Windward Islands for pirates was actually after Cofresi 102 The operation used the schooner Aurora owned by Nicolas Marquez and Flor de Mayo owned by Jose Maria Marujo 102 After weeks of searching the team failed to locate anything of interest 102 Continuing to drift Cofresi and his crew were captured after his ship reached Santo Domingo Sentenced to six years in prison they were sent to a keep named Torre del Homenaje 157 Cofresi and his men escaped were recaptured and again imprisoned The group escaped again breaking the locks on their cell doors and climbing down the prison walls on a stormy night on a rope made from their clothing 157 With Cofresi were two other inmates a man known as Portalatin and Manuel Reyes Paz former boatswain of El Scipion 102 After reaching the province of San Pedro de Macoris the pirates bought a ship 156 They sailed from Hispaniola in late September to Naguabo where Portalatin disembarked 155 From there they went to the island of Vieques where they set up another hideout and regrouped Challenge to the West Indies Squadron Edit By October 1824 piracy in the region was dramatically reduced with Cofresi the remaining target of concern 158 However that month Peraza Perez Hernandez Gallardo Jose Rodriguez and Ramos escaped from jail 150 Three former members of Lamparo s crew a man of African descent named Bibian Hernandez Morales Antonio del Castillo and Juan Manuel de Fuentes Rodriguez also broke out 150 They were joined by Juan Manuel Venado de Fuentes Rodriguez Ignacio Cabrera Miguel de la Cruz Damasio Arroyo Miguel El Rasgado de la Rosa and Juan Reyes 159 Those traveling east met with Cofresi who welcomed them on his crew the pirate was in Naguabo looking for recruits after his return from Hispaniola 160 Hernandez Morales an experienced knife fighter was second in command of the new crew 147 161 At the height of their success they had a flotilla of three sloops and a schooner 162 The group avoided capture by hiding in Ceiba Fajardo Naguabo Jobos Bay and Vieques 160 and when Cofresi sailed the east coast he reportedly flew the flag of Gran Colombia 155 On October 24 Hernandez Morales led a group of six pirates in the robbery of Cabot Bailey amp Company in Saint Thomas making off with US 5 000 163 On October 26 the USS Beagle commanded by Charles T Platt navigated by John Low and carrying shopkeeper George Bedford with a list of plundered goods which were reportedly near Naguabo left Saint Thomas 163 Platt sailed to Vieques following a tip about a pirate sloop 163 Beagle opened fire interrupting the capture of a sloop from Saint Croix but the pirates docked at Punta Arenas in Vieques and fled inland one identified as Juan Felis was captured after a shootout 164 When Platt disembarked in Fajardo to contact Juan Campos a local associate of Bedford the authorities accused him of piracy and detained him 164 The officer was later freed but the pirates escaped 165 Commodore Porter s reaction to what was later known as the Fajardo Affair led to a diplomatic crisis which threatened war between Spain and the United States Campos was later found to be involved in the distribution of loot 166 With more ships Cofresi s activity near Culebra and Vieques peaked by November 1824 100 The international force reacted by sending more warships to patrol the zone France provided the Gazelle a brigantine and the frigate Constancia 100 After the Fajardo incident the United States increased its flotilla in the region with the USS Beagle joined by the schooners USS Grampus and USS Shark in addition to the previously commissioned Santa Cruz and Scout 100 Despite unprecedented monitoring Cofresi grew bolder John D Sloat captain of Grampus received intelligence placing the pirates in a schooner out of Cabo Rojo 75 On the evening of January 25 1825 Cofresi sailed a sloop towards Grampus which was patrolling the west coast 75 In position the pirate commanded his crew armed with sabers and muskets to open fire and ordered the schooner to stop 75 When Sloat gave the order to counterattack Cofresi sailed into the night 75 Although a skiff and cutters from Grampus were sent after the pirates they failed to find them after a two hour search 167 The pirates sailed east and docked at Quebrada de las Palmas a river in Naguabo 167 From there Cofresi Hernandez Morales Juan Francisco Ceniza Pizarro and De los Reyes crossed the mangroves and vegetation to the Quebrada barrio in Fajardo 167 168 Joined by a fugitive Juan Pedro Espinoza the group robbed the house of Juan Becerril nb 5 75 and hid in a house in the nearby Rio Abajo barrio 167 Two days later Cofresi again led his flotilla out to sea 169 and targeted San Vicente a Spanish sloop making its way back from Saint Thomas 169 Cofresi attacked with two sloops ordering his crew to fire muskets and blunderbusses 169 Sustaining heavy damage San Vicente finally escaped because she was near port 167 On February 10 1825 Cofresi plundered the sloop Neptune nb 6 171 The merchant ship with a cargo of fabric and provisions was attacked while its dry goods were unloaded at dockside in Jobos Bay 170 Neptune was owned by Salvador Pastorisa who was supervising the unloading Cofresi began the charge in a sloop opening musket fire on the crew 170 and Pastoriza fled in a rowboat 170 Despite a bullet wound Pastoriza identified four of the eight to ten pirates including Cofresi 172 An Italian living in Puerto Rico Pedro Salovi was reportedly 173 second in command during the attack 174 The pirates pursued and shot those who fled 172 Cofresi sailed Neptune out of Jobos Port a harbor in Jobos Bay near Fajardo and adopted the sloop as a pirate ship 173 Guayama mayor Francisco Brenes doubled his patrol 172 Salovi was soon arrested and informed on his shipmates 174 Hernandez Morales led another sloop intercepting Beagle off Vieques 174 After a battle the pirate sloop was captured and Hernandez Morales was transported to St Thomas for trial 175 After being sentenced to death he escaped from prison and disappeared for years 176 According to a St Thomas resident on February 12 1825 the pirates retaliated by setting fire to a town on the island 177 That week Neptune captured a Danish schooner belonging to W Furniss a company based in Saint Thomas off the Ponce coast with a load of imported merchandise 173 After the assault Cofresi and his crew abandoned the ship at sea Later seen floating with broken masts it was presumed lost 173 Some time later Cofresi and his crew boarded another ship owned by the company near Guayama again plundering and abandoning her 173 Like its predecessor it was seen near Caja de Muertos Dead Man s Chest before disappearing Evading Beagle Cofresi returned to Jobos Bay 178 on February 15 1825 the pirates arrived in Fajardo 178 Three days later John Low picked up a six gun sloop Anne commonly known by her Spanish name Ana or La Ana which he had ordered from boat builder Toribio Centeno and registered in St Thomas nb 7 178 Centeno sailed the sloop to Fajardo where he received permission to dock at Quebrada de Palmas in Naguabo 178 As its new owner Low accompanied him remaining aboard while cargo was loaded 179 That night Cofresi led a group of eight pirates stealthily boarded the ship 179 and forced the crew to jump overboard 157 during the capture Cofresi reportedly picked 20 from Low s pocket 173 Despite having to walk the plank Low s crew survived 157 and reported the assault to the governor of Saint Thomas 173 Low probably attracted the pirates attention by docking near one of their hideouts his work on the Beagle rankled and they were hungry for revenge after the capture of Hernandez Morales 180 Low met Centeno at his hacienda where he told the Spaniard about the incident and later filed a formal complaint in Fajardo 180 Afterwards he and his crew sailed to Saint Thomas 180 Although another account suggests that Cofresi bought Anne from Centeno for twice Low s price 181 legal documents verify that the builder was paid by Low 173 Days later Cofresi led his pirates to the Humacao shipyard 182 and they stole a cannon from a gunboat ordered by Miguel de la Torre to pursue the pirates which was under construction 182 The crew armed themselves with weapons found on the ships they boarded 181 After the hijacking Cofresi adopted Anne as his flagship 179 Although she is popularly believed to have been renamed El Mosquito all official documents use her formal name 183 184 Anne was quickly used to intercept a merchant off the coast of Vieques who was completing a voyage from Saint Croix to Puerto Rico 182 Like others before it the fate of the captured ship and its crew is unknown 182 The Spanish countered with an expedition from the port of Patillas 182 Captain Sebastian Quevedo commanded a small boat Esperanza to find the pirates but was unsuccessful after several days at sea 182 At the same time de la Torre pressured the regional military commanders to take action against the pirates and undercover agents monitored maritime traffic in most coastal towns 182 The pirates docked Anne in Jobos Bay before sunset a pattern reported by the local militia to southern region commander Tomas de Renovales 185 At this time the pirates sailed Anne towards Penuelas where the ship was recognized 185 Cofresi s last capture was on March 5 1825 when he commanded the hijacking of a boat owned by Vicente Antoneti in Salinas 186 Capture and trial EditMain article Capture of the sloop Anne Early 20th century illustration of the capture of Cofresi s flagship the sloop Anne right By the spring of 1825 the flotilla led by Anne was the last substantial pirate threat in the Caribbean 187 The incursion which finally ended Cofresi s operation began serendipitously When Low arrived at his home base in Saint Thomas with news of Anne s hijacking a Puerto Rican ship reported a recent sighting 188 Sloat requested three international sloops with Spanish and Danish papers from the Danish governor collaborating with Pastoriza and Pierety All four of Cofresi s victims left port shortly after the authorization on March 4 the task force was made up of Grampus San Jose y Las Animas an unidentified vessel belonging to Pierety and a third sloop staffed by volunteers from a Colombian frigate 188 After sighting Anne while they negotiated the involvement of the Spanish government in Puerto Rico the task force decided to split up 188 San Jose y Las Animas found Cofresi the next day and mounted a surprise attack The sailors aboard hid while Cofresi recognizing the ship as a local merchant vessel gave the order to attack it 188 When Anne was within range the crew of San Jose y las Animas opened fire Startled the pirates countered with cannon and musket fire while attempting to outrun the sloop 189 Unable to shake off San Jose y las Animas and having lost two members of his crew Cofresi grounded Anne and fled inland 190 Although a third pirate fell during the landing most scattered throughout rural Guayama and adjacent areas 189 Cofresi injured was accompanied by two crew members 191 Half his crew was captured shortly afterwards but the captain remained at large until the following day At midnight a local trooper Juan Candido Garay and two other members of the Puerto Rican militia spotted Cofresi 192 The trio ambushed the pirate who was hit by blunderbuss fire while he was fleeing 192 Despite his injury Cofresi fought back with a knife until he was subdued by militia machetes 192 After their capture the pirates were held at a prison in Guayama before their transfer to San Juan 193 Cofresi met with mayor Francisco Brenes offering him 4 000 pieces of eight which he claimed to possess in exchange for his freedom 194 Although a key component of modern myth this is the only historical reference to Cofresi s hiding any treasure 194 Brenes declined the bribe 195 Cofresi and his crew remained in Castillo San Felipe del Morro in San Juan for the rest of their lives 56 On March 21 1825 the pirate s reputed servant known only as Carlos was arrested in Guayama 196 Military prosecution Edit Cofresi received a council of war trial with no possibility of a civil trial 197 The only right granted the pirates was to choose their lawyers 198 the arguments the attorneys could make were limited and their role was a formality 198 Jose Madrazo was again the prosecutor 199 The case was hurried an oddity since other cases as serious or more so sometimes took months or years Cofresi was reportedly tried as an insurgent corsair and listed as such in a subsequent explanatory action in Spain 197 in accordance with measures enacted by governor Miguel de la Torre the year before 101 It is thought that the reason for the irregularities was that the Spanish government was under international scrutiny with several neutral countries filing complaints about pirate and privateer attacks in Puerto Rican waters 197 there was additional pressure due to the start of David Porter s court martial in the United States for invading the municipality of Fajardo 197 The ministry rushed the Cofresi trial denying him and his crew defense witnesses or testimony required by trial protocol 197 The trial was based on the pirates confessions with their legitimacy or circumstances not established 197 Fort San Felipe del Morro The other pirates on trial were Manuel Aponte Monteverde of Anasco Vicente del Valle Carbajal of Punta Espada or Santo Domingo depending on the report 200 Vicente Ximenes of Cumana Antonio Delgado of Humacao Victoriano Saldana of Juncos Agustin de Soto of San German Carlos Diaz of Trinidad de Barlovento Carlos Torres of Fajardo Juan Manuel Fuentes of Havana and Jose Rodriguez of Curacao 70 Torres stood out as an African and Cofresi s slave 201 Among the few sentenced for piracy who were not executed his sentence was to be sold at public auction with his price earmarked for trial costs 201 Cofresi confessed to capturing a French sloop in Vieques a Danish schooner a sailing ship from St Thomas a brigantine and a schooner from eastern Hispaniola a sloop with a load of cattle in Boca del Infierno a ship from which he stole 800 pieces of eight in Patillas and an American schooner with a cargo worth 8 000 pieces of eight abandoned and burned in Punta de Penones 70 Under pressure he was adamant that he was unaware of the current whereabouts of the vessels or their crews and that he had never killed anyone his testimony was corroborated by the other pirates 70 However according to a letter sent to Hezekiah Niles Weekly Register Cofresi admitted off the record that he had killed nearly 400 people but no Puerto Ricans 202 The pirate also confessed that he burned the cargo of an American vessel to throw off the authorities 132 The defendants social status and association with criminal or outlaw elements dictated the course of events Captain Jose Madrazo served as judge and prosecutor of the one day trial 197 Governor Miguel de la Torre may have influenced the process negotiating with Madrazo beforehand On July 14 1825 U S Congressman Samuel Smith accused Secretary of State Henry Clay of pressuring the Spanish governor to execute the pirates 197 Death and legacy EditOn the morning of March 29 1825 a firing squad was assembled to carry out the sentence handed down to the pirates 203 The public execution which had a large number of spectators 204 was supervised by the Regimiento de Infanteria de Granada between eight and nine a m Catholic priests were present to hear confessions and offer comfort 204 As the pirates prayed they were shot before the silent crowd 204 Although San Felipe del Morro is the accepted execution site Alejandro Tapia y Rivera whose father was a member of the Regimiento de Granada places their execution near Convento Dominico in the Baluarte de Santo Domingo part of present day Old San Juan 204 According to historian Enrique Ramirez Brau in a final act of defiance Cofresi refused to have his eyes covered after he was tied to a chair and he was blindfolded by soldiers 158 Richard Wheeler said that the pirate said that after killing three or four hundred people it would be strange if he was not accustomed to death 205 Cofresi supposedly said he had killed four hundred persons with his own hands but never to his knowledge had he killed a native of Puerto Rico 206 Cofresi s last words were reportedly I have killed hundreds with my own hands and I know how to die Fire 92 These earrings worn by Cofresi are on display at the National Museum of American History 207 According to several of the pirates death certificates they were buried on the shore next to the Santa Maria Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery 208 Hernandez Morales and several of his associates received the same treatment 209 Cofresi and his men were buried behind the cemetery on what is now a lush green hill overlooking the cemetery wall Contrary to local lore they were not buried in Old San Juan Cemetery Cementerio Antiguo de San Juan their execution as criminals made them ineligible for burial in the Catholic cemetery 56 A letter from Sloat to United States Secretary of the Navy Samuel L Southard implied that at least some of the pirates were intended to be beheaded and quartered and their parts sent to all the small ports around the island to be exhibited 92 Spanish authorities continued to arrest Cofresi associates until 1839 At this time defendants were required to pay trial expenses and Cofresi s family was charged 643 pieces of eight two reales and 12 maravedi 197 Contemporary documents suggest that Juana Creitoff with little or no support from Cofresi s brothers and sisters was left with the debt His brothers distanced themselves from the trial and their brother s legacy and Juan Francisco left Cabo Rojo for Humacao Juan Ignacio also evidently disassociated himself from Creitoff and her daughter 197 and one of Juan Ignacio s granddaughters ignored Bernardina and her descendants 57 Due to Cofresi s squandering of his treasure his only asset the Spanish government could seize was Carlos Appraised at 200 pesos he was sold to Juan Saint Just for 133 pesos 210 After the auction costs were paid only 108 pesos and 2 reales were left the remainder was paid by Felix and Miguel Mattei 197 after they made a deal with the authorities giving them the cargo of the San Jose y las Animas in return for future accountability 210 Juana Creitoff died a year later 56 Bernardina later married a Venezuelan immigrant Estanislao Asencio Velazquez continuing Cofresi s blood lineage in Cabo Rojo to this day 211 She had seven children Jose Lucas Maria Esterlina Antonio Salvador Antonio Luciano Pablo Maria Encarnacion and Juan Bernardino 211 One of Cofresi s most notable descendants was Ana Gonzalez better known by her married name Ana G Mendez 212 Cofresi s great granddaughter Mendez was directly descended from the Cabo Rojo bloodline through her mother Ana Gonzalez Cofresi 212 Known for her interest in education she was the first member of her branch of the Cofresi family to earn a high school diploma and university degree 212 A teacher Mendez founded the Puerto Rico High School of Commerce during the 1940s when most women did not complete their education 212 By the turn of the 21st century her initiative had evolved into the Ana G Mendez University System the largest group of private universities in Puerto Rico 212 Other branches of the Cofresi family include Juan Francisco s descendants in Ponce 213 and Juan Ignacio s lineage persists in the western region 213 Internationally the Kupferschein family remains in Trieste 6 Another family member was Severo Colberg Ramirez speaker of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico during the 1980s 214 Colberg made efforts to popularize Cofresi particularly the heroic legends which followed his death 214 He was related to the pirate through his sister Juana who married German Colberg 215 After Cofresi s death items associated with him have been preserved or placed on display His birth certificate is at San Miguel Arcangel Church with those of other notable figures including Ramon Emeterio Betances and Salvador Brau 216 Earrings said to have been worn by Cofresi were owned by Ynocencia Ramirez de Arellano a maternal cousin 217 Her great great grandson collector Teodoro Vidal Santoni gave them to the National Museum of American History in 1997 and the institution displayed them in a section devoted to Spanish colonial history Locally documents are preserved in the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture s General Archive of Puerto Rico the Ateneo Puertorriqueno the University of Puerto Rico s General Library and Historic Investigation Department and the Catholic Church s Parochial Archives Outside Puerto Rico records can be found at the National Archives Building and the General Archive of the Indies 218 However official documents relating to Cofresi s trial and execution have been lost 219 Modern view EditMain article Roberto Cofresi in popular culture See also Highwayman Robbers as heroes Modern portrayal of Cofresi standing on the deck of a ship and preparing for battle Few aspects of Cofresi s life and relationships have avoided the romanticism surrounding pirates in popular culture 220 During his life attempts by Spanish authorities to portray him as a menacing figure by emphasizing his role as pirate lord and nicknaming him the terror of the seas planted him in the collective consciousness 221 This combined with his boldness transformed Cofresi into a swashbuckler differing from late 19th century fictional accounts of pirates 222 The legends are inconsistent in their depiction of historical facts often contradicting each other 223 Cofresi s race economic background personality and loyalties are among variable aspects of these stories 224 225 However the widespread use of these myths in the media has resulted in their general acceptance as fact 226 The myths and legends surrounding Cofresi fall into two categories those portraying him as a generous thief or anti hero and those describing him as overwhelmingly evil 227 A subcategory represents him as an adventurer world traveler or womanizer 228 Reports by historians such as Tio of the pirate sharing his loot with the needy have evolved into a detailed mythology These apologetics attempt to justify his piracy blaming it on poverty revenge or a desire to restore his family s honor 229 and portray Cofresi as a class hero defying official inequality and corruption 230 He is said to have been a protector and benefactor of children women and the elderly 227 with some accounts describing him as a rebel hero and supporter of independence from imperial power 231 Legends describing Cofresi as malevolent generally link him to supernatural elements acquired through witchcraft mysticism or a deal with the Devil 232 This horror fiction emphasizes his ruthlessness while alive or his unwillingness to remain dead 233 Cofresi s ghost has a fiery aura or extraordinary powers of manifestation defending the locations of his hidden treasure or roaming aimlessly 234 Cofresi has been vilified by merchants 235 Legends portraying him as benign figure are more prevalent near Cabo Rojo in other areas of Puerto Rico they focus on his treasure and depict him as a cutthroat 236 Most of the hidden treasure stories have a moral counseling against greed those trying to find the plunder are killed dragged to Davy Jones Locker or attacked by the ghost of Cofresi or a member of his crew 237 Rumors about the locations of hidden treasure flourish with dozens of coves beaches and buildings linked to pirates in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola 238 The 20th century revived interest in Cofresi s piracy as a tourist attraction with municipalities in Puerto Rico highlighting their historical connection to the pirates 239 By the second half of the century beaches and sports teams especially in his native Cabo Rojo which features a monument in his honor were named for him in the Dominican Republic a resort town was named after the pirate 240 Cofresi s name has been commercialized with a number of products and businesses adopting it and its associated legends 241 Puerto Rico s first flag carrier seaplane was named for him 242 243 Several attempts have been made to portray Cofresi s life on film based on legend 244 Coplas songs and plays have been adapted from the oral tradition and formal studies of the historical Cofresi and the legends surrounding him have appeared in book form 218 Historians Cardona Bonet Acosta Salvador Brau Ramon Ibern Fleytas Antonio S Pedreira Bienvenido Camacho Isabel Cuchi Coll Fernando Geigel Sabat Ramirez Brau and Cayetano Coll y Toste have published the results of their research 218 Others inspired by the pirate include poets Cesareo Rosa Nieves and the brothers Luis and Gustavo Pales Matos 218 Educators Juan Bernardo Huyke and Robert Fernandez Valledor have also published on Cofresi 218 In mainstream media Cofresi has recently been discussed in the newspapers El Mundo El Imparcial El Nuevo Dia Primera Hora El Periodico de Catalunya Die Tageszeitung Tribuna do Norte and The New York Times 218 245 246 247 and the magazines Puerto Rico Ilustrado Fiat Lux and Proceedings have published articles on the pirate 218 See also Edit Puerto Rico portal Piracy portal Biography portalList of Puerto Ricans List of pirates Miguel Enriquez privateer Folklore of Puerto Rico Folk heroReferences EditNotes Edit This name uses Spanish naming customs the first or paternal family name is Cofresi and the second or maternal family name is Ramirez de Arellano During his lifetime his name was frequently confused giving rise to variants including Roverto Cofresin Roverto Cufresin Ruberto Cofresi Rovelto Cofusci Cofresy Cofrecin Cofreci Coupherseing Couppersing Koffresi Confercin Confersin Cofresin Cofrecis Cofrein Cufresini and Corfucinas 1 This ship is also known as Esscipion or Escipion 64 Despite having an etymology based on pilot boat the term pailebot is used in Spanish to describe a small schooner The Spanish referred to the vessel as the Princesa Buena Sofia This ship was also listed as Los Dos Amigos Espinoza had previous ties with Pedro Salovi another of Cofresi s associates This ship was also known as Esperanza 170 Anne is frequently referred to as a schooner Citations Edit Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 202 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 25 a b c Acosta 1991 pp 14 Acosta 1991 pp 16 Acosta 1991 pp 212 a b c d Acosta 1991 pp 27 Acosta 1991 pp 13 Acosta 1991 pp 28 Acosta 1991 pp 29 Acosta 1991 pp 30 a b Acosta 1991 pp 31 Acosta 1991 pp 26 a b Acosta 1991 pp 32 a b Acosta 1991 pp 17 a b c Acosta 1991 pp 33 a b c d Acosta 1987 pp 94 a b Acosta 1991 pp 36 Acosta 1987 pp 89 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 92 Acosta 1991 pp 41 Acosta 1991 pp 43 Acosta 1991 pp 34 a b Acosta 1991 pp 35 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 26 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 27 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 42 Acosta 1987 pp 91 Acosta 1991 pp 37 a b Acosta 1991 pp 47 Acosta 1991 pp 44 Acosta 1991 pp 45 a b Acosta 1991 pp 56 a b c Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 49 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 28 a b Acosta 1991 pp 57 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 80 a b c Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 81 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 71 Acosta 1991 pp 58 a b Acosta 1991 pp 50 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 30 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 31 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 34 a b c d e Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 32 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 33 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 48 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 36 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 47 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 39 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 40 a b c d e f Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 45 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 41 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 44 a b c d e Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 17 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 49 a b c d e Puerto Rican Folkloric Dance Retrieved April 2 2008 a b Acosta 1991 pp 82 Acosta 1991 pp 258 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 50 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 51 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 52 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 29 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 55 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 78 Acosta 1991 pp 59 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 54 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 57 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 61 a b c Acosta 1991 pp 62 a b c d Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 66 a b c d Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 125 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 73 a b Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 50 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 125 a b c d e f Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 156 Acosta 1991 pp 295 a b Gladys Nieves Ramirez 2007 07 28 Vive el debate de si el corsario era delincuente o benefactor El Nuevo Dia in Spanish Retrieved 2013 11 10 Cabo Rojo datos historicos economicos culturales y turisticos Municipio Autonomo de Cabo Rojo n d p 15 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 64 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 65 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 66 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 67 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 69 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 70 a b c Isla de Mona guarida del Pirata Cofresi in Spanish La Perla del Sur 2012 06 27 Retrieved 2013 11 10 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 74 Acosta 1991 pp 60 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 62 Antonio Heredia 2013 06 24 Viceministro de Educacion dictara conferencia en PP pondra en circulacion libro in Spanish Puerto Plata Digital Retrieved 2013 11 11 a b c d Clammer Grosberg amp Porup 2008 pp 150 a b c d e f g h Eugenio Astol 1936 05 09 El contendor de los gobernadores in Spanish Puerto Rico Ilustrado a b c Freeman Hunt 1846 Naval and Mercantile Biography Hunt s Merchants Magazine Retrieved 2015 04 21 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 72 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 75 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 279 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 91 a b c d e f g Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 81 a b c d e f g Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 85 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 79 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 155 a b Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 56 a b c d e f g Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 58 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 304 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 80 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 115 a b c d e f Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 76 a b Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 127 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 82 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 83 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 84 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 86 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 87 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 88 a b c Acosta 1991 pp 65 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 90 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 91 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 92 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 93 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 94 a b c d e f g Ojeda Reyes 2001 pp 7 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 95 a b c d e f Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 100 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 101 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 104 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 103 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 219 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 220 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 105 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 102 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 106 a b c d e f Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 107 a b c d e Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 108 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 109 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 110 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 111 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 113 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 230 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 114 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 116 a b Acosta 1991 pp 66 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 57 a b c d e Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 121 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 122 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 123 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 124 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 125 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 245 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 128 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 129 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 133 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 131 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 130 a b c d e Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 135 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 140 a b c d e Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 141 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 138 a b c d Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 105 a b Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 68 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 144 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 250 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 134 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 154 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 145 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 146 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 149 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 152 a b c d e Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 157 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 233 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 158 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 159 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 165 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 161 a b c d e f g h Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 60 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 163 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 164 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 252 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 166 a b c d Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 167 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 168 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 170 a b Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 59 a b c d e f g Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 171 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 104 Acosta 1991 pp 94 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 175 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 61 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 103 106 a b c d Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 64 a b Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 62 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 65 Acosta 1991 pp 273 a b c Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 189 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 108 a b Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 117 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 118 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 231 a b c d e f g h i j k Luis Ascencio Camacho 2013 Singularidades y posibles irregularidades en el juicio de Roberto Cofresi in Spanish Academia edu Retrieved 2013 10 08 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 211 Acosta 1991 pp 83 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 226 a b Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 102 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 36 Singer 2004 pp 84 a b c d Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 67 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 37 ADVENTURE WITH A PIRATE Morning Star and Commercial Advertiser Hobart Town Tas 1834 1835 18 August 1835 Retrieved 29 October 2019 Spanish Colonial History National Museum of American History c 2000 Archived from the original on 2001 10 30 Retrieved 2013 12 02 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 294 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 297 a b Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 267 a b Acosta 1991 pp 104 a b c d e Que paso hoy NotiCel in Spanish 2012 07 01 Retrieved 2013 11 04 a b Acosta 1991 pp 49 a b Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 11 Acosta 1991 pp 12 Parroquia de Cabo Rojo in Spanish MayaWest Magazine 2012 Retrieved 2013 11 13 Acosta 1991 pp 96 a b c d e f g Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 13 Acosta 1991 pp 21 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 88 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 39 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 45 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 46 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 83 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 51 Acosta 1991 pp 89 a b Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 76 77 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 89 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 47 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 22 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 106 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 101 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 50 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 87 88 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 34 Cardona Bonet 1991 pp 274 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 65 Fernandez Valledor 2006 pp 44 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 84 Pariser 1995 pp 182 Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 116 Luis Gonzalez Inicios del Correo Aereo en el Caribe y Puerto Rico Sociedad Filatelica de Puerto Rico Philatelic Society of Puerto Rico Archived from the original on 2013 12 15 Retrieved 2013 12 14 Hijacking of U S Planes Began with Seizure at Marathon May 1 St Petersburg FL Times 1961 08 04 pp 16 A Fernandez Valledor 1978 pp 115 El pirata Roberto Cofresi Mi ley la fuerza del viento o algo asi Mi unica patria la mar Otro ponche ron Vale in Spanish El Periodico de Catalunya 1995 07 19 Retrieved 2015 05 01 Judische Piraten in der Karibik Mit Kippa und Totenkopfflagge Die Tageszeitung in German 2009 04 29 Retrieved 2016 06 27 Nelson Mattos Filho 2015 09 06 Os piratas in Portuguese Tribuna do Norte Retrieved 2016 06 27 Bibliography Edit Acosta Ursula 1987 New Voices of Old Five centuries of Puerto Rican Cultural History Permanent Press ISBN 0915393204 Acosta Ursula 1991 Cofresi y Ducoudray Hombres al margen de la historia Editorial Edil ISBN 9780317616286 Cardona Bonet Walter A 1991 El Marinero Bandolero Pirata y Contrabandista Roberto Cofresi 1819 1825 Sociedad Puertorriquena de Genealogia ISBN 9781933545059 Clammer Paul Grosberg Michael Porup Jens 2008 Dominican Republic amp Haiti Ediz Inglese Lonely Planet ISBN 978174104292 4 Fernandez Valledor Roberto 1978 El mito de Cofresi en la narrativa antillana Publisher Editorial Universitaria Universidad de Puerto Rico ISBN 0847705560 Fernandez Valledor Roberto 2006 Cofresi El pirata Cofresi mitificado por la tradicion oral puertorriquena Casa Paoli ISBN 0847705560 Ojeda Reyes Felix 2001 El Desterrado de Paris Biografia del Dr Ramon Emeterio Betances 1827 1898 Ediciones Puerto ISBN 0942347471 Pariser Harry S 1995 Adventure Guide to Dominican Republic Hunter Publishing Inc ISBN 1 55650 277 X Singer Gerald 2004 Vieques A Photographically Illustrated Sombrero Publishing Company ISBN 0964122049 Further reading Edit Jose Morales Dorta 2006 El Morro testigo inconquistable Isla Negra Editores ISBN 1932271791 External links EditRoberto Cofresi El pirata caborrojeno Puerto Rico s History 1800 1849 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Roberto Cofresi amp oldid 1147166240, wikipedia, wiki, book, 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