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Out-of-body experience

October 19, 2023

An out-of-body experience (OBE or sometimes OOBE) is a phenomenon in which a person perceives the world from a location outside their physical body. An OBE is a form of autoscopy (literally "seeing self"), although this term is more commonly used to refer to the pathological condition of seeing a second self, or doppelgänger.

Artist's depiction of the separation stage of an out-of-body experience, which often precedes free movement

The term out-of-body experience was introduced in 1943 by G. N. M. Tyrrell in his book Apparitions,[1] and was adopted by researchers such as Celia Green,[2] and Robert Monroe,[3] as an alternative to belief-centric labels such as "astral projection" or "spirit walking". OBEs can be induced by traumatic brain injuries, sensory deprivation, near-death experiences, dissociative and psychedelic drugs, dehydration, sleep disorders, dreaming, and electrical stimulation of the brain,[4] among other causes. It can also be deliberately induced by some.[5] One in ten people has an OBE once, or more commonly, several times in their life.[6][7]

Psychologists and neuroscientists regard OBEs as dissociative experiences occurring along different psychological and neurological factors.[5][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]

Spontaneous OBEs Edit

During/near sleep Edit

Main article: Sleep paralysis

Those experiencing OBEs sometimes report (among other types of immediate and spontaneous experience) a preceding and initiating lucid-dream state. In many cases, people who claim to have had an OBE report being on the verge of sleep, or being already asleep shortly before the experience. A large percentage of these cases refer to situations where the sleep was not particularly deep (due to illness, noises in other rooms, emotional stress, exhaustion from overworking, frequent re-awakening, etc.). In most of these cases subjects perceive themselves as being awake; about half of them note a feeling of sleep paralysis.[15]

Near-death experiences Edit

Main article: Near-death experience

Another form of spontaneous OBE is the near-death experience (NDE). Some subjects report having had an OBE at times of severe physical trauma such as near-drownings or major surgery. Near-death experiences may include subjective impressions of being outside the physical body, sometimes visions of deceased relatives and religious figures, and transcendence of ego and spatiotemporal boundaries.[16] The experience typically includes such factors as: a sense of being dead; a feeling of peace and painlessness; hearing of various non-physical sounds, an out-of-body experience; a tunnel experience (the sense of moving up or through a narrow passageway); encountering "beings of light" and a God-like figure or similar entities; being given a "life review", and a reluctance to return to life.[17]

Resulting from extreme physical effort Edit

Along the same lines as an NDE, extreme physical effort during activities such as high-altitude climbing and marathon running can induce OBEs. A sense of bilocation may be experienced, with both ground and air-based perspectives being experienced simultaneously.[18]

Induced OBEs Edit

Chemical Edit

Mental induction Edit

  • Falling asleep physically without losing awareness. The "Mind Awake, Body Asleep" state is widely suggested as a cause of OBEs, voluntary and otherwise.[24] Thomas Edison used this state to tackle problems while working on his inventions. He would rest a silver dollar on his head while sitting with a metal bucket in a chair. As he drifted off, the coin would noisily fall into the bucket, restoring some of his alertness.[25] OBE pioneer Sylvan Muldoon more simply used a forearm held perpendicular in bed as the falling object.[26] Salvador Dalí was said to use a similar "paranoiac-critical" method to gain odd visions which inspired his paintings. Deliberately teetering between awake and asleep states is known to cause spontaneous trance episodes at the onset of sleep which are ultimately helpful when attempting to induce an OBE.[27][28][29] By moving deeper and deeper into relaxation, one eventually encounters a "slipping" feeling if the mind is still alert. This slipping is reported to feel like leaving the physical body. Some consider progressive muscle relaxation as an active form of sensory deprivation.
  • Deep trance, meditation and visualization. The types of visualizations vary; some common analogies include climbing a rope to "pull out" of one's body, floating out of one's body, getting shot out of a cannon, and other similar approaches. This technique is considered hard to use for people who cannot properly relax. One example of such a technique is the popular Golden Dawn "Body of Light" Technique.[30]

Mechanical induction Edit

  • Brainwave synchronization via audio/visual stimulation. Binaural beats can be used to induce specific brainwave frequencies,[31] notably those predominant in various mind awake/body asleep states. Binaural induction of a "body asleep" 4 Hertz brainwave frequency was observed as effective by the Monroe Institute,[32] and some authors consider binaural beats to be significantly supportive of OBE initiation when used in conjunction with other techniques.[33][34] Simultaneous introduction of "mind awake" beta frequencies (detectable in the brains of normal, relaxed awakened individuals) was also observed as constructive. Another popular technology uses sinusoidal wave pulses to achieve similar results, and the drumming accompanying Native American religious ceremonies is also believed to have heightened receptivity to "other worlds" through brainwave entrainment mechanisms.[35]
  • Direct stimulation of the vestibular cortex.[36]
  • Electrical stimulation of the brain, particularly the temporoparietal junction (see Blanke study below).
  • Sensory deprivation. This approach aims to induce intense disorientation by removal of space and time references. Flotation tanks or pink noise played through headphones are often employed for this purpose.[37]
  • Sensory overload, the opposite of sensory deprivation. The subject can for instance be rocked for a long time in a specially designed cradle, or submitted to light forms of torture, to cause the brain to shut itself off from all sensory input. Both conditions tend to cause confusion and this disorientation often permits the subject to experience vivid, ethereal out-of-body experiences.[38]
  • Strong g-forces that causes blood to drain from parts of the brain, as experienced for example in high-performance aircraft or high-G training for pilots and astronauts.[39]
  • An apparatus that uses a head-mounted display and a touch that confuses the sense of proprioception (and which can also create the sensation of additional limbs).[40]

OBE theories Edit

Psychological Edit

In the fields of cognitive science and psychology OBEs are considered dissociative experiences arising from different psychological and neurological factors.[5][8][9][10][12][13][14] Scientists consider the OBE to be an experience from a mental state, like a dream or an altered state of consciousness without recourse to the paranormal.[41]

Charles Richet (1887) held that OBEs are created by the subject's memory and imagination processes and are no different from dreams.[42][43] James H. Hyslop (1912) wrote that OBEs occur when the activity of the subconscious mind dramatizes certain images to give the impression the subject is in a different physical location.[44]Eugéne Osty (1930) considered OBEs to be nothing more than the product of imagination.[45] Other early researchers (such as Schmeing, 1938) supported psychophysiological theories.[46] G. N. M. Tyrrell interpreted OBEs as hallucinatory constructs relating to subconscious levels of personality.[47]

Donovan Rawcliffe (1959) connected the OBE experience with psychosis and hysteria.[48] Other researchers have discussed the phenomena of the OBE in terms of a distortion of the body image (Horowitz, 1970) and depersonalization (Whitlock, 1978).[49][50] The psychologists Nandor Fodor (1959) and Jan Ehrenwald (1974) proposed that an OBE is a defense mechanism designed to deal with the threat of death.[51][52] According to (Irin and Watt, 2007) Jan Ehrenwald had described the out-of-body experience (OBE) "as an imaginal confirmation of the quest for immortality, a delusory attempt to assure ourselves that we possess a soul that exists independently of the physical body".[53] The psychologists Donald Hebb (1960) and Cyril Burt (1968) wrote on the psychological interpretation of the OBE involving body image and visual imagery.[54][55] Graham Reed (1974) suggested that the OBE is a stress reaction to a painful situation, such as the loss of love.[56] John Palmer (1978) wrote that the OBE is a response to a body image change causing a threat to personal identity.[57]

Carl Sagan (1977) and Barbara Honegger (1983) wrote that the OBE experience may be based on a rebirth fantasy or reliving of the birth process based on reports of tunnel-like passageways and a cord-like connection by some OBErs which they compared to an umbilical cord.[58][59] Susan Blackmore (1978) came to the conclusion that the OBE is a hallucinatory fantasy as it has the characteristics of imaginary perceptions, perceptual distortions and fantasy-like perceptions of the self (such as having no body).[60][61] Ronald Siegel (1980) also wrote that OBEs are hallucinatory fantasies.[62]

Harvey Irwin (1985) presented a theory of the OBE involving attentional cognitive processes and somatic sensory activity. His theory involved a cognitive personality construct known as psychological absorption and gave instances of the classification of an OBE as examples of autoscopy, depersonalization and mental dissociation.[38] The psychophysiologist Stephen Laberge (1985) has written that the explanation for OBEs can be found in lucid dreaming.[63] David Hufford (1989) linked the OBE experience with a phenomenon he described as a nightmare waking experience, a type of sleep paralysis.[64] Other scientists have also linked OBEs to cases of hypnagogia and sleep paralysis (cataplexy).[65][66]

In case studies fantasy proneness has been shown to be higher among OBErs than those who have not had an OBE.[67] The data has shown a link between the OBE experience in some cases to fantasy prone personality (FPP).[68] In a case study involving 167 participants the findings revealed that those who claimed to have experienced the OBE were "more fantasy prone, higher in their belief in the paranormal and displayed greater somatoform dissociation."[69] Research from studies has also suggested that OBEs are related to cognitive-perceptual schizotypy.[70]

Neurological Edit

See also: Neurology and Cognitive science

Terence Hines (2003) has written that spontaneous out-of-body experiences can be generated by artificial stimulation of the brain and this strongly suggests that the OBE experience is caused from "temporary, minor brain malfunctions, not by the person's spirit (or whatever) actually leaving the body."[71] In a study review of neurological and neurocognitive data (Bünning and Blanke, 2005) wrote that OBEs are due to "functional disintegration of lower-level multisensory processing and abnormal higher-level self-processing at the temporoparietal junction."[72] Some scientists suspect that OBEs are the result of a mismatch between visual and tactile signals.[73][74]

Richard Wiseman (2011) has noted that OBE research has focused on finding a psychological explanation and "out-of-body experiences are not paranormal and do not provide evidence for the soul. Instead, they reveal something far more remarkable about the everyday workings of your brain and body."[75] A study conducted by Jason Braithwaite and colleagues (2011) linked the OBE to "neural instabilities in the brain's temporal lobes and to errors in the body's sense of itself".[76][77] Braithwaite et al. (2013) reported that the "current and dominant view is that the OBE occurs due to a temporary disruption in multi-sensory integration processes."[78] A study led by Josef Parvizi found that direct electrical stimulation of the anterior portion of the precuneus can induce an out-of-body experience.[23]

Paranormal Edit

Writers in the fields of parapsychology and occultism have written that OBEs are not psychological and that a soul, spirit or subtle body can detach itself out of the body and visit distant locations. Out-of-the-body experiences were known during the Victorian period in spiritualist literature as "travelling clairvoyance". In old Indian scriptures, such a state of consciousness is also referred to as Turiya, which can be achieved by deep yogic and meditative activities, during which yogis may be liberated from the duality of mind and body, allowing them to intentionally leave the body and then return to it. The body carrying out this journey is called "Vigyan dehi" ("Scientific body"). The psychical researcher Frederic Myers referred to the OBE as a "psychical excursion".[79] An early study that described alleged cases of OBE was the two-volume Phantasms of the Living, published in 1886 by the psychical researchers Edmund Gurney, Myers, and Frank Podmore. The book was largely criticized by the scientific community because the anecdotal reports in almost every case lacked evidential substantiation.[80][81]

 
A 19th-century illustration of Robert Blair's poem The Grave, depicting the soul leaving the body

The theosophist Arthur Powell (1927) was an early author to advocate the subtle body theory of OBEs.[82] Sylvan Muldoon (1936) embraced the concept of an etheric body to explain the OBE experience.[83] The psychical researcher Ernesto Bozzano (1938) had also supported a similar view describing the phenomena of the OBE experience in terms of bilocation in which an "etheric body" can release itself from the physical body in rare circumstances.[84] The subtle body theory was also supported by occult writers such as Ralph Shirley (1938), Benjamin Walker (1977), and Douglas Baker (1979).[85][86][87] James Baker (1954) wrote that a mental body enters an "intercosmic region" during the OBE.[88] Robert Crookall supported the subtle body theory of OBEs in several publications.[89][90]

The paranormal interpretation of OBEs has not been supported by all researchers within the study of parapsychology. Gardner Murphy (1961) wrote that OBEs are "not very far from the known terrain of general psychology, which we are beginning to understand more and more without recourse to the paranormal".[91]

In the 1970s, Karlis Osis conducted many OBE experiments with the psychic Alex Tanous. In one series of these experiments, he was asked whilst in an OBE state whether he could identify coloured targets that were placed in remote locations. Osis reported that there were 114 hits in 197 trials. However, the controls for the experiments have been criticized and, according to Susan Blackmore, the final result was not particularly significant since 108 hits would have been expected by chance alone. Blackmore noted that the results provide "no evidence for accurate perception in the OBE".[92]

In April 1977, a patient from Harborview Medical Center known as Maria claimed to have experienced an out-of-body experience. During her OBE she claimed to have floated outside her body and outside the hospital. Maria later told her social worker Kimberly Clark that during the OBE she had observed a tennis shoe on the third floor window ledge to the north side of the building. Clark then went to the north wing of the building and by looking out of the window could see a tennis shoe on one of the ledges. Clark published the account in 1984. The story has since been used in many paranormal books as evidence that a spirit can leave the body.[93][94]

In 1996, Hayden Ebbern, Sean Mulligan and Barry Beyerstein visited the Medical Center to investigate Clark's story. They placed a tennis shoe on the same ledge and found that it was visible from within the building and could easily have been observed by a patient lying in bed. They also discovered that the tennis shoe was easy to observe from outside the building and suggested that Maria may have overheard a comment about it during her three days in the hospital and then incorporated it into her OBE. They concluded "Maria's story merely reveals the naiveté and the power of wishful thinking" from OBE researchers seeking a paranormal explanation.[95] Clark did not publish the description of the case until seven years after it happened, casting doubt on the story. Richard Wiseman has said that although the story is not evidence for anything paranormal it has been "endlessly repeated by writers who either couldn't be bothered to check the facts, or were unwilling to present their readers with the more skeptical side of the story."[94] Clark responded to the accusations made in a separate paper.[96]

Astral projection Edit

Main article: Astral projection

Astral projection is a paranormal interpretation of out-of-body experiences that assumes the existence of one or more non-physical planes of existence and an associated body beyond the physical. Commonly such planes are called astral, etheric, or spiritual. Astral projection is often experienced as the spirit or astral body leaving the physical body to travel in the spirit world or astral plane.[97]

OBE studies Edit

Early collections of OBE cases had been made by Ernesto Bozzano (Italy) and Robert Crookall (UK). Crookall approached the subject from a spiritualistic position, and collected his cases predominantly from spiritualist newspapers such as the Psychic News, which appears to have biased his results in various ways. For example, the majority of his subjects reported seeing a cord connecting the physical body and its observing counterpart; whereas Green (see below) found that less than 4% of her subjects noticed anything of this sort, and some 80% reported feeling they were a "disembodied consciousness", with no external body at all.

The first extensive scientific study of OBEs was made by Celia Green (1968).[2] She collected written, first-hand accounts from a total of 400 subjects, recruited by means of appeals in the mainstream media, and followed up by questionnaires. Her purpose was to provide a taxonomy of the different types of OBE, viewed simply as an anomalous perceptual experience or hallucination, while leaving open the question of whether some of the cases might incorporate information derived by extrasensory perception.

International Academy of Consciousness - Global Survey Edit

In 1999, at the 1st International Forum of Consciousness Research in Barcelona, research-practitioners Wagner Alegretti and Nanci Trivellato presented preliminary findings of an online survey on the out-of-body experience answered by internet users interested in the subject; therefore, not a sample representative of the general population.[98]

1,007 (85%) of the first 1,185 respondents reported having had an OBE. 37% claimed to have had between two and ten OBEs. 5.5% claimed more than 100 such experiences. 45% of those who reported an OBE said they successfully induced at least one OBE by using a specific technique. 62% of participants claiming to have had an OBE also reported having enjoyed nonphysical flight; 40% reported experiencing the phenomenon of self-bilocation (i.e. seeing one's own physical body whilst outside the body); and 38% claimed having experienced self-permeability (passing through physical objects such as walls). The most commonly reported sensations experienced in connection with the OBE were falling, floating, repercussions e.g. myoclonia (the jerking of limbs, jerking awake), sinking, torpidity (numbness), intracranial sounds, tingling, clairvoyance, oscillation and serenity.

Another reported common sensation related to OBE was temporary or projective catalepsy, a more common feature of sleep paralysis. The sleep paralysis and OBE correlation was later corroborated by the Out-of-Body Experience and Arousal study published in Neurology by Kevin Nelson and his colleagues from the University of Kentucky in 2007.[99] The study discovered that people who have out-of-body experiences are more likely to experience sleep paralysis.[100]

Also noteworthy, is the Waterloo Unusual Sleep Experiences Questionnaire[101] that further illustrates the correlation.

Miss Z study Edit

In 1968, Charles Tart conducted an OBE experiment with a subject known as Miss Z for four nights in his sleep laboratory. The subject was attached to an EEG machine and a five-digit code was placed on a shelf above her bed. She did not claim to see the number on the first three nights but on the fourth gave the number correctly.[102][103] The psychologist James Alcock criticized the experiment for inadequate controls and questioned why the subject was not visually monitored by a video camera.[104] Martin Gardner has written the experiment was not evidence for an OBE and suggested that whilst Tart was "snoring behind the window, Miss Z simply stood up in bed, without detaching the electrodes, and peeked."[105] Susan Blackmore wrote "If Miss Z had tried to climb up, the brain-wave record would have showed a pattern of interference. And that was exactly what it did show."[106]

Neurology and OBE-like experiences Edit

There are several possible physiological explanations for parts of the OBE. OBE-like experiences have been induced by stimulation of the brain. OBE-like experience has also been induced through stimulation of the posterior part of the right superior temporal gyrus in a patient.[107] Positron-emission tomography was also used in this study to identify brain regions affected by this stimulation. The term OBE-like is used above because the experiences described in these experiments either lacked some of the clarity or details of normal OBEs, or were described by subjects who had never experienced an OBE before. Such subjects were therefore not qualified to make claims about the authenticity of the experimentally-induced OBE.

British psychologist Susan Blackmore and others suggest that an OBE begins when a person loses contact with sensory input from the body while remaining conscious.[108] The person retains the illusion of having a body, but that perception is no longer derived from the senses. The perceived world may resemble the world he or she generally inhabits while awake, but this perception does not come from the senses either. The vivid body and world is made by our brain's ability to create fully convincing realms, even in the absence of sensory information. This process is witnessed by each of us every night in our dreams, though OBEs are claimed to be far more vivid than even a lucid dream.

Irwin[38] pointed out that OBEs appear to occur under conditions of either very high or very low arousal. For example, Green[2] found that three quarters of a group of 176 subjects reporting a single OBE were lying down at the time of the experience, and of these 12% considered they had been asleep when it started. By contrast, a substantial minority of her cases occurred under conditions of maximum arousal, such as a rock-climbing fall, a traffic accident, or childbirth. McCreery[109][110] has suggested that this paradox may be explained by reference to the fact that sleep can supervene as a reaction to extreme stress or hyper-arousal.[111] He proposes that OBEs under both conditions, relaxation and hyper-arousal, represent a form of "waking dream", or the intrusion of Stage 1 sleep processes into waking consciousness.

Olaf Blanke studies Edit

Research by Olaf Blanke in Switzerland found that it is possible to reliably elicit experiences somewhat similar to the OBE by stimulating regions of the brain called the right temporoparietal junction (TPJ; a region where the temporal lobe and the parietal lobe of the brain come together). Blanke and his collaborators in Switzerland have explored the neural basis of OBEs by showing that they are reliably associated with lesions in the right TPJ region[112] and that they can be reliably elicited with electrical stimulation of this region in a patient with epilepsy.[113] These elicited experiences may include perceptions of transformations of the patient's arms and legs (complex somatosensory responses) and whole-body displacements (vestibular responses).[114][115]

In neurologically normal subjects, Blanke and colleagues then showed that the conscious experience of the self and body being in the same location depends on multisensory integration in the TPJ. Using event-related potentials, Blanke and colleagues showed the selective activation of the TPJ 330–400 ms after stimulus onset when healthy volunteers imagined themselves in the position and visual perspective that generally are reported by people experiencing spontaneous OBEs. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the same subjects impaired mental transformation of the participant's own body. No such effects were found with stimulation of another site or for imagined spatial transformations of external objects, suggesting the selective implication of the TPJ in mental imagery of one's own body.[116]

In a follow-up study, Arzy et al. showed that the location and timing of brain activation depended on whether mental imagery is performed with mentally embodied or disembodied self location. When subjects performed mental imagery with an embodied location, there was increased activation of a region called the "extrastriate body area" (EBA), but when subjects performed mental imagery with a disembodied location, as reported in OBEs, there was increased activation in the region of the TPJ. This leads Arzy et al. to argue that "these data show that distributed brain activity at the EBA and TPJ as well as their timing are crucial for the coding of the self as embodied and as spatially situated within the human body."[117]

Blanke and colleagues thus propose that the right temporal-parietal junction is important for the sense of spatial location of the self, and that when these normal processes go awry, an OBE arises.[118]

In August 2007 Blanke's lab published research in Science demonstrating that conflicting visual-somatosensory input in virtual reality could disrupt the spatial unity between the self and the body. During multisensory conflict, participants felt as if a virtual body seen in front of them was their own body and mislocalized themselves toward the virtual body, to a position outside their bodily borders. This indicates that spatial unity and bodily self-consciousness can be studied experimentally and is based on multisensory and cognitive processing of bodily information.[119]

Ehrsson study Edit

In August 2007, Henrik Ehrsson, then at the Institute of Neurology at University College of London (now at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden), published research in Science demonstrating the first experimental method that, according to the scientist's claims in the publication, induced an out-of-body experience in healthy participants.[120] The experiment was conducted in the following way:

The study participant sits in a chair wearing a pair of head-mounted video displays. These have two small screens over each eye, which show a live film recorded by two video cameras placed beside each other two metres behind the participant's head. The image from the left video camera is presented on the left-eye display and the image from the right camera on the right-eye display. The participant sees these as one "stereoscopic" (3D) image, so they see their own back displayed from the perspective of someone sitting behind them.

The researcher then stands just beside the participant (in their view) and uses two plastic rods to simultaneously touch the participant's actual chest out-of-view and the chest of the illusory body, moving this second rod towards where the illusory chest would be located, just below the camera's view.

The participants confirmed that they had experienced sitting behind their physical body and looking at it from that location.[73][121]

Both critics and the experimenter himself note that the study fell short of replicating "full-blown" OBEs. As with previous experiments which induced sensations of floating outside of the body, Ehrsson's work does not explain how a brain malfunction might cause an OBE. Essentially, Ehrsson created an illusion that fits a definition of an OBE in which "a person who is awake sees his or her body from a location outside the physical body."[122]

Awareness during Resuscitation Study Edit

In 2001, Sam Parnia and colleagues investigated out of body claims by placing figures on suspended boards facing the ceiling, not visible from the floor. Parnia wrote "anybody who claimed to have left their body and be near the ceiling during resuscitation attempts would be expected to identify those targets. If, however, such perceptions are psychological, then one would obviously not expect the targets to be identified."[123] The philosopher Keith Augustine, who examined Parnia's study, has written that all target identification experiments have produced negative results.[124][125] Psychologist Chris French wrote regarding the study "unfortunately, and somewhat atypically, none of the survivors in this sample experienced an OBE."[126]

In the autumn of 2008, 25 UK and US hospitals began participation in a study, coordinated by Sam Parnia and Southampton University known as the AWARE study (AWAreness during REsuscitation). Following on from the work of Pim van Lommel in the Netherlands, the study aims to examine near-death experiences in 1,500 cardiac arrest survivors and so determine whether people without a heartbeat or brain activity can have documentable out-of-body experiences.[127] As part of the study Parnia and colleagues have investigated out of body claims by using hidden targets placed on shelves that could only be seen from above.[127] Parnia has written "if no one sees the pictures, it shows these experiences are illusions or false memories".[127]

In 2014 Parnia issued a statement indicating that the first phase of the project has been completed and the results are undergoing peer review for publication in a medical journal.[128] No subjects saw the images mounted out of sight according to Parnia's early report of the results of the study at an American Heart Association meeting in November 2013. Only two out of the 152 patients reported any visual experiences, and one of them described events that could be verified (as the other one's condition worsened before the detailed interview).[129] The two NDEs occurred in an area where "no visual targets had been placed".[130]

On October 6, 2014, the results of the study were published in the journal Resuscitation. Less than 20% of cardiac arrest patients were able to be interviewed, as most of them died or were too sick even after successful resuscitation. Among those who reported a perception of awareness and completed further interviews, 46% experienced a broad range of mental recollections in relation to death that were not compatible with the commonly used term of NDEs. These included fearful and persecutory experiences. Only 9% had experiences compatible with NDEs and 2% exhibited full awareness compatible with OBEs with explicit recall of 'seeing' and 'hearing' events. One case was validated and timed using auditory stimuli during cardiac arrest.[131] According to Caroline Watt "The one 'verifiable period of conscious awareness' that Parnia was able to report did not relate to this objective test. Rather, it was a patient giving a supposedly accurate report of events during his resuscitation. He didn't identify the pictures, he described the defibrillator machine noise. But that's not very impressive since many people know what goes on in an emergency room setting from seeing recreations on television."[132][133] However, it was impossible for him to describe any hidden targets, as there were none in the room where his OBE occurred, and the rest of his description was also very precise, including the description and later correct identification of a doctor who took part in his resuscitation.

AWARE Study II Edit

As of May 2016, a posting at the UK Clinical Trials Gateway website describes plans for AWARE II, a two-year multicenter observational study of 900-1500 patients experiencing cardiac arrest, with subjects being recruited starting on 1 August 2014 and that the scheduled end date was 31 May 2017.[134] The study was extended, continuing until 2020.[135]Results have been published in 2023.[136]

Smith & Messier Edit

In 2014, a functional imaging study reported the case of a woman who could experience out of body experience at will. She reported developing the ability as a child and associated it with difficulties in falling sleep. Her OBEs continued into adulthood but became less frequent. She was able to see herself rotating in the air above her body, lying flat, and rolling in the horizontal plane. She reported sometimes watching herself move from above but remained aware of her unmoving "real" body. The participant reported no particular emotions linked to the experience. "[T]he brain functional changes associated with the reported extra-corporeal experience (ECE) were different than those observed in motor imagery. Activations were mainly left-sided and involved the left supplementary motor area and supramarginal and posterior superior temporal gyri, the last two overlapping with the temporal parietal junction that has been associated with out-of-body experiences. The cerebellum also showed activation that is consistent with the participant's report of the impression of movement during the ECE. There was also left middle and superior orbital frontal gyri activity, regions often associated with action monitoring."[137]

OBE training and research facilities Edit

The Monroe Institute's Nancy Penn Center is a facility specializing in out-of-body experience induction. The Center for Higher Studies of the Consciousness in Brazil is another large OBE training facility. Olaf Blanke's Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience has become a well-known laboratory for OBE research.[138]

See also Edit

Notes Edit

  1. ^ G. N. M. Tyrrell, Apparitions, Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd, London, 1943, pp. 149. ISBN 978-1169831537
  2. ^ a b c Green, C.E. (1968). Out-of-the-body Experiences. London: Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 978-0345248435.
  3. ^ Monroe, Robert (1971). Journeys Out of the Body. ISBN 0-385-00861-9.
  4. ^ Aspell, Jane; Blanke, Olaf (2009). "Understanding the out-of-body experience from a neuroscientific perspective" (PDF). In Murray, Craig D. (ed.). Psychological Scientific Perspectives on Out of Body and Near Death Experiences. Psychology Research Progress. New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60741-705-7.
  5. ^ a b c Brent, S. B. (1979). "Deliberately induced, premortem, out-of-body experiences: An experimental and theoretical approach". In Kastenbaum, B. (ed.). Between life and death. New York: Springer. pp. 89–123. ISBN 978-0826125408.
  6. ^ Blackmore, Susan (1984). "A Postal Survey of OBEs and Other Experiences".
  7. ^ "(Aug. 24, 2007) First Out-of-body Experience Induced In Laboratory Setting". ScienceDaily. August 24, 2007. Retrieved October 6, 2011.
  8. ^ a b Gabbard, G. O., & Twemlow, A. W. (1984). With the eyes of the mind: An empirical analysis of out-of-body states. New York: Praeger Scientific. ISBN 978-0030689260
  9. ^ a b Leonard Zusne, Warren H. Jones (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-0508-7
  10. ^ a b Blanke O, Landis T, Seeck M (2004). "Out-of-body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin". Brain. 127 (2): 243–258. doi:10.1093/brain/awh040. PMID 14662516.
  11. ^ Blanke O, Mohr C (2005). "Out-of-body experience, heautoscopy, and autoscopic hallucination of neurological origin. Implications for mechanisms of corporeal awareness and self consciousness". Brain Research Reviews. 50 (1): 184–199. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.05.008. PMID 16019077. S2CID 10376314.
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Further reading Edit

  • Blackmore Susan (1984). "A psychological theory of the out-of-body experience" (PDF). Journal of Parapsychology. 48: 201–218.
  • Blackmore, Susan. (1982). Beyond the Body: An Investigation of Out-of-the-Body Experiences. London: Heinemann. ISBN 978-0897333443
  • Blanke O, Ortigue S, Landis T, Seeck M (2002). (PDF). Nature. 419 (6904): 269–270. Bibcode:2002Natur.419..269B. doi:10.1038/419269a. PMID 12239558. S2CID 4427138. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 30, 2017. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  • Blanke O, Landis T, Seeck M (2004). "Out-of-body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin". Brain. 127 (2): 243–258. doi:10.1093/brain/awh040. PMID 14662516.
  • Blanke O, Mohr C (2005). (PDF). Brain Research Reviews. 50 (1): 184–199. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.05.008. PMID 16019077. S2CID 10376314. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 30, 2014. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
  • Blanke O, Arzy S (2005). "The out-of-body experience: Disturbed self-processing at the temporal-parietal junction". Neuroscientist. 11 (1): 16–24. doi:10.1177/1073858404270885. PMID 15632275. S2CID 8172076.
  • Bunning, S; Blanke, O. (2005). The out-of-body experience: precipitating factors and neural correlates. In Laureys, S. The boundaries of consciousness: Neurobiology and neuropathology. Progress in Brain Research, The Netherlands: Elsevier. 150: 331–350. ISBN 978-0444528766
  • Brugger P, Regard M, Landis T (1997). "Illusory reduplication of one's own body: phenomenology and classification of autoscopic phenomena". Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. 2 (1): 19–38. doi:10.1080/135468097396397. PMID 25420137.
  • Brugger P (2002). "Reflective mirrors: Perspective-taking in autoscopic phenomena". Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. 7 (3): 179–194. doi:10.1080/13546800244000076. PMID 16571536. S2CID 26514494.
  • Cheyne J. A; Girard T. A. (2009). "The body unbound: vestibular-motor hallucination and out of body experiences". Cortex. 45 (2): 201–215. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2007.05.002. PMID 18621363. S2CID 7501305.
  • Gabbard, G. O; Twemlow, A. W. (1984). With the eyes of the mind: An empirical analysis of out-of-body states. New York: Praeger Scientific. ISBN 978-0030689260
  • Irwin, Harvey. (1985). Flight of Mind: A Psychological Study of the Out-Of-Body Experience. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810817371
  • Metzinger, Thomas (2003). . Archived from the original on January 6, 2018.
  • Reed, Graham. (1988). The Psychology of Anomalous Experience: A Cognitive Approach. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0879754358
  • Schwabe L.; Blanke O. (2008). "The Vestibular Component in Out-Of-Body Experiences: A Computational Approach". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2: 17. doi:10.3389/neuro.09.017.2008. PMC 2610253. PMID 19115017.
  • Terhune DB (2009). "The incidence and determinants of visual phenomenology during out-of-body experiences". Cortex. 45 (2): 236–242. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2007.06.007. PMID 18621365. S2CID 874982.

External links Edit

October 19, 2023
body, experience, body, experience, sometimes, oobe, phenomenon, which, person, perceives, world, from, location, outside, their, physical, body, form, autoscopy, literally, seeing, self, although, this, term, more, commonly, used, refer, pathological, conditi. An out of body experience OBE or sometimes OOBE is a phenomenon in which a person perceives the world from a location outside their physical body An OBE is a form of autoscopy literally seeing self although this term is more commonly used to refer to the pathological condition of seeing a second self or doppelganger Artist s depiction of the separation stage of an out of body experience which often precedes free movementThe term out of body experience was introduced in 1943 by G N M Tyrrell in his book Apparitions 1 and was adopted by researchers such as Celia Green 2 and Robert Monroe 3 as an alternative to belief centric labels such as astral projection or spirit walking OBEs can be induced by traumatic brain injuries sensory deprivation near death experiences dissociative and psychedelic drugs dehydration sleep disorders dreaming and electrical stimulation of the brain 4 among other causes It can also be deliberately induced by some 5 One in ten people has an OBE once or more commonly several times in their life 6 7 Psychologists and neuroscientists regard OBEs as dissociative experiences occurring along different psychological and neurological factors 5 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Contents 1 Spontaneous OBEs 1 1 During near sleep 1 2 Near death experiences 1 3 Resulting from extreme physical effort 2 Induced OBEs 2 1 Chemical 2 2 Mental induction 2 3 Mechanical induction 3 OBE theories 3 1 Psychological 3 2 Neurological 3 3 Paranormal 3 3 1 Astral projection 4 OBE studies 4 1 International Academy of Consciousness Global Survey 4 2 Miss Z study 4 3 Neurology and OBE like experiences 4 3 1 Olaf Blanke studies 4 3 2 Ehrsson study 4 3 3 Awareness during Resuscitation Study 4 3 4 AWARE Study II 4 3 5 Smith amp Messier 4 4 OBE training and research facilities 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Further reading 8 External linksSpontaneous OBEs EditDuring near sleep Edit Main article Sleep paralysis Those experiencing OBEs sometimes report among other types of immediate and spontaneous experience a preceding and initiating lucid dream state In many cases people who claim to have had an OBE report being on the verge of sleep or being already asleep shortly before the experience A large percentage of these cases refer to situations where the sleep was not particularly deep due to illness noises in other rooms emotional stress exhaustion from overworking frequent re awakening etc In most of these cases subjects perceive themselves as being awake about half of them note a feeling of sleep paralysis 15 Near death experiences Edit Main article Near death experience Another form of spontaneous OBE is the near death experience NDE Some subjects report having had an OBE at times of severe physical trauma such as near drownings or major surgery Near death experiences may include subjective impressions of being outside the physical body sometimes visions of deceased relatives and religious figures and transcendence of ego and spatiotemporal boundaries 16 The experience typically includes such factors as a sense of being dead a feeling of peace and painlessness hearing of various non physical sounds an out of body experience a tunnel experience the sense of moving up or through a narrow passageway encountering beings of light and a God like figure or similar entities being given a life review and a reluctance to return to life 17 Resulting from extreme physical effort Edit Along the same lines as an NDE extreme physical effort during activities such as high altitude climbing and marathon running can induce OBEs A sense of bilocation may be experienced with both ground and air based perspectives being experienced simultaneously 18 Induced OBEs EditChemical Edit OBEs can be induced by hallucinogens particularly dissociatives such as psilocybin ketamine DMT MDA and LSD 19 20 21 22 These effects are believed to arise from interaction of these substances with a brain structure called the precuneus 23 Mental induction Edit Falling asleep physically without losing awareness The Mind Awake Body Asleep state is widely suggested as a cause of OBEs voluntary and otherwise 24 Thomas Edison used this state to tackle problems while working on his inventions He would rest a silver dollar on his head while sitting with a metal bucket in a chair As he drifted off the coin would noisily fall into the bucket restoring some of his alertness 25 OBE pioneer Sylvan Muldoon more simply used a forearm held perpendicular in bed as the falling object 26 Salvador Dali was said to use a similar paranoiac critical method to gain odd visions which inspired his paintings Deliberately teetering between awake and asleep states is known to cause spontaneous trance episodes at the onset of sleep which are ultimately helpful when attempting to induce an OBE 27 28 29 By moving deeper and deeper into relaxation one eventually encounters a slipping feeling if the mind is still alert This slipping is reported to feel like leaving the physical body Some consider progressive muscle relaxation as an active form of sensory deprivation Deep trance meditation and visualization The types of visualizations vary some common analogies include climbing a rope to pull out of one s body floating out of one s body getting shot out of a cannon and other similar approaches This technique is considered hard to use for people who cannot properly relax One example of such a technique is the popular Golden Dawn Body of Light Technique 30 Mechanical induction Edit Brainwave synchronization via audio visual stimulation Binaural beats can be used to induce specific brainwave frequencies 31 notably those predominant in various mind awake body asleep states Binaural induction of a body asleep 4 Hertz brainwave frequency was observed as effective by the Monroe Institute 32 and some authors consider binaural beats to be significantly supportive of OBE initiation when used in conjunction with other techniques 33 34 Simultaneous introduction of mind awake beta frequencies detectable in the brains of normal relaxed awakened individuals was also observed as constructive Another popular technology uses sinusoidal wave pulses to achieve similar results and the drumming accompanying Native American religious ceremonies is also believed to have heightened receptivity to other worlds through brainwave entrainment mechanisms 35 Direct stimulation of the vestibular cortex 36 Electrical stimulation of the brain particularly the temporoparietal junction see Blanke study below Sensory deprivation This approach aims to induce intense disorientation by removal of space and time references Flotation tanks or pink noise played through headphones are often employed for this purpose 37 Sensory overload the opposite of sensory deprivation The subject can for instance be rocked for a long time in a specially designed cradle or submitted to light forms of torture to cause the brain to shut itself off from all sensory input Both conditions tend to cause confusion and this disorientation often permits the subject to experience vivid ethereal out of body experiences 38 Strong g forces that causes blood to drain from parts of the brain as experienced for example in high performance aircraft or high G training for pilots and astronauts 39 An apparatus that uses a head mounted display and a touch that confuses the sense of proprioception and which can also create the sensation of additional limbs 40 OBE theories EditPsychological Edit In the fields of cognitive science and psychology OBEs are considered dissociative experiences arising from different psychological and neurological factors 5 8 9 10 12 13 14 Scientists consider the OBE to be an experience from a mental state like a dream or an altered state of consciousness without recourse to the paranormal 41 Charles Richet 1887 held that OBEs are created by the subject s memory and imagination processes and are no different from dreams 42 43 James H Hyslop 1912 wrote that OBEs occur when the activity of the subconscious mind dramatizes certain images to give the impression the subject is in a different physical location 44 Eugene Osty 1930 considered OBEs to be nothing more than the product of imagination 45 Other early researchers such as Schmeing 1938 supported psychophysiological theories 46 G N M Tyrrell interpreted OBEs as hallucinatory constructs relating to subconscious levels of personality 47 Donovan Rawcliffe 1959 connected the OBE experience with psychosis and hysteria 48 Other researchers have discussed the phenomena of the OBE in terms of a distortion of the body image Horowitz 1970 and depersonalization Whitlock 1978 49 50 The psychologists Nandor Fodor 1959 and Jan Ehrenwald 1974 proposed that an OBE is a defense mechanism designed to deal with the threat of death 51 52 According to Irin and Watt 2007 Jan Ehrenwald had described the out of body experience OBE as an imaginal confirmation of the quest for immortality a delusory attempt to assure ourselves that we possess a soul that exists independently of the physical body 53 The psychologists Donald Hebb 1960 and Cyril Burt 1968 wrote on the psychological interpretation of the OBE involving body image and visual imagery 54 55 Graham Reed 1974 suggested that the OBE is a stress reaction to a painful situation such as the loss of love 56 John Palmer 1978 wrote that the OBE is a response to a body image change causing a threat to personal identity 57 Carl Sagan 1977 and Barbara Honegger 1983 wrote that the OBE experience may be based on a rebirth fantasy or reliving of the birth process based on reports of tunnel like passageways and a cord like connection by some OBErs which they compared to an umbilical cord 58 59 Susan Blackmore 1978 came to the conclusion that the OBE is a hallucinatory fantasy as it has the characteristics of imaginary perceptions perceptual distortions and fantasy like perceptions of the self such as having no body 60 61 Ronald Siegel 1980 also wrote that OBEs are hallucinatory fantasies 62 Harvey Irwin 1985 presented a theory of the OBE involving attentional cognitive processes and somatic sensory activity His theory involved a cognitive personality construct known as psychological absorption and gave instances of the classification of an OBE as examples of autoscopy depersonalization and mental dissociation 38 The psychophysiologist Stephen Laberge 1985 has written that the explanation for OBEs can be found in lucid dreaming 63 David Hufford 1989 linked the OBE experience with a phenomenon he described as a nightmare waking experience a type of sleep paralysis 64 Other scientists have also linked OBEs to cases of hypnagogia and sleep paralysis cataplexy 65 66 In case studies fantasy proneness has been shown to be higher among OBErs than those who have not had an OBE 67 The data has shown a link between the OBE experience in some cases to fantasy prone personality FPP 68 In a case study involving 167 participants the findings revealed that those who claimed to have experienced the OBE were more fantasy prone higher in their belief in the paranormal and displayed greater somatoform dissociation 69 Research from studies has also suggested that OBEs are related to cognitive perceptual schizotypy 70 Neurological Edit See also Neurology and Cognitive science Terence Hines 2003 has written that spontaneous out of body experiences can be generated by artificial stimulation of the brain and this strongly suggests that the OBE experience is caused from temporary minor brain malfunctions not by the person s spirit or whatever actually leaving the body 71 In a study review of neurological and neurocognitive data Bunning and Blanke 2005 wrote that OBEs are due to functional disintegration of lower level multisensory processing and abnormal higher level self processing at the temporoparietal junction 72 Some scientists suspect that OBEs are the result of a mismatch between visual and tactile signals 73 74 Richard Wiseman 2011 has noted that OBE research has focused on finding a psychological explanation and out of body experiences are not paranormal and do not provide evidence for the soul Instead they reveal something far more remarkable about the everyday workings of your brain and body 75 A study conducted by Jason Braithwaite and colleagues 2011 linked the OBE to neural instabilities in the brain s temporal lobes and to errors in the body s sense of itself 76 77 Braithwaite et al 2013 reported that the current and dominant view is that the OBE occurs due to a temporary disruption in multi sensory integration processes 78 A study led by Josef Parvizi found that direct electrical stimulation of the anterior portion of the precuneus can induce an out of body experience 23 Paranormal Edit Writers in the fields of parapsychology and occultism have written that OBEs are not psychological and that a soul spirit or subtle body can detach itself out of the body and visit distant locations Out of the body experiences were known during the Victorian period in spiritualist literature as travelling clairvoyance In old Indian scriptures such a state of consciousness is also referred to as Turiya which can be achieved by deep yogic and meditative activities during which yogis may be liberated from the duality of mind and body allowing them to intentionally leave the body and then return to it The body carrying out this journey is called Vigyan dehi Scientific body The psychical researcher Frederic Myers referred to the OBE as a psychical excursion 79 An early study that described alleged cases of OBE was the two volume Phantasms of the Living published in 1886 by the psychical researchers Edmund Gurney Myers and Frank Podmore The book was largely criticized by the scientific community because the anecdotal reports in almost every case lacked evidential substantiation 80 81 nbsp A 19th century illustration of Robert Blair s poem The Grave depicting the soul leaving the bodyThe theosophist Arthur Powell 1927 was an early author to advocate the subtle body theory of OBEs 82 Sylvan Muldoon 1936 embraced the concept of an etheric body to explain the OBE experience 83 The psychical researcher Ernesto Bozzano 1938 had also supported a similar view describing the phenomena of the OBE experience in terms of bilocation in which an etheric body can release itself from the physical body in rare circumstances 84 The subtle body theory was also supported by occult writers such as Ralph Shirley 1938 Benjamin Walker 1977 and Douglas Baker 1979 85 86 87 James Baker 1954 wrote that a mental body enters an intercosmic region during the OBE 88 Robert Crookall supported the subtle body theory of OBEs in several publications 89 90 The paranormal interpretation of OBEs has not been supported by all researchers within the study of parapsychology Gardner Murphy 1961 wrote that OBEs are not very far from the known terrain of general psychology which we are beginning to understand more and more without recourse to the paranormal 91 In the 1970s Karlis Osis conducted many OBE experiments with the psychic Alex Tanous In one series of these experiments he was asked whilst in an OBE state whether he could identify coloured targets that were placed in remote locations Osis reported that there were 114 hits in 197 trials However the controls for the experiments have been criticized and according to Susan Blackmore the final result was not particularly significant since 108 hits would have been expected by chance alone Blackmore noted that the results provide no evidence for accurate perception in the OBE 92 In April 1977 a patient from Harborview Medical Center known as Maria claimed to have experienced an out of body experience During her OBE she claimed to have floated outside her body and outside the hospital Maria later told her social worker Kimberly Clark that during the OBE she had observed a tennis shoe on the third floor window ledge to the north side of the building Clark then went to the north wing of the building and by looking out of the window could see a tennis shoe on one of the ledges Clark published the account in 1984 The story has since been used in many paranormal books as evidence that a spirit can leave the body 93 94 In 1996 Hayden Ebbern Sean Mulligan and Barry Beyerstein visited the Medical Center to investigate Clark s story They placed a tennis shoe on the same ledge and found that it was visible from within the building and could easily have been observed by a patient lying in bed They also discovered that the tennis shoe was easy to observe from outside the building and suggested that Maria may have overheard a comment about it during her three days in the hospital and then incorporated it into her OBE They concluded Maria s story merely reveals the naivete and the power of wishful thinking from OBE researchers seeking a paranormal explanation 95 Clark did not publish the description of the case until seven years after it happened casting doubt on the story Richard Wiseman has said that although the story is not evidence for anything paranormal it has been endlessly repeated by writers who either couldn t be bothered to check the facts or were unwilling to present their readers with the more skeptical side of the story 94 Clark responded to the accusations made in a separate paper 96 Astral projection Edit Main article Astral projection Astral projection is a paranormal interpretation of out of body experiences that assumes the existence of one or more non physical planes of existence and an associated body beyond the physical Commonly such planes are called astral etheric or spiritual Astral projection is often experienced as the spirit or astral body leaving the physical body to travel in the spirit world or astral plane 97 OBE studies EditEarly collections of OBE cases had been made by Ernesto Bozzano Italy and Robert Crookall UK Crookall approached the subject from a spiritualistic position and collected his cases predominantly from spiritualist newspapers such as the Psychic News which appears to have biased his results in various ways For example the majority of his subjects reported seeing a cord connecting the physical body and its observing counterpart whereas Green see below found that less than 4 of her subjects noticed anything of this sort and some 80 reported feeling they were a disembodied consciousness with no external body at all The first extensive scientific study of OBEs was made by Celia Green 1968 2 She collected written first hand accounts from a total of 400 subjects recruited by means of appeals in the mainstream media and followed up by questionnaires Her purpose was to provide a taxonomy of the different types of OBE viewed simply as an anomalous perceptual experience or hallucination while leaving open the question of whether some of the cases might incorporate information derived by extrasensory perception International Academy of Consciousness Global Survey EditIn 1999 at the 1st International Forum of Consciousness Research in Barcelona research practitioners Wagner Alegretti and Nanci Trivellato presented preliminary findings of an online survey on the out of body experience answered by internet users interested in the subject therefore not a sample representative of the general population 98 1 007 85 of the first 1 185 respondents reported having had an OBE 37 claimed to have had between two and ten OBEs 5 5 claimed more than 100 such experiences 45 of those who reported an OBE said they successfully induced at least one OBE by using a specific technique 62 of participants claiming to have had an OBE also reported having enjoyed nonphysical flight 40 reported experiencing the phenomenon of self bilocation i e seeing one s own physical body whilst outside the body and 38 claimed having experienced self permeability passing through physical objects such as walls The most commonly reported sensations experienced in connection with the OBE were falling floating repercussions e g myoclonia the jerking of limbs jerking awake sinking torpidity numbness intracranial sounds tingling clairvoyance oscillation and serenity Another reported common sensation related to OBE was temporary or projective catalepsy a more common feature of sleep paralysis The sleep paralysis and OBE correlation was later corroborated by the Out of Body Experience and Arousal study published in Neurology by Kevin Nelson and his colleagues from the University of Kentucky in 2007 99 The study discovered that people who have out of body experiences are more likely to experience sleep paralysis 100 Also noteworthy is the Waterloo Unusual Sleep Experiences Questionnaire 101 that further illustrates the correlation Miss Z study Edit In 1968 Charles Tart conducted an OBE experiment with a subject known as Miss Z for four nights in his sleep laboratory The subject was attached to an EEG machine and a five digit code was placed on a shelf above her bed She did not claim to see the number on the first three nights but on the fourth gave the number correctly 102 103 The psychologist James Alcock criticized the experiment for inadequate controls and questioned why the subject was not visually monitored by a video camera 104 Martin Gardner has written the experiment was not evidence for an OBE and suggested that whilst Tart was snoring behind the window Miss Z simply stood up in bed without detaching the electrodes and peeked 105 Susan Blackmore wrote If Miss Z had tried to climb up the brain wave record would have showed a pattern of interference And that was exactly what it did show 106 Neurology and OBE like experiences Edit There are several possible physiological explanations for parts of the OBE OBE like experiences have been induced by stimulation of the brain OBE like experience has also been induced through stimulation of the posterior part of the right superior temporal gyrus in a patient 107 Positron emission tomography was also used in this study to identify brain regions affected by this stimulation The term OBE like is used above because the experiences described in these experiments either lacked some of the clarity or details of normal OBEs or were described by subjects who had never experienced an OBE before Such subjects were therefore not qualified to make claims about the authenticity of the experimentally induced OBE British psychologist Susan Blackmore and others suggest that an OBE begins when a person loses contact with sensory input from the body while remaining conscious 108 The person retains the illusion of having a body but that perception is no longer derived from the senses The perceived world may resemble the world he or she generally inhabits while awake but this perception does not come from the senses either The vivid body and world is made by our brain s ability to create fully convincing realms even in the absence of sensory information This process is witnessed by each of us every night in our dreams though OBEs are claimed to be far more vivid than even a lucid dream Irwin 38 pointed out that OBEs appear to occur under conditions of either very high or very low arousal For example Green 2 found that three quarters of a group of 176 subjects reporting a single OBE were lying down at the time of the experience and of these 12 considered they had been asleep when it started By contrast a substantial minority of her cases occurred under conditions of maximum arousal such as a rock climbing fall a traffic accident or childbirth McCreery 109 110 has suggested that this paradox may be explained by reference to the fact that sleep can supervene as a reaction to extreme stress or hyper arousal 111 He proposes that OBEs under both conditions relaxation and hyper arousal represent a form of waking dream or the intrusion of Stage 1 sleep processes into waking consciousness Olaf Blanke studies Edit Research by Olaf Blanke in Switzerland found that it is possible to reliably elicit experiences somewhat similar to the OBE by stimulating regions of the brain called the right temporoparietal junction TPJ a region where the temporal lobe and the parietal lobe of the brain come together Blanke and his collaborators in Switzerland have explored the neural basis of OBEs by showing that they are reliably associated with lesions in the right TPJ region 112 and that they can be reliably elicited with electrical stimulation of this region in a patient with epilepsy 113 These elicited experiences may include perceptions of transformations of the patient s arms and legs complex somatosensory responses and whole body displacements vestibular responses 114 115 In neurologically normal subjects Blanke and colleagues then showed that the conscious experience of the self and body being in the same location depends on multisensory integration in the TPJ Using event related potentials Blanke and colleagues showed the selective activation of the TPJ 330 400 ms after stimulus onset when healthy volunteers imagined themselves in the position and visual perspective that generally are reported by people experiencing spontaneous OBEs Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the same subjects impaired mental transformation of the participant s own body No such effects were found with stimulation of another site or for imagined spatial transformations of external objects suggesting the selective implication of the TPJ in mental imagery of one s own body 116 In a follow up study Arzy et al showed that the location and timing of brain activation depended on whether mental imagery is performed with mentally embodied or disembodied self location When subjects performed mental imagery with an embodied location there was increased activation of a region called the extrastriate body area EBA but when subjects performed mental imagery with a disembodied location as reported in OBEs there was increased activation in the region of the TPJ This leads Arzy et al to argue that these data show that distributed brain activity at the EBA and TPJ as well as their timing are crucial for the coding of the self as embodied and as spatially situated within the human body 117 Blanke and colleagues thus propose that the right temporal parietal junction is important for the sense of spatial location of the self and that when these normal processes go awry an OBE arises 118 In August 2007 Blanke s lab published research in Science demonstrating that conflicting visual somatosensory input in virtual reality could disrupt the spatial unity between the self and the body During multisensory conflict participants felt as if a virtual body seen in front of them was their own body and mislocalized themselves toward the virtual body to a position outside their bodily borders This indicates that spatial unity and bodily self consciousness can be studied experimentally and is based on multisensory and cognitive processing of bodily information 119 Ehrsson study Edit In August 2007 Henrik Ehrsson then at the Institute of Neurology at University College of London now at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden published research in Science demonstrating the first experimental method that according to the scientist s claims in the publication induced an out of body experience in healthy participants 120 The experiment was conducted in the following way The study participant sits in a chair wearing a pair of head mounted video displays These have two small screens over each eye which show a live film recorded by two video cameras placed beside each other two metres behind the participant s head The image from the left video camera is presented on the left eye display and the image from the right camera on the right eye display The participant sees these as one stereoscopic 3D image so they see their own back displayed from the perspective of someone sitting behind them The researcher then stands just beside the participant in their view and uses two plastic rods to simultaneously touch the participant s actual chest out of view and the chest of the illusory body moving this second rod towards where the illusory chest would be located just below the camera s view The participants confirmed that they had experienced sitting behind their physical body and looking at it from that location 73 121 Both critics and the experimenter himself note that the study fell short of replicating full blown OBEs As with previous experiments which induced sensations of floating outside of the body Ehrsson s work does not explain how a brain malfunction might cause an OBE Essentially Ehrsson created an illusion that fits a definition of an OBE in which a person who is awake sees his or her body from a location outside the physical body 122 Awareness during Resuscitation Study Edit This article needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information February 2023 In 2001 Sam Parnia and colleagues investigated out of body claims by placing figures on suspended boards facing the ceiling not visible from the floor Parnia wrote anybody who claimed to have left their body and be near the ceiling during resuscitation attempts would be expected to identify those targets If however such perceptions are psychological then one would obviously not expect the targets to be identified 123 The philosopher Keith Augustine who examined Parnia s study has written that all target identification experiments have produced negative results 124 125 Psychologist Chris French wrote regarding the study unfortunately and somewhat atypically none of the survivors in this sample experienced an OBE 126 In the autumn of 2008 25 UK and US hospitals began participation in a study coordinated by Sam Parnia and Southampton University known as the AWARE study AWAreness during REsuscitation Following on from the work of Pim van Lommel in the Netherlands the study aims to examine near death experiences in 1 500 cardiac arrest survivors and so determine whether people without a heartbeat or brain activity can have documentable out of body experiences 127 As part of the study Parnia and colleagues have investigated out of body claims by using hidden targets placed on shelves that could only be seen from above 127 Parnia has written if no one sees the pictures it shows these experiences are illusions or false memories 127 In 2014 Parnia issued a statement indicating that the first phase of the project has been completed and the results are undergoing peer review for publication in a medical journal 128 No subjects saw the images mounted out of sight according to Parnia s early report of the results of the study at an American Heart Association meeting in November 2013 Only two out of the 152 patients reported any visual experiences and one of them described events that could be verified as the other one s condition worsened before the detailed interview 129 The two NDEs occurred in an area where no visual targets had been placed 130 On October 6 2014 the results of the study were published in the journal Resuscitation Less than 20 of cardiac arrest patients were able to be interviewed as most of them died or were too sick even after successful resuscitation Among those who reported a perception of awareness and completed further interviews 46 experienced a broad range of mental recollections in relation to death that were not compatible with the commonly used term of NDEs These included fearful and persecutory experiences Only 9 had experiences compatible with NDEs and 2 exhibited full awareness compatible with OBEs with explicit recall of seeing and hearing events One case was validated and timed using auditory stimuli during cardiac arrest 131 According to Caroline Watt The one verifiable period of conscious awareness that Parnia was able to report did not relate to this objective test Rather it was a patient giving a supposedly accurate report of events during his resuscitation He didn t identify the pictures he described the defibrillator machine noise But that s not very impressive since many people know what goes on in an emergency room setting from seeing recreations on television 132 133 However it was impossible for him to describe any hidden targets as there were none in the room where his OBE occurred and the rest of his description was also very precise including the description and later correct identification of a doctor who took part in his resuscitation AWARE Study II Edit As of May 2016 a posting at the UK Clinical Trials Gateway website describes plans for AWARE II a two year multicenter observational study of 900 1500 patients experiencing cardiac arrest with subjects being recruited starting on 1 August 2014 and that the scheduled end date was 31 May 2017 134 The study was extended continuing until 2020 135 Results have been published in 2023 136 Smith amp Messier Edit In 2014 a functional imaging study reported the case of a woman who could experience out of body experience at will She reported developing the ability as a child and associated it with difficulties in falling sleep Her OBEs continued into adulthood but became less frequent She was able to see herself rotating in the air above her body lying flat and rolling in the horizontal plane She reported sometimes watching herself move from above but remained aware of her unmoving real body The participant reported no particular emotions linked to the experience T he brain functional changes associated with the reported extra corporeal experience ECE were different than those observed in motor imagery Activations were mainly left sided and involved the left supplementary motor area and supramarginal and posterior superior temporal gyri the last two overlapping with the temporal parietal junction that has been associated with out of body experiences The cerebellum also showed activation that is consistent with the participant s report of the impression of movement during the ECE There was also left middle and superior orbital frontal gyri activity regions often associated with action monitoring 137 OBE training and research facilities Edit The Monroe Institute s Nancy Penn Center is a facility specializing in out of body experience induction The Center for Higher Studies of the Consciousness in Brazil is another large OBE training facility Olaf Blanke s Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience has become a well known laboratory for OBE research 138 See also EditAlice in Wonderland syndrome Anomalous experiences Depersonalization derealization disorder Epiphany feeling Isra and Mi raj Macropsia Overview effect Schizotypy Soul flight Sublime philosophy Notes Edit G N M Tyrrell Apparitions Gerald Duckworth and Co Ltd London 1943 pp 149 ISBN 978 1169831537 a b c Green C E 1968 Out of the body Experiences London Hamish Hamilton ISBN 978 0345248435 Monroe Robert 1971 Journeys Out of the Body ISBN 0 385 00861 9 Aspell Jane Blanke Olaf 2009 Understanding the out of body experience from a neuroscientific perspective PDF In Murray Craig D ed Psychological Scientific Perspectives on Out of Body and Near Death Experiences Psychology Research Progress New York Nova Science Publishers ISBN 978 1 60741 705 7 a b c Brent S B 1979 Deliberately induced premortem out of body experiences An experimental and theoretical approach In Kastenbaum B ed Between life and death New York Springer pp 89 123 ISBN 978 0826125408 Blackmore Susan 1984 A Postal Survey of OBEs and Other Experiences Aug 24 2007 First Out of body Experience Induced In Laboratory Setting ScienceDaily August 24 2007 Retrieved October 6 2011 a b Gabbard G O amp Twemlow A W 1984 With the eyes of the mind An empirical analysis of out of body states New York Praeger Scientific ISBN 978 0030689260 a b Leonard Zusne Warren H Jones 1989 Anomalistic Psychology A Study of Magical Thinking Lawrence Erlbaum Associates ISBN 0 8058 0508 7 a b Blanke O Landis T Seeck M 2004 Out of body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin Brain 127 2 243 258 doi 10 1093 brain awh040 PMID 14662516 Blanke O Mohr C 2005 Out of body experience heautoscopy and autoscopic hallucination of neurological origin Implications for mechanisms of corporeal awareness and self consciousness Brain Research Reviews 50 1 184 199 doi 10 1016 j brainresrev 2005 05 008 PMID 16019077 S2CID 10376314 a b Meyerson Joseph Gelkopf Marc 2004 Therapeutic Utilization of Spontaneous Out of Body Experiences in Hypnotherapy American Journal of Psychotherapy 58 1 90 102 doi 10 1176 appi psychotherapy 2004 58 1 90 PMID 15106402 a b Cheyne James Allan Fall 2008 When Is an OBE Not an OBE A New Look at Out of Body Experiences Skeptic a b Blanke Olaf December 2004 Out Of Body Experiences And Their Neural Basis They Are Linked To Multisensory And Cognitive Processing In The Brain British Medical Journal 329 7480 1414 1415 doi 10 1136 bmj 329 7480 1414 JSTOR 25469629 PMC 535951 PMID 15604159 The reviewed evidence from neurological patients experiencing this striking dissociation between self and body shows that out of body experiences are culturally invariant phenomena that can be investigated scientifically SOBEs Oberf org Retrieved October 6 2011 Greyson Bruce 2003 Near Death Experiences in a Psychiatric Outpatient Clinic Population Psychiatr Serv 54 12 1649 1651 doi 10 1176 appi ps 54 12 1649 PMID 14645808 Mauro James 1992 Bright lights big Mystery Psychology Today Metzinger citing Alvarado 2005 Out of Body Experiences as the Origin of the Concept of a Soul Mind amp Matter 3 1 p 65 Siegel Ronald 1980 The Psychology of Life after Death American Psychologist 35 10 911 931 doi 10 1037 0003 066x 35 10 911 PMID 7436117 Bressloff PC Cowan JD Golubitsky M Thomas PJ Wiener M 2002 What geometric visual hallucinations tell us about the visual cortex Neural Computation 14 3 473 491 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 146 572 doi 10 1162 089976602317250861 PMID 11860679 S2CID 207683037 Shermer Michael B 2002 1997 Why People Believe Weird Things Pseudoscience Superstition and Other Confusions of Our Time Revised amp enlarged ed New York Henry Holt and Company p 80 ISBN 978 0 8050 7089 7 Hines Terence 2003 Pseudoscience and the Paranormal 2nd ed Amherst NY Prometheus Books pp 102 103 ISBN 978 1 57392 979 0 a b Jon Hamilton August 4 2023 This sausage shaped part of your brain causes out of body experiences Short Wave NPR Frederick Aardema 2012 Focus 10 Mind Awake Body Asleep Archived from the original on August 12 2007 Retrieved June 18 2012 Pre Grams of Tomorrow dreams as pathway to a New World Perspective Forrer Kurt Hereward Carrington Sylvan Muldoon 1981 The Projection Of The Astral Body Weiser Books ISBN 978 0 87728 069 9 Monroe Robert 1972 Journeys out of the Body pp 207 210 ISBN 0 285 62753 8 Bruce Robert 2009 Astral Dynamics The Complete Book of Out of Body Experiences pp 208 9 ISBN 978 1 57174 616 0 Frederick Aardema 2012 The Vigil Method Explorations In Consciousness A New Approach To Out of Body 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Academy Chicago Publishers McCreery C 1997 Hallucinations and arousability pointers to a theory of psychosis In Claridge G ed Schizotypy Implications for Illness and Health Oxford Oxford University Press McCreery C 2008 Dreams and psychosis a new look at an old hypothesis PDF Psychological Paper No 2008 1 Oxford Oxford Forum ISBN 978 09536772 83 Archived from the original PDF on February 4 2019 Retrieved March 25 2008 Oswald I 1962 Sleeping and Waking Physiology and Psychology Amsterdam Elsevier Blanke O Landis T Spinelli L Seeck M 2004 Out of body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin Brain 127 2 243 258 doi 10 1093 brain awh040 PMID 14662516 Blanke O Ortigue S Landis T Seeck M 2002 Stimulating illusory own body perceptions PDF Nature 419 6904 269 270 Bibcode 2002Natur 419 269B doi 10 1038 419269a PMID 12239558 S2CID 4427138 Archived from the original PDF on August 30 2017 Retrieved August 25 2014 Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience at Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne http lnco epfl ch Jan Holden Jeff Long Jason MacLurg Out of Body Experiences All in the Brain Vital Signs 21 3 Retrieved April 26 2020 via International Association for Near Death Studies Blanke O Mohr C Michel CM Pascual Leone A Brugger P Seeck M Landis T Thut G 2005 Linking out of body experience and self processing to mental own body imagery at the temporoparietal junction Journal of Neuroscience 25 3 550 557 doi 10 1523 JNEUROSCI 2612 04 2005 PMC 6725328 PMID 15659590 Arzy S Thut G Mohr C Michel C M Blanke O 2006 Neural basis of embodiment Distinct contributions of temporoparietal junction and extrastriate body area Journal of Neuroscience 26 31 8074 8081 doi 10 1523 JNEUROSCI 0745 06 2006 PMC 6673771 PMID 16885221 Blanke O Arzy S 2005 The out of body experience Disturbed self processing at the temporo parietal junction Neuroscientist 11 1 16 24 doi 10 1177 1073858404270885 PMID 15632275 S2CID 8172076 Lenggenhager Bigna Tadi Tej Metzinger Thomas Blanke Olaf 2007 Video Ergo Sum Manipulating Bodily Self Consciousness PDF Science 317 5841 1096 1099 Bibcode 2007Sci 317 1096L doi 10 1126 science 1143439 PMID 17717189 S2CID 22240455 Archived PDF from the original on August 23 2017 Ehrsson HH 2007 The Experimental Induction of Out of Body Experiences Science 317 5841 1048 Bibcode 2007Sci 317 1048E CiteSeerX 10 1 1 455 9381 doi 10 1126 science 1142175 PMID 17717177 S2CID 18673240 First out of body experience induced in laboratory setting August 23 2007 EurekAlert Out of Body Be Back Soon EnlightenmentNext Feb April 2008 Enlightennext org Archived from the original on December 3 2008 Retrieved October 6 2011 Parnia S Waller D G Yeates R Fenwick P 2001 A Qualitative and Quantitative Study of the Incidence Features and Aetiology of Near Death Experiences in Cardiac Arrest Survivors Resuscitation 48 2 149 156 doi 10 1016 s0300 9572 00 00328 2 PMID 11426476 Keith Augustine 2008 Hallucinatory Near Death Experiences Internet Infidels Retrieved 2014 06 03 Augustine Keith 2019 Near Death Experiences are Not Evidence for Either Theism or Atheism PDF Theism and Atheism Opposing Arguments in Philosophy Macmillan Reference USA pp 594 596 ISBN 978 0 0286 6445 3 Archived PDF from the original on October 31 2020 Retrieved February 14 2019 French Chris 2005 Near Death Experiences in Cardiac Arrest Survivors The Boundaries of Consciousness Neurobiology and Neuropathology Progress in Brain Research Vol 150 pp 351 367 doi 10 1016 S0079 6123 05 50025 6 ISBN 9780444518514 PMID 16186035 a b c Jane Dreaper 2008 Study into near death experiences BBC News Retrieved 2014 06 03 AWARE Study Update 2014 Horizon Research Foundation Archived from the original on March 7 2014 Bowman Lee December 20 2013 Scientists looking closer at what happens when body dies edge closer to new understanding WEWS TV Scripps Howard News Service Archived from the original on December 23 2013 Retrieved May 24 2014 Mays Robert George Mays Suzanne B December 1 2015 Explaining Near Death 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May 3 2016 Page archived May 9 2016 AWARE NDE Study Psi Encyclopedia psi encyclopedia spr ac uk Retrieved September 30 2019 Parnia Sam Keshavarz Shirazi Tara Patel Jignesh Tran Linh Sinha Niraj O Neill Caitlin Roellke Emma Mengotto Amanda Findlay Shannon McBrine Michael Spiegel Rebecca Tarpey Thaddeus Huppert Elise Jaffe Ian Gonzales Anelly M July 7 2023 AWAreness during REsuscitation II A multi center study of consciousness and awareness in cardiac arrest Resuscitation 191 109903 doi 10 1016 j resuscitation 2023 109903 ISSN 0300 9572 Smith A M Messier C 2014 Voluntary Out of Body Experience An fMRI Study Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8 70 doi 10 3389 fnhum 2014 00070 PMC 3918960 PMID 24575000 Laureys Steven 2005 The Boundaries of Consciousness Neurobiology and Neuropathology Volume 150 Progress in Brain Research Elsevier Science ISBN 978 0444518514Further reading EditBlackmore Susan 1984 A psychological theory of the out of body experience PDF Journal of Parapsychology 48 201 218 Blackmore Susan 1982 Beyond the Body An Investigation of Out of the Body Experiences London Heinemann ISBN 978 0897333443 Blanke O Ortigue S Landis T Seeck M 2002 Stimulating illusory own body perceptions PDF Nature 419 6904 269 270 Bibcode 2002Natur 419 269B doi 10 1038 419269a PMID 12239558 S2CID 4427138 Archived from the original PDF on August 30 2017 Retrieved August 25 2014 Blanke O Landis T Seeck M 2004 Out of body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin Brain 127 2 243 258 doi 10 1093 brain awh040 PMID 14662516 Blanke O Mohr C 2005 Out of body experience heautoscopy and autoscopic hallucination of neurological origin Implications for mechanisms of corporeal awareness and self consciousness PDF Brain Research Reviews 50 1 184 199 doi 10 1016 j brainresrev 2005 05 008 PMID 16019077 S2CID 10376314 Archived from the original PDF on June 30 2014 Retrieved May 24 2014 Blanke O Arzy S 2005 The out of body experience Disturbed self processing at the temporal parietal junction Neuroscientist 11 1 16 24 doi 10 1177 1073858404270885 PMID 15632275 S2CID 8172076 Bunning S Blanke O 2005 The out of body experience precipitating factors and neural correlates In Laureys S The boundaries of consciousness Neurobiology and neuropathology Progress in Brain Research The Netherlands Elsevier 150 331 350 ISBN 978 0444528766 Brugger P Regard M Landis T 1997 Illusory reduplication of one s own body phenomenology and classification of autoscopic phenomena Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 2 1 19 38 doi 10 1080 135468097396397 PMID 25420137 Brugger P 2002 Reflective mirrors Perspective taking in autoscopic phenomena Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 7 3 179 194 doi 10 1080 13546800244000076 PMID 16571536 S2CID 26514494 Cheyne J A Girard T A 2009 The body unbound vestibular motor hallucination and out of body experiences Cortex 45 2 201 215 doi 10 1016 j cortex 2007 05 002 PMID 18621363 S2CID 7501305 Gabbard G O Twemlow A W 1984 With the eyes of the mind An empirical analysis of out of body states New York Praeger Scientific ISBN 978 0030689260 Irwin Harvey 1985 Flight of Mind A Psychological Study of the Out Of Body Experience Metuchen NJ Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 0810817371 Metzinger Thomas 2003 The pre scientific concept of a soul A neurophenomenological hypothesis about its origin Archived from the original on January 6 2018 Reed Graham 1988 The Psychology of Anomalous Experience A Cognitive Approach Prometheus Books ISBN 978 0879754358 Schwabe L Blanke O 2008 The Vestibular Component in Out Of Body Experiences A Computational Approach Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2 17 doi 10 3389 neuro 09 017 2008 PMC 2610253 PMID 19115017 Terhune DB 2009 The incidence and determinants of visual phenomenology during out of body experiences Cortex 45 2 236 242 doi 10 1016 j cortex 2007 06 007 PMID 18621365 S2CID 874982 External links EditVisualized Heartbeat Can Trigger Out of Body Experience Association for Psychological Science Out of body experience recreated BBC News Out of body experiences and their neural basis Olaf Blanke Electrodes trigger out of body experience Nature Out of body experience Master of illusion Nature Out of body experiences are all in the mind New Scientist Out of body experience The Skeptic s Dictionary Out of Body Experience Your Brain Is to Blame The New York Times Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Out of body experience amp oldid 1179291732, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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