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Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

May 02, 2023

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948
Part of the Indo-Pakistani conflicts

Indian (top) and Pakistani (bottom) soldiers during the 1947–1948 war
Date22 October 1947 – 5 January 1949
(1 year, 2 months and 2 weeks)
Location
Jammu and Kashmir
Result United Nations-mediated ceasefire
Territorial
changes		 One-third of Jammu and Kashmir controlled by Pakistan. Indian control over remainder.[11][12]
Belligerents

India

Pakistan

Commanders and leaders
Lord Mountbatten
Jawaharlal Nehru
Rob Lockhart[13]
Roy Bucher[13]
K. M. Cariappa[13]

Hari Singh
Mehr Chand Mahajan
Sheikh Abdullah		 Mohammad Ali Jinnah
Liaquat Ali Khan
Frank Messervy[13]
Douglas Gracey[13]
Col. Akbar Khan[14]
Sher Khan[14]
Khurshid Anwar[15]
Zaman Kiani[15]
William Brown[4]
Casualties and losses
1,103 army deaths [16][17][18][19]
1,990 J&K forces killed or missing[16]
32 RIAF members[16]
3,154 wounded[17][20]

Total military casualties:
6,279		 6,000 killed [20][21][22]
~14,000 wounded[20][23]

Total military casualties:
20,000
Conflict began when Pashtun tribesmen and Tanoli from Pakistan invaded the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, prompting the armies of India and Pakistan to get involved shortly afterwards.

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948, or the First Kashmir War,[24] was a war fought between India and Pakistan over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of four Indo-Pakistani wars between the two newly independent nations. Pakistan precipitated the war a few weeks after its independence by launching tribal lashkar (militias) from Waziristan,[25] in an effort to capture Kashmir and to preempt the possibility of its ruler joining India.[26] The inconclusive result of the war still affects the geopolitics of both countries.

Hari Singh, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, was facing an uprising by his Muslim subjects in Poonch, and lost control of the western districts of his kingdom. On 22 October 1947, Pakistan's Pashtun tribal militias crossed the border of the state. These local tribal militias and irregular Pakistani forces moved to take the capital city of Srinagar, but upon reaching Baramulla, they took to plunder and stalled. Maharaja Hari Singh made a plea to India for assistance, and help was offered, but it was subject to his signing of an Instrument of Accession to India.

The war was initially fought by the Jammu and Kashmir State Forces[27][28] and by militias from the frontier tribal areas adjoining the North-West Frontier Province.[29] Following the accession of the state to India on 26 October 1947, Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar, the state capital. British commanding officers initially refused the entry of Pakistani troops into the conflict, citing the accession of the state to India. However, later in 1948, they relented and Pakistan's armies entered the war shortly afterwards.[29] The fronts solidified gradually along what later came to be known as the Line of Control. A formal ceasefire was declared effective 1 January 1949.[30]

Background

Further information: History of Kashmir and Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)

Prior to 1815, the area now known as "Jammu and Kashmir" comprised 22 small independent states (16 Hindu and six Muslim) carved out of territories controlled by the Amir (King) of Afghanistan, combined with those of local small rulers. These were collectively referred to as the "Punjab Hill States". These small states, ruled by Rajput kings, were variously independent, vassals of the Mughal Empire since the time of Emperor Akbar or sometimes controlled from Kangra state in the Himachal area. Following the decline of the Mughals, turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas, the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh.[31]: 536 

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) was fought between the Sikh Empire, which asserted sovereignty over Kashmir, and the East India Company. In the Treaty of Lahore of 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region (the Jullundur Doab) between the Beas River and the Sutlej River and required to pay an indemnity of 1.2 million rupees. Because they could not readily raise this sum, the East India Company allowed the Dogra ruler Gulab Singh to acquire Kashmir from the Sikh kingdom in exchange for making a payment of 750,000 rupees to the company. Gulab Singh became the first Maharaja of the newly formed princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, founding a dynasty, that was to rule the state, the second-largest principality during the British Raj, until India gained its independence in 1947.

Partition of India

 
Partition of India and the movement of refugees
 
Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck, Supreme Commander of Indian and Pakistani armed forces
Main article: Partition of India

The years 1946–1947 saw the rise of All-India Muslim League and Muslim nationalism, demanding a separate state for India's Muslims. The demand took a violent turn on the Direct Action Day (16 August 1946) and inter-communal violence between Hindus and Muslims became endemic. Consequently, a decision was taken on 3 June 1947 to divide British India into two separate states, the Dominion of Pakistan comprising the Muslim majority areas and the Dominion of India comprising the rest. The two provinces Punjab and Bengal with large Muslim-majority areas were to be divided between the two dominions. An estimated 11 million people eventually migrated between the two parts of Punjab, and possibly 1 million perished in the inter-communal violence. Jammu and Kashmir, being adjacent to the Punjab province, was directly affected by the happenings in Punjab.

The original target date for the transfer of power to the new dominions was June 1948. However, fearing the rise of inter-communal violence, the British Viceroy Lord Mountbatten advanced the date to 15 August 1947. This gave only 6 weeks to complete all the arrangements for partition.[32] Mountbatten's original plan was to stay on the joint Governor General for both the dominions till June 1948. However, this was not accepted by the Pakistani leader Mohammad Ali Jinnah. In the event, Mountbatten stayed on as the Governor General of India, whereas Pakistan chose Jinnah as its Governor General.[33] It was envisaged that the nationalisation of the armed forces could not be completed by 15 August.[a] Hence British officers stayed on after the transfer of power. The service chiefs were appointed by the Dominion governments and were responsible to them. The overall administrative control, but not operational control, was vested with Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck, who was titled the 'Supreme Commander', answerable to a newly formed Joint Defence Council of the two dominions. India appointed General Rob Lockhart as its Army chief and Pakistan appointed General Frank Messervy.[38]

The presence of the British commanding officers on both sides made the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 a strange war. The two commanding officers were in daily telephone contact and adopted mutually defensive positions. The attitude was that "you can hit them so hard but not too hard, otherwise there will be all kinds of repercussions."[39] Both Lockhart and Messervy were replaced in the course of war, and their successors Roy Bucher and Douglas Gracey tried to exercise restraint on their respective governments. Roy Bucher was apparently successful in doing so in India, but Gracey yielded and let British officers be used in operational roles on the side of Pakistan. One British officer even died in action.[40]

Developments in Jammu and Kashmir (August–October 1947)

With the independence of the Dominions, the British Paramountcy over the princely states came to an end. The rulers of the states were advised to join one of the two dominions by executing an Instrument of Accession. Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, along with his prime minister Ram Chandra Kak, decided not to accede to either dominion. The reasons cited were that the Muslim majority population of the State would not be comfortable with joining India, and that the Hindu and Sikh minorities would become vulnerable if the state joined Pakistan.[41]

In 1947, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had a wide range of ethnic and religious communities. The Kashmir province consisting of the Kashmir Valley and the Muzaffarabad district had a majority Muslim population (over 90%). The Jammu province, consisting of five districts, had roughly equal numbers of Hindus and Muslims in the eastern districts (Udhampur, Jammu and Reasi), and a Muslim majority in the western districts (Mirpur and Poonch). The mountainous Ladakh district (wazarat) in the east had a significant Buddhist presence with a Muslim majority in Baltistan. The Gilgit Agency in the north was overwhelmingly Muslim and was directly governed by the British under an agreement with the Maharaja. Shortly before the transfer of power, the British returned the Gilgit Agency to the Maharaja, who appointed a Dogra governor for the district and a British commander for the local forces.

The predominant political movement in the Kashmir Valley, the National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah, believed in secular politics. It was allied with the Indian National Congress and was believed to favour joining India. On the other hand, the Muslims of the Jammu province supported the Muslim Conference, which was allied to the All-India Muslim League and favoured joining Pakistan. The Hindus of the Jammu province favoured an outright merger with India.[42] In the midst of all the diverging views, the Maharaja's decision to remain independent was apparently a judicious one.[43]

Operation Gulmarg plan

 
 
Muzaffarabad
 
Poonch
 
Bhimber
 
Abbottabad
 
Swat
 
Dir
 
Chitral
 
Bannu
 
Wanna
 
Kohat
 
Thall
 
Nowshera
 
Indus river
 
Ravi river
class=notpageimage|
Operation Gulmarg locations

According to Indian military sources, the Pakistani Army prepared a plan called Operation Gulmarg and put it into action as early as 20 August, a few days after Pakistan's independence. The plan was accidentally revealed to an Indian officer, Major O. S. Kalkat serving with the Bannu Brigade.[b] According to the plan, 20 lashkars (tribal militias), each consisting of 1000 Pashtun tribesmen, were to be recruited from among various Pashtun tribes, and armed at the brigade headquarters at Bannu, Wanna, Peshawar, Kohat, Thall and Nowshera by the first week of September. They were expected to reach the launching point of Abbottabad on 18 October, and cross into Jammu and Kashmir on 22 October. Ten lashkars were expected to attack the Kashmir Valley through Muzaffarabad and another ten lashkars were expected to join the rebels in Poonch, Bhimber and Rawalakot with a view to advance to Jammu. Detailed arrangements for the military leadership and armaments were described in the plan.[45][46]

The regimental records show that, by the last week of August, the Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (PAVO Cavalry) regiment was briefed about the invasion plan. Colonel Sher Khan, the Director of Military Intelligence, was in charge of the briefing, along with Colonels Akbar Khan and Khanzadah. The Cavalry regiment was tasked with procuring arms and ammunition for the 'freedom fighters' and establishing three wings of the insurgent forces: the South Wing commanded by General Kiani, a Central Wing based at Rawalpindi and a North Wing based at Abbottabad. By 1 October, the Cavalry regiment completed the task of arming the insurgent forces. "Throughout the war there was no shortage of small arms, ammunitions, or explosives at any time." The regiment was also told to be on stand by for induction into fighting at an appropriate time.[47][48][49]

Scholars have noted considerable movement of Pashtun tribes during September–October. By 13 September, armed Pashtuns drifted into Lahore and Rawalpindi. The Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ismail Khan noted a scheme to send tribesmen from Malakand to Sialkot, in lorries provided by the Pakistan Government. Preparations for attacking Kashmir were also noted in the princely states of Swat, Dir, and Chitral. Scholar Robin James Moore states there is "little doubt" that Pashtuns were involved in border raids all along the Punjab border from the Indus to the Ravi.[50]

Pakistani sources deny the existence of any plan called Operation Gulmarg. However, Shuja Nawaz does list 22 Pashtun tribes involved in the invasion of Kashmir on 22 October.[51]

Rebellion in Poonch

 
The Poonch Jagir on the western frontier of Jammu and Kashmir (1946)
Main article: 1947 Poonch Rebellion

Sometime in August 1947, the first signs of trouble broke out in Poonch, about which diverging views have been received. Poonch was originally an internal jagir (autonomous principality), governed by an alternative family line of Maharaja Hari Singh. The taxation is said to have been heavy. The Muslims of Poonch had long campaigned for the principality to be absorbed into the Punjab province of British India. In 1938, a notable disturbance occurred for religious reasons, but a settlement was reached.[52] During the Second World War, over 60,000 men from Poonch and Mirpur districts enrolled in the British Indian Army. After the war, they were discharged with arms, which is said to have alarmed the Maharaja.[53] In June, Poonchis launched a 'No Tax' campaign.[54] In July, the Maharaja ordered that all the soldiers in the region be disarmed.[c] The absence of employment prospects coupled with high taxation drove the Poonchis to rebellion.[53] The "gathering head of steam", states scholar Srinath Raghavan, was utilised by the local Muslim Conference led by Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan (Sardar Ibrahim) to further their campaign for accession to Pakistan.[56]

According to state government sources, the rebellious militias gathered in the Naoshera-Islamabad area, attacking the state troops and their supply trucks. A battalion of state troops was dispatched, which cleared the roads and dispersed the militias. By September, order was reestablished.[57] The Muslim Conference sources, on the other hand, narrate that hundreds of people were killed in Bagh during flag hoisting around 15 August and that the Maharaja unleashed a 'reign of terror' on 24 August. Local Muslims also told Richard Symonds, a British Quaker social worker, that the army fired on crowds, and burnt houses and villages indiscriminately.[58] According to the Assistant British High Commissioner in Pakistan, H. S. Stephenson, "the Poonch affair... was greatly exaggerated".[57]

Pakistan's preparations, Maharaja's manoeuvring

 
Liaquat Ali Khan, Prime Minister of Pakistan

Scholar Prem Shankar Jha states that the Maharaja had decided, as early as April 1947, that he would accede to India if it was not possible to stay independent.[59]: 115  The rebellion in Poonch possibly unnerved the Maharaja. Accordingly, on 11 August, he dismissed his pro-Pakistan Prime Minister, Ram Chandra Kak, and appointed retired Major Janak Singh in his place.[60] On 25 August, he sent an invitation to Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan of the Punjab High Court to come as the Prime Minister.[61] On the same day, the Muslim Conference wrote to the Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan warning him that "if, God forbid, the Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act, Kashmir might be lost to them".[62] This set the ball rolling in Pakistan.

Liaquat Ali Khan sent a Punjab politician Mian Iftikharuddin to explore the possibility of organising a revolt in Kashmir.[63] Meanwhile, Pakistan cut off essential supplies to the state, such as petrol, sugar and salt. It also stopped trade in timber and other products, and suspended train services to Jammu.[64][65] Iftikharuddin returned in mid-September to report that the National Conference held strong in the Kashmir Valley and ruled out the possibility of a revolt.

 
Murree, overlooking Kashmir

Meanwhile, Sardar Ibrahim had escaped to West Punjab, along with dozens of rebels, and established a base in Murree. From there, the rebels attempted to acquire arms and ammunition for the rebellion and smuggle them into Kashmir. Colonel Akbar Khan, one of a handful of high-ranking officers in the Pakistani Army,[d] with a keen interest in Kashmir, arrived in Murree, and got enmeshed in these efforts. He arranged 4,000 rifles for the rebellion by diverting them from the Army stores. He also wrote out a draft plan titled Armed Revolt inside Kashmir and gave it to Mian Iftikharuddin to be passed on to the Pakistan's Prime Minister.[67][68][15]

On 12 September, the Prime Minister held a meeting with Mian Iftikharuddin, Colonel Akbar Khan and another Punjab politician Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan. Hayat Khan had a separate plan, involving the Muslim League National Guard and the militant Pashtun tribes from the Frontier regions. The Prime Minister approved both the plans, and despatched Khurshid Anwar, the head of the Muslim League National Guard, to mobilise the Frontier tribes.[68][15]

 
Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India

The Maharaja was increasingly driven to the wall with the rebellion in the western districts and the Pakistani blockade. He managed to persuade Justice Mahajan to accept the post of Prime Minister (but not to arrive for another month, for procedural reasons). He sent word to the Indian leaders through Mahajan that he was willing to accede to India but needed more time to implement political reforms. However, it was India's position that it would not accept accession from the Maharaja unless it had the people's support. The Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that Sheikh Abdullah should be released from prison and involved in the state's government. Accession could only be contemplated afterwards. Following further negotiations, Sheikh Abdullah was released on 29 September.[69][70]

Nehru, foreseeing a number of disputes over princely states, formulated a policy that states

"wherever there is a dispute in regard to any territory, the matter should be decided by a referendum or plebiscite of the people concerned. We shall accept the result of this referendum whatever it may be."[71][72]

The policy was communicated to Liaquat Ali Khan on 1 October at a meeting of the Joint Defence Council. Khan's eyes are said to have "sparkled" at the proposal. However, he made no response.[71][72]

Operations in Poonch and Mirpur

Main article: 1947 Poonch Rebellion

Armed rebellion started in the Poonch district at the beginning of October 1947.[73][74] The fighting elements consisted of "bands of deserters from the State Army, serving soldiers of the Pakistan Army on leave, ex-servicemen, and other volunteers who had risen spontaneously."[75] The first clash is said to have occurred at Thorar (near Rawalakot) on 3–4 October 1947.[76] The rebels quickly gained control of almost the entire Poonch district. The State Forces garrison at the Poonch city came under heavy siege.[77][78]

In the Kotli tehsil of the Mirpur district, border posts at Saligram and Owen Pattan on the Jhelum river were captured by rebels around 8 October. Sehnsa and Throchi were lost after some fighting.[79][80] State Force records reveal that Muslim officers sent with reinforcements sided with the rebels and murdered the fellow state troops.[81]

Radio communications between the fighting units were operated by the Pakistan Army.[82] Even though the Indian Navy intercepted the communications, lacking intelligence in Jammu and Kashmir, it was unable to determine immediately where the fighting was taking place.[83]

Accession of Kashmir

Following the rebellions in the Poonch and Mirpur area[84] and the Pakistan-backed[85] Pashtun tribal intervention from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,[86][87] the Maharaja asked for Indian military assistance. India set the condition that Kashmir must accede to India for it to receive assistance. The Maharaja complied, and the Government of India recognised the accession of the princely state to India. Indian troops were sent to the state to defend it.[e] The Jammu & Kashmir National Conference volunteers aided the Indian Army in its campaign to drive out the Pathan invaders.[91]

Pakistan refused to recognise the accession of Kashmir to India, claiming that it was obtained by "fraud and violence."[92] Governor General Mohammad Ali Jinnah ordered his Army Chief General Douglas Gracey to move Pakistani troops to Kashmir at once. However, the Indian and Pakistani forces were still under a joint command, and Field Marshal Auchinleck prevailed upon him to withdraw the order. With its accession to India, Kashmir became legally Indian territory, and the British officers could not a play any role in an inter-Dominion war.[93][94] The Pakistan Army made available arms, ammunition, and supplies to the rebel forces who were dubbed the "Azad Army". Pakistan Army officers "conveniently" on leave and the former officers of the Indian National Army were recruited to command the forces.

 
A Pakistan Army convoy advances in Kashmir

In May 1948, the Pakistan Army officially entered the conflict, in theory to defend the Pakistan borders, but it made plans to push towards Jammu and cut the lines of communications of the Indian forces in the Mehndar Valley.[95] In Gilgit, the force of Gilgit Scouts under the command of a British officer Major William Brown mutinied and overthrew the governor Ghansara Singh. Brown prevailed on the forces to declare accession to Pakistan.[96][97] They are also believed to have received assistance from the Chitral Scouts and the Bodyguard of the state of Chitral, one of the princely states of Pakistan, which had acceded to Pakistan on 6 October 1947.[98][99]

Stages of the war

 
State defence of the Kashmir Valley 22 October 1947 – 26 October 1947

Initial invasion

 
Pashtun warriors from different tribes on their way to Kashmir

On 22 October the Pashtun tribal attack was launched in the Muzaffarabad sector. The state forces stationed in the border regions around Muzaffarabad and Domel were quickly defeated by tribal forces (Muslim state forces mutinied and joined them) and the way to the capital was open. Among the raiders, there were many active Pakistani Army soldiers disguised as tribals. They were also provided logistical help by the Pakistan Army. Rather than advancing toward Srinagar before state forces could regroup or be reinforced, the invading forces remained in the captured cities in the border region engaging in looting and other crimes against their inhabitants.[100] In the Poonch valley, the state forces retreated into towns where they were besieged.[101]

Records indicate that the Pakistani tribals beheaded many Hindu and Sikh civilians in Jammu and Kashmir.[102]

Indian operation in the Kashmir Valley

 
Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 October 1947 – 17 November 1947

After the accession, India airlifted troops and equipment to Srinagar under the command of Lt. Col. Dewan Ranjit Rai, where they reinforced the princely state forces, established a defence perimeter and defeated the tribal forces on the outskirts of the city. Initial defense operations included the notable defense of Badgam holding both the capital and airfield overnight against extreme odds. The successful defence included an outflanking manoeuvre by Indian armoured cars[103] during the Battle of Shalateng. The defeated tribal forces were pursued as far as Baramulla and Uri and these towns, too, were recaptured.

In the Poonch valley, tribal forces continued to besiege state forces.

In Gilgit, the state paramilitary forces, called the Gilgit Scouts, joined the invading tribal forces, who thereby obtained control of this northern region of the state. The tribal forces were also joined by troops from Chitral, whose ruler, Muzaffar ul-Mulk the Mehtar of Chitral, had acceded to Pakistan.[104][105][106]

Attempted link-up at Poonch and fall of Mirpur

 
Attempted link-up at Poonch 18 November 1947 – 26 November 1947

Indian forces ceased pursuit of tribal forces after recapturing Uri and Baramula, and sent a relief column southwards, in an attempt to relieve Poonch. Although the relief column eventually reached Poonch, the siege could not be lifted. A second relief column reached Kotli, and evacuated the garrisons of that town and others but were forced to abandon it being too weak to defend it. Meanwhile, Mirpur was captured by the tribal forces on 25 November 1947 with the help of Pakistan's PAVO Cavalry.[107] This led to the 1947 Mirpur massacre where Hindu women were reportedly abducted by tribal forces and taken into Pakistan. They were sold in the brothels of Rawalpindi. Around 400 women jumped into wells in Mirpur committing suicide to escape from being abducted.[108]

Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri

 
Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri 25 November 1947 – 6 February 1948

The tribal forces attacked and captured Jhanger. They then attacked Naoshera unsuccessfully, and made a series of unsuccessful attacks on Uri. In the south a minor Indian attack secured Chamb. By this stage of the war the front line began to stabilise as more Indian troops became available.[citation needed]

 
Operation Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger 7 February 1948 – 1 May 1948

Operation Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger

The Indian forces launched a counterattack in the south recapturing Jhanger and Rajauri. In the Kashmir Valley the tribal forces continued attacking the Uri garrison. In the north, Skardu was brought under siege by the Gilgit Scouts.[109]

Indian spring offensive

The Indians held onto Jhanger against numerous counterattacks, who were increasingly supported by regular Pakistani Forces. In the Kashmir Valley the Indians attacked, recapturing Tithwail. The Gilgit scouts made good progress in the High Himalayas sector, infiltrating troops to bring Leh under siege, capturing Kargil and defeating a relief column heading for Skardu.[citation needed]

  •  

    Indian Spring Offensive 1 May 1948 – 19 May 1948

  •  

    Indian Spring Offensive 19 May 1948 – 14 August 1948

Operations Gulab and Eraze

Main article: Siege of Skardu

The Indians continued to attack in the Kashmir Valley sector driving north to capture Keran and Gurais (Operation Eraze).[110]: 308–324  They also repelled a counterattack aimed at Tithwal. In the Jammu region, the forces besieged in Poonch broke out and temporarily linked up with the outside world again. The Kashmir State army was able to defend Skardu from the Gilgit Scouts impeding their advance down the Indus valley towards Leh. In August the Chitral Scouts and Chitral Bodyguard under Mata ul-Mulk besieged Skardu and with the help of artillery were able to take Skardu. This freed the Gilgit Scouts to push further into Ladakh.[111][112]

 
Operation Duck/Bison 15 August 1948 – 1 November 1948

Operation Bison

Main article: Military operations in Ladakh (1948)

During this time the front began to settle down. The siege of Poonch continued. An unsuccessful attack was launched by 77 Parachute Brigade (Brig Atal) to capture Zoji La pass. Operation Duck, the earlier epithet for this assault, was renamed as Operation Bison by Cariappa. M5 Stuart light tanks of 7 Cavalry were moved in dismantled conditions through Srinagar and winched across bridges while two field companies of the Madras Sappers converted the mule track across Zoji La into a jeep track. The surprise attack on 1 November by the brigade with armour supported by two regiments of 25-pounders and a regiment of 3.7-inch guns, forced the pass and pushed the tribal and Pakistani forces back to Matayan and later Dras. The brigade linked up on 24 November at Kargil with Indian troops advancing from Leh while their opponents eventually withdrew northwards toward Skardu.[113]: 103–127  The Pakistani attacked the Skardu on 10 February 1948 which was repulsed by the Indian soldiers.[114] Thereafter, the Skardu Garrison was subjected to continuous attacks by the Pakistan Army for the next three months and each time, their attack was repulsed by the Colonel Sher Jung Thapa and his men.[114] Thapa held the Skardu with hardly 250 men for whole six long months without any reinforcement and replenishment.[115] On 14 August Thapa had to surrender Skardu to the Pakistani Army[116] and raiders after a year long siege.[117]

 
Operation Easy. Poonch link-up 1 November 1948 – 26 November 1948

Operation Easy; Poonch link-up

Main article: Military operations in Poonch (1948)

The Indians now started to get the upper hand in all sectors. Poonch was finally relieved after a siege of over a year. The Gilgit forces in the High Himalayas, who had previously made good progress, were finally defeated. The Indians pursued as far as Kargil before being forced to halt due to supply problems. The Zoji La pass was forced by using tanks (which had not been thought possible at that altitude) and Dras was recaptured.[citation needed]

Cease-fire

 
Moves up to cease-fire. 27 November 1948 – 31 December 1948

After protracted negotiations, both countries agreed to a cease-fire. The terms of the cease-fire, laid out in a UN Commission resolution on 13 August 1948,[118] were adopted by the commission on 5 January 1949. This required Pakistan to withdraw its forces, both regular and irregular, while allowing India to maintain minimal forces within the state to preserve law and order. Upon compliance with these conditions, a plebiscite was to be held to determine the future of the territory. Owing to disagreements over the demilitarisation steps, a plebiscite was never held and the cease-fire line essentially became permanent.

Aftermath

 
The Line of Control between India and Pakistan agreed in the Simla Agreement (UN Map)

Indian losses in the war totalled 1,104 killed and 3,154 wounded;[17] Pakistani, about 6,000 killed and 14,000 wounded.[20] Neutral assessments state India emerged victorious as it successfully defended the majority of the contested territory.[119][120][121][122][123]

India gained control of about two-thirds of the Jammu and Kashmir princely state, including the Kashmir Valley, the Jamm province and Ladakh. Pakistan had control of one-third of the state: three western districts later named Azad Jammu and Kashmir, and the northern areas including the Gilgit district, the Gilgit Agency and the Baltistan tehsil of the Ladakh district (later renamed Gilgit-Baltistan).[121][124][125][126]

After two further wars in 1965 and 1971, only minor changes in the ground situation had been effected. After the last war, the two countries reached the 1972 Simla Agreement, converting the cease-fire line into a Line of Control and disavowing the use of force across it.

Military awards

Battle honours

After the war, a total of number of 11 battle honours and one theatre honour were awarded to units of the Indian Army, the notable amongst which are:[127]

  • Jammu and Kashmir 1947–48 (theatre honour)
  • Gurais
  • Kargil
  • Naoshera
  • Punch
  • Rajouri
  • Srinagar
  • Tithwal
  • Zoji La

Gallantry awards

For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra, and the Pakistani award Nishan-E-Haider:

India
Pakistan

See also

Notes

  1. ^ At the beginning of 1947, all the posts above the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army were held by British officers.[34] Pakistan had only four lieutenant colonels,[35] two of whom were involved in the Kashmir conflict: Akbar Khan and Sher Khan.[36] At the beginning of the war, India had about 500 British officers and Pakistan over 1000.[37]
  2. ^ Major Kalkat was the brigade major at the Bannu Brigade, who opened a Demi-Official letter marked "Personal/Top Secret" on 20 August 1947 signed by General Frank Messervy, the then Commander in Chief of the Pakistan Army. It was addressed to Kalkat's commanding officer Brig. C. P. Murray, who happened to be away at another post. The Pakistani officials suspected Kalkat and placed him under house arrest. He escaped and made his way to New Delhi on 18 October. However, the Indian military authorities and defence minister did not believe his information. He was recalled and debriefed on 24 October after the tribal invasion of Kashmir had started.[44]
  3. ^ Under the Jammu and Kashmir Arms Act of 1940, the possession of all fire arms was prohibited in the state. The Dogra Rajputs were however exempted in practice.[55]
  4. ^ According to scholar Christine Fair, at the time of independence, Pakistan had one major general, two brigadiers, and six colonels, even though the requirements were for 13 major generals, 40 brigadiers, and 52 colonels.[66]
  5. ^ Accession from Kashmir was requested mainly at the insistence of the Governor General Lord Mountbatten, who was congnizant of the apprehensions of the British military officers on both the sides over the possibility of an inter-dominion war.[88] In fact, there was a Stand Down Order already issued by the Supreme Commander Claude Auchinleck that, in the event of an inter-Dominion war, all the British officers on both the sides should immediately stand down.[89] However, Mountbatten's decision has been questioned by Joseph Korbel and biographer Philip Ziegler.[90]

Citations

  1. ^ Kumar, Bharat (2014). An incredible war: Indian Air Force in Kashmir War 1947-1948 (2nd ed.). New Delhi: KW Publishers in association with Centre for Air Power Studies. ISBN 978-93-81904-52-7. from the original on 6 February 2023.
  2. ^ Massey 2005, p. 97
  3. ^ Barua 2005, p. 192
  4. ^ a b Bangash, Three Forgotten Accessions 2010
  5. ^ Khanna, K. K. (2015). Art of Generalship. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 158. ISBN 978-93-82652-93-9.
  6. ^ a b c Jamal, Shadow War 2009, p. 57.
  7. ^ Nicholas Burns; Jonathon Price, eds. (2011). American Interests in South Asia: Building a Grand Strategy in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. Aspen Institute. pp. 155–. ISBN 978-1-61792-400-2.
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Bibliography

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Further reading

Major sources
  • Ministry of Defence, Government of India. Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948. (1987). Thomson Press (India) Limited, New Delhi. This is the Indian Official History.
  • Lamb, Alastair. Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990. (1991). Roxford Books. ISBN 0-907129-06-4.
  • Praval, K.C. The Indian Army After Independence. (1993). Lancer International, ISBN 1-897829-45-0
  • Sen, Maj Gen L.P. Slender Was The Thread: The Kashmir confrontation 1947–1948. (1969). Orient Longmans Ltd, New Delhi.
  • Vas, Lt Gen. E. A. Without Baggage: A personal account of the Jammu and Kashmir Operations 1947–1949. (1987). Natraj Publishers Dehradun. ISBN 81-85019-09-6.
Other sources
  • Cohen, Lt Col Maurice. Thunder over Kashmir. (1955). Orient Longman Ltd. Hyderabad
  • Hinds, Brig Gen SR. Battle of Zoji La. (1962). Military Digest, New Delhi.
  • Sandhu, Maj Gen Gurcharan. The Indian Armour: History Of The Indian Armoured Corps 1941–1971. (1987). Vision Books Private Limited, New Delhi, ISBN 81-7094-004-4.
  • Singh, Maj K Brahma. History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles (1820–1956). (1990). Lancer International New Delhi, ISBN 81-7062-091-0.
  • Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, Its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999. RoseDog Books. ISBN 9780805995947.

External links

  •   Media related to Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 at Wikimedia Commons
  • , Indian Army, archived 5 April 2011.

May 02, 2023
indo, pakistani, 1947, 1948, part, indo, pakistani, conflictsindian, pakistani, bottom, soldiers, during, 1947, 1948, wardate22, october, 1947, january, 1949, year, months, weeks, locationjammu, kashmirresultunited, nations, mediated, ceasefireterritorialchang. Indo Pakistani War of 1947 1948Part of the Indo Pakistani conflictsIndian top and Pakistani bottom soldiers during the 1947 1948 warDate22 October 1947 5 January 1949 1 year 2 months and 2 weeks LocationJammu and KashmirResultUnited Nations mediated ceasefireTerritorialchangesOne third of Jammu and Kashmir controlled by Pakistan Indian control over remainder 11 12 BelligerentsIndia Indian Army Indian Air Force Combat transport and supply 1 2 3 Jammu and Kashmir State ForcesPakistan Pakistan Army Pakistan Air Force Supply support only Pakistani paramilitaries Gilgit Scouts 4 5 Kurram Militia 6 Frontier Scouts 6 Pashtun tribal militias 7 Azad Kashmir irregular forces Muslim League National Guard 8 Swat Army 6 Furqan Force 9 10 Commanders and leadersLord Mountbatten Jawaharlal Nehru Rob Lockhart 13 Roy Bucher 13 K M Cariappa 13 Hari Singh Mehr Chand Mahajan Sheikh AbdullahMohammad Ali Jinnah Liaquat Ali Khan Frank Messervy 13 Douglas Gracey 13 Col Akbar Khan 14 Sher Khan 14 Khurshid Anwar 15 Zaman Kiani 15 William Brown 4 Casualties and losses1 103 army deaths 16 17 18 19 1 990 J amp K forces killed or missing 16 32 RIAF members 16 3 154 wounded 17 20 Total military casualties 6 2796 000 killed 20 21 22 14 000 wounded 20 23 Total military casualties 20 000Conflict began when Pashtun tribesmen and Tanoli from Pakistan invaded the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir prompting the armies of India and Pakistan to get involved shortly afterwards The Indo Pakistani War of 1947 1948 or the First Kashmir War 24 was a war fought between India and Pakistan over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1947 to 1948 It was the first of four Indo Pakistani wars between the two newly independent nations Pakistan precipitated the war a few weeks after its independence by launching tribal lashkar militias from Waziristan 25 in an effort to capture Kashmir and to preempt the possibility of its ruler joining India 26 The inconclusive result of the war still affects the geopolitics of both countries Hari Singh the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir was facing an uprising by his Muslim subjects in Poonch and lost control of the western districts of his kingdom On 22 October 1947 Pakistan s Pashtun tribal militias crossed the border of the state These local tribal militias and irregular Pakistani forces moved to take the capital city of Srinagar but upon reaching Baramulla they took to plunder and stalled Maharaja Hari Singh made a plea to India for assistance and help was offered but it was subject to his signing of an Instrument of Accession to India The war was initially fought by the Jammu and Kashmir State Forces 27 28 and by militias from the frontier tribal areas adjoining the North West Frontier Province 29 Following the accession of the state to India on 26 October 1947 Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar the state capital British commanding officers initially refused the entry of Pakistani troops into the conflict citing the accession of the state to India However later in 1948 they relented and Pakistan s armies entered the war shortly afterwards 29 The fronts solidified gradually along what later came to be known as the Line of Control A formal ceasefire was declared effective 1 January 1949 30 Contents 1 Background 2 Partition of India 3 Developments in Jammu and Kashmir August October 1947 3 1 Operation Gulmarg plan 3 2 Rebellion in Poonch 3 3 Pakistan s preparations Maharaja s manoeuvring 3 4 Operations in Poonch and Mirpur 4 Accession of Kashmir 5 Stages of the war 5 1 Initial invasion 5 2 Indian operation in the Kashmir Valley 5 3 Attempted link up at Poonch and fall of Mirpur 5 4 Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri 5 5 Operation Vijay counterattack to Jhanger 5 6 Indian spring offensive 5 7 Operations Gulab and Eraze 5 8 Operation Bison 5 9 Operation Easy Poonch link up 6 Cease fire 7 Aftermath 8 Military awards 8 1 Battle honours 8 2 Gallantry awards 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Citations 12 Bibliography 13 Further reading 14 External linksBackgroundFurther information History of Kashmir and Jammu and Kashmir princely state Prior to 1815 the area now known as Jammu and Kashmir comprised 22 small independent states 16 Hindu and six Muslim carved out of territories controlled by the Amir King of Afghanistan combined with those of local small rulers These were collectively referred to as the Punjab Hill States These small states ruled by Rajput kings were variously independent vassals of the Mughal Empire since the time of Emperor Akbar or sometimes controlled from Kangra state in the Himachal area Following the decline of the Mughals turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh 31 536 The First Anglo Sikh War 1845 46 was fought between the Sikh Empire which asserted sovereignty over Kashmir and the East India Company In the Treaty of Lahore of 1846 the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region the Jullundur Doab between the Beas River and the Sutlej River and required to pay an indemnity of 1 2 million rupees Because they could not readily raise this sum the East India Company allowed the Dogra ruler Gulab Singh to acquire Kashmir from the Sikh kingdom in exchange for making a payment of 750 000 rupees to the company Gulab Singh became the first Maharaja of the newly formed princely state of Jammu and Kashmir founding a dynasty that was to rule the state the second largest principality during the British Raj until India gained its independence in 1947 Partition of India Partition of India and the movement of refugees Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck Supreme Commander of Indian and Pakistani armed forces Main article Partition of India The years 1946 1947 saw the rise of All India Muslim League and Muslim nationalism demanding a separate state for India s Muslims The demand took a violent turn on the Direct Action Day 16 August 1946 and inter communal violence between Hindus and Muslims became endemic Consequently a decision was taken on 3 June 1947 to divide British India into two separate states the Dominion of Pakistan comprising the Muslim majority areas and the Dominion of India comprising the rest The two provinces Punjab and Bengal with large Muslim majority areas were to be divided between the two dominions An estimated 11 million people eventually migrated between the two parts of Punjab and possibly 1 million perished in the inter communal violence Jammu and Kashmir being adjacent to the Punjab province was directly affected by the happenings in Punjab The original target date for the transfer of power to the new dominions was June 1948 However fearing the rise of inter communal violence the British Viceroy Lord Mountbatten advanced the date to 15 August 1947 This gave only 6 weeks to complete all the arrangements for partition 32 Mountbatten s original plan was to stay on the joint Governor General for both the dominions till June 1948 However this was not accepted by the Pakistani leader Mohammad Ali Jinnah In the event Mountbatten stayed on as the Governor General of India whereas Pakistan chose Jinnah as its Governor General 33 It was envisaged that the nationalisation of the armed forces could not be completed by 15 August a Hence British officers stayed on after the transfer of power The service chiefs were appointed by the Dominion governments and were responsible to them The overall administrative control but not operational control was vested with Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck who was titled the Supreme Commander answerable to a newly formed Joint Defence Council of the two dominions India appointed General Rob Lockhart as its Army chief and Pakistan appointed General Frank Messervy 38 The presence of the British commanding officers on both sides made the Indo Pakistani War of 1947 a strange war The two commanding officers were in daily telephone contact and adopted mutually defensive positions The attitude was that you can hit them so hard but not too hard otherwise there will be all kinds of repercussions 39 Both Lockhart and Messervy were replaced in the course of war and their successors Roy Bucher and Douglas Gracey tried to exercise restraint on their respective governments Roy Bucher was apparently successful in doing so in India but Gracey yielded and let British officers be used in operational roles on the side of Pakistan One British officer even died in action 40 Developments in Jammu and Kashmir August October 1947 Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir With the independence of the Dominions the British Paramountcy over the princely states came to an end The rulers of the states were advised to join one of the two dominions by executing an Instrument of Accession Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir along with his prime minister Ram Chandra Kak decided not to accede to either dominion The reasons cited were that the Muslim majority population of the State would not be comfortable with joining India and that the Hindu and Sikh minorities would become vulnerable if the state joined Pakistan 41 In 1947 the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had a wide range of ethnic and religious communities The Kashmir province consisting of the Kashmir Valley and the Muzaffarabad district had a majority Muslim population over 90 The Jammu province consisting of five districts had roughly equal numbers of Hindus and Muslims in the eastern districts Udhampur Jammu and Reasi and a Muslim majority in the western districts Mirpur and Poonch The mountainous Ladakh district wazarat in the east had a significant Buddhist presence with a Muslim majority in Baltistan The Gilgit Agency in the north was overwhelmingly Muslim and was directly governed by the British under an agreement with the Maharaja Shortly before the transfer of power the British returned the Gilgit Agency to the Maharaja who appointed a Dogra governor for the district and a British commander for the local forces The predominant political movement in the Kashmir Valley the National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah believed in secular politics It was allied with the Indian National Congress and was believed to favour joining India On the other hand the Muslims of the Jammu province supported the Muslim Conference which was allied to the All India Muslim League and favoured joining Pakistan The Hindus of the Jammu province favoured an outright merger with India 42 In the midst of all the diverging views the Maharaja s decision to remain independent was apparently a judicious one 43 Operation Gulmarg plan Muzaffarabad Poonch Bhimber Abbottabad Swat Dir Chitral Bannu Wanna Kohat Thall Nowshera Indus river Ravi riverclass notpageimage Operation Gulmarg locations According to Indian military sources the Pakistani Army prepared a plan called Operation Gulmarg and put it into action as early as 20 August a few days after Pakistan s independence The plan was accidentally revealed to an Indian officer Major O S Kalkat serving with the Bannu Brigade b According to the plan 20 lashkars tribal militias each consisting of 1000 Pashtun tribesmen were to be recruited from among various Pashtun tribes and armed at the brigade headquarters at Bannu Wanna Peshawar Kohat Thall and Nowshera by the first week of September They were expected to reach the launching point of Abbottabad on 18 October and cross into Jammu and Kashmir on 22 October Ten lashkars were expected to attack the Kashmir Valley through Muzaffarabad and another ten lashkars were expected to join the rebels in Poonch Bhimber and Rawalakot with a view to advance to Jammu Detailed arrangements for the military leadership and armaments were described in the plan 45 46 The regimental records show that by the last week of August the Prince Albert Victor s Own Cavalry PAVO Cavalry regiment was briefed about the invasion plan Colonel Sher Khan the Director of Military Intelligence was in charge of the briefing along with Colonels Akbar Khan and Khanzadah The Cavalry regiment was tasked with procuring arms and ammunition for the freedom fighters and establishing three wings of the insurgent forces the South Wing commanded by General Kiani a Central Wing based at Rawalpindi and a North Wing based at Abbottabad By 1 October the Cavalry regiment completed the task of arming the insurgent forces Throughout the war there was no shortage of small arms ammunitions or explosives at any time The regiment was also told to be on stand by for induction into fighting at an appropriate time 47 48 49 Scholars have noted considerable movement of Pashtun tribes during September October By 13 September armed Pashtuns drifted into Lahore and Rawalpindi The Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ismail Khan noted a scheme to send tribesmen from Malakand to Sialkot in lorries provided by the Pakistan Government Preparations for attacking Kashmir were also noted in the princely states of Swat Dir and Chitral Scholar Robin James Moore states there is little doubt that Pashtuns were involved in border raids all along the Punjab border from the Indus to the Ravi 50 Pakistani sources deny the existence of any plan called Operation Gulmarg However Shuja Nawaz does list 22 Pashtun tribes involved in the invasion of Kashmir on 22 October 51 Rebellion in Poonch The Poonch Jagir on the western frontier of Jammu and Kashmir 1946 Main article 1947 Poonch Rebellion Sometime in August 1947 the first signs of trouble broke out in Poonch about which diverging views have been received Poonch was originally an internal jagir autonomous principality governed by an alternative family line of Maharaja Hari Singh The taxation is said to have been heavy The Muslims of Poonch had long campaigned for the principality to be absorbed into the Punjab province of British India In 1938 a notable disturbance occurred for religious reasons but a settlement was reached 52 During the Second World War over 60 000 men from Poonch and Mirpur districts enrolled in the British Indian Army After the war they were discharged with arms which is said to have alarmed the Maharaja 53 In June Poonchis launched a No Tax campaign 54 In July the Maharaja ordered that all the soldiers in the region be disarmed c The absence of employment prospects coupled with high taxation drove the Poonchis to rebellion 53 The gathering head of steam states scholar Srinath Raghavan was utilised by the local Muslim Conference led by Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan Sardar Ibrahim to further their campaign for accession to Pakistan 56 According to state government sources the rebellious militias gathered in the Naoshera Islamabad area attacking the state troops and their supply trucks A battalion of state troops was dispatched which cleared the roads and dispersed the militias By September order was reestablished 57 The Muslim Conference sources on the other hand narrate that hundreds of people were killed in Bagh during flag hoisting around 15 August and that the Maharaja unleashed a reign of terror on 24 August Local Muslims also told Richard Symonds a British Quaker social worker that the army fired on crowds and burnt houses and villages indiscriminately 58 According to the Assistant British High Commissioner in Pakistan H S Stephenson the Poonch affair was greatly exaggerated 57 Pakistan s preparations Maharaja s manoeuvring Liaquat Ali Khan Prime Minister of Pakistan Scholar Prem Shankar Jha states that the Maharaja had decided as early as April 1947 that he would accede to India if it was not possible to stay independent 59 115 The rebellion in Poonch possibly unnerved the Maharaja Accordingly on 11 August he dismissed his pro Pakistan Prime Minister Ram Chandra Kak and appointed retired Major Janak Singh in his place 60 On 25 August he sent an invitation to Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan of the Punjab High Court to come as the Prime Minister 61 On the same day the Muslim Conference wrote to the Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan warning him that if God forbid the Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act Kashmir might be lost to them 62 This set the ball rolling in Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan sent a Punjab politician Mian Iftikharuddin to explore the possibility of organising a revolt in Kashmir 63 Meanwhile Pakistan cut off essential supplies to the state such as petrol sugar and salt It also stopped trade in timber and other products and suspended train services to Jammu 64 65 Iftikharuddin returned in mid September to report that the National Conference held strong in the Kashmir Valley and ruled out the possibility of a revolt Murree overlooking Kashmir Meanwhile Sardar Ibrahim had escaped to West Punjab along with dozens of rebels and established a base in Murree From there the rebels attempted to acquire arms and ammunition for the rebellion and smuggle them into Kashmir Colonel Akbar Khan one of a handful of high ranking officers in the Pakistani Army d with a keen interest in Kashmir arrived in Murree and got enmeshed in these efforts He arranged 4 000 rifles for the rebellion by diverting them from the Army stores He also wrote out a draft plan titled Armed Revolt inside Kashmir and gave it to Mian Iftikharuddin to be passed on to the Pakistan s Prime Minister 67 68 15 On 12 September the Prime Minister held a meeting with Mian Iftikharuddin Colonel Akbar Khan and another Punjab politician Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan Hayat Khan had a separate plan involving the Muslim League National Guard and the militant Pashtun tribes from the Frontier regions The Prime Minister approved both the plans and despatched Khurshid Anwar the head of the Muslim League National Guard to mobilise the Frontier tribes 68 15 Jawaharlal Nehru Prime Minister of India The Maharaja was increasingly driven to the wall with the rebellion in the western districts and the Pakistani blockade He managed to persuade Justice Mahajan to accept the post of Prime Minister but not to arrive for another month for procedural reasons He sent word to the Indian leaders through Mahajan that he was willing to accede to India but needed more time to implement political reforms However it was India s position that it would not accept accession from the Maharaja unless it had the people s support The Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that Sheikh Abdullah should be released from prison and involved in the state s government Accession could only be contemplated afterwards Following further negotiations Sheikh Abdullah was released on 29 September 69 70 Nehru foreseeing a number of disputes over princely states formulated a policy that states wherever there is a dispute in regard to any territory the matter should be decided by a referendum or plebiscite of the people concerned We shall accept the result of this referendum whatever it may be 71 72 The policy was communicated to Liaquat Ali Khan on 1 October at a meeting of the Joint Defence Council Khan s eyes are said to have sparkled at the proposal However he made no response 71 72 Operations in Poonch and Mirpur Main article 1947 Poonch Rebellion Armed rebellion started in the Poonch district at the beginning of October 1947 73 74 The fighting elements consisted of bands of deserters from the State Army serving soldiers of the Pakistan Army on leave ex servicemen and other volunteers who had risen spontaneously 75 The first clash is said to have occurred at Thorar near Rawalakot on 3 4 October 1947 76 The rebels quickly gained control of almost the entire Poonch district The State Forces garrison at the Poonch city came under heavy siege 77 78 In the Kotli tehsil of the Mirpur district border posts at Saligram and Owen Pattan on the Jhelum river were captured by rebels around 8 October Sehnsa and Throchi were lost after some fighting 79 80 State Force records reveal that Muslim officers sent with reinforcements sided with the rebels and murdered the fellow state troops 81 Radio communications between the fighting units were operated by the Pakistan Army 82 Even though the Indian Navy intercepted the communications lacking intelligence in Jammu and Kashmir it was unable to determine immediately where the fighting was taking place 83 Accession of KashmirFollowing the rebellions in the Poonch and Mirpur area 84 and the Pakistan backed 85 Pashtun tribal intervention from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 86 87 the Maharaja asked for Indian military assistance India set the condition that Kashmir must accede to India for it to receive assistance The Maharaja complied and the Government of India recognised the accession of the princely state to India Indian troops were sent to the state to defend it e The Jammu amp Kashmir National Conference volunteers aided the Indian Army in its campaign to drive out the Pathan invaders 91 Pakistan refused to recognise the accession of Kashmir to India claiming that it was obtained by fraud and violence 92 Governor General Mohammad Ali Jinnah ordered his Army Chief General Douglas Gracey to move Pakistani troops to Kashmir at once However the Indian and Pakistani forces were still under a joint command and Field Marshal Auchinleck prevailed upon him to withdraw the order With its accession to India Kashmir became legally Indian territory and the British officers could not a play any role in an inter Dominion war 93 94 The Pakistan Army made available arms ammunition and supplies to the rebel forces who were dubbed the Azad Army Pakistan Army officers conveniently on leave and the former officers of the Indian National Army were recruited to command the forces A Pakistan Army convoy advances in Kashmir In May 1948 the Pakistan Army officially entered the conflict in theory to defend the Pakistan borders but it made plans to push towards Jammu and cut the lines of communications of the Indian forces in the Mehndar Valley 95 In Gilgit the force of Gilgit Scouts under the command of a British officer Major William Brown mutinied and overthrew the governor Ghansara Singh Brown prevailed on the forces to declare accession to Pakistan 96 97 They are also believed to have received assistance from the Chitral Scouts and the Bodyguard of the state of Chitral one of the princely states of Pakistan which had acceded to Pakistan on 6 October 1947 98 99 Stages of the war State defence of the Kashmir Valley 22 October 1947 26 October 1947 Initial invasion Pashtun warriors from different tribes on their way to Kashmir On 22 October the Pashtun tribal attack was launched in the Muzaffarabad sector The state forces stationed in the border regions around Muzaffarabad and Domel were quickly defeated by tribal forces Muslim state forces mutinied and joined them and the way to the capital was open Among the raiders there were many active Pakistani Army soldiers disguised as tribals They were also provided logistical help by the Pakistan Army Rather than advancing toward Srinagar before state forces could regroup or be reinforced the invading forces remained in the captured cities in the border region engaging in looting and other crimes against their inhabitants 100 In the Poonch valley the state forces retreated into towns where they were besieged 101 Records indicate that the Pakistani tribals beheaded many Hindu and Sikh civilians in Jammu and Kashmir 102 Indian operation in the Kashmir Valley Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 October 1947 17 November 1947 After the accession India airlifted troops and equipment to Srinagar under the command of Lt Col Dewan Ranjit Rai where they reinforced the princely state forces established a defence perimeter and defeated the tribal forces on the outskirts of the city Initial defense operations included the notable defense of Badgam holding both the capital and airfield overnight against extreme odds The successful defence included an outflanking manoeuvre by Indian armoured cars 103 during the Battle of Shalateng The defeated tribal forces were pursued as far as Baramulla and Uri and these towns too were recaptured In the Poonch valley tribal forces continued to besiege state forces In Gilgit the state paramilitary forces called the Gilgit Scouts joined the invading tribal forces who thereby obtained control of this northern region of the state The tribal forces were also joined by troops from Chitral whose ruler Muzaffar ul Mulk the Mehtar of Chitral had acceded to Pakistan 104 105 106 Attempted link up at Poonch and fall of Mirpur Attempted link up at Poonch 18 November 1947 26 November 1947 Indian forces ceased pursuit of tribal forces after recapturing Uri and Baramula and sent a relief column southwards in an attempt to relieve Poonch Although the relief column eventually reached Poonch the siege could not be lifted A second relief column reached Kotli and evacuated the garrisons of that town and others but were forced to abandon it being too weak to defend it Meanwhile Mirpur was captured by the tribal forces on 25 November 1947 with the help of Pakistan s PAVO Cavalry 107 This led to the 1947 Mirpur massacre where Hindu women were reportedly abducted by tribal forces and taken into Pakistan They were sold in the brothels of Rawalpindi Around 400 women jumped into wells in Mirpur committing suicide to escape from being abducted 108 Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri 25 November 1947 6 February 1948 The tribal forces attacked and captured Jhanger They then attacked Naoshera unsuccessfully and made a series of unsuccessful attacks on Uri In the south a minor Indian attack secured Chamb By this stage of the war the front line began to stabilise as more Indian troops became available citation needed Operation Vijay counterattack to Jhanger 7 February 1948 1 May 1948 Operation Vijay counterattack to Jhanger The Indian forces launched a counterattack in the south recapturing Jhanger and Rajauri In the Kashmir Valley the tribal forces continued attacking the Uri garrison In the north Skardu was brought under siege by the Gilgit Scouts 109 Indian spring offensive The Indians held onto Jhanger against numerous counterattacks who were increasingly supported by regular Pakistani Forces In the Kashmir Valley the Indians attacked recapturing Tithwail The Gilgit scouts made good progress in the High Himalayas sector infiltrating troops to bring Leh under siege capturing Kargil and defeating a relief column heading for Skardu citation needed Indian Spring Offensive 1 May 1948 19 May 1948 Indian Spring Offensive 19 May 1948 14 August 1948Operations Gulab and Eraze Main article Siege of Skardu The Indians continued to attack in the Kashmir Valley sector driving north to capture Keran and Gurais Operation Eraze 110 308 324 They also repelled a counterattack aimed at Tithwal In the Jammu region the forces besieged in Poonch broke out and temporarily linked up with the outside world again The Kashmir State army was able to defend Skardu from the Gilgit Scouts impeding their advance down the Indus valley towards Leh In August the Chitral Scouts and Chitral Bodyguard under Mata ul Mulk besieged Skardu and with the help of artillery were able to take Skardu This freed the Gilgit Scouts to push further into Ladakh 111 112 Operation Duck Bison 15 August 1948 1 November 1948 Operation Bison Main article Military operations in Ladakh 1948 During this time the front began to settle down The siege of Poonch continued An unsuccessful attack was launched by 77 Parachute Brigade Brig Atal to capture Zoji La pass Operation Duck the earlier epithet for this assault was renamed as Operation Bison by Cariappa M5 Stuart light tanks of 7 Cavalry were moved in dismantled conditions through Srinagar and winched across bridges while two field companies of the Madras Sappers converted the mule track across Zoji La into a jeep track The surprise attack on 1 November by the brigade with armour supported by two regiments of 25 pounders and a regiment of 3 7 inch guns forced the pass and pushed the tribal and Pakistani forces back to Matayan and later Dras The brigade linked up on 24 November at Kargil with Indian troops advancing from Leh while their opponents eventually withdrew northwards toward Skardu 113 103 127 The Pakistani attacked the Skardu on 10 February 1948 which was repulsed by the Indian soldiers 114 Thereafter the Skardu Garrison was subjected to continuous attacks by the Pakistan Army for the next three months and each time their attack was repulsed by the Colonel Sher Jung Thapa and his men 114 Thapa held the Skardu with hardly 250 men for whole six long months without any reinforcement and replenishment 115 On 14 August Thapa had to surrender Skardu to the Pakistani Army 116 and raiders after a year long siege 117 Operation Easy Poonch link up 1 November 1948 26 November 1948 Operation Easy Poonch link up Main article Military operations in Poonch 1948 The Indians now started to get the upper hand in all sectors Poonch was finally relieved after a siege of over a year The Gilgit forces in the High Himalayas who had previously made good progress were finally defeated The Indians pursued as far as Kargil before being forced to halt due to supply problems The Zoji La pass was forced by using tanks which had not been thought possible at that altitude and Dras was recaptured citation needed Cease fire Moves up to cease fire 27 November 1948 31 December 1948 After protracted negotiations both countries agreed to a cease fire The terms of the cease fire laid out in a UN Commission resolution on 13 August 1948 118 were adopted by the commission on 5 January 1949 This required Pakistan to withdraw its forces both regular and irregular while allowing India to maintain minimal forces within the state to preserve law and order Upon compliance with these conditions a plebiscite was to be held to determine the future of the territory Owing to disagreements over the demilitarisation steps a plebiscite was never held and the cease fire line essentially became permanent Aftermath The Line of Control between India and Pakistan agreed in the Simla Agreement UN Map Indian losses in the war totalled 1 104 killed and 3 154 wounded 17 Pakistani about 6 000 killed and 14 000 wounded 20 Neutral assessments state India emerged victorious as it successfully defended the majority of the contested territory 119 120 121 122 123 India gained control of about two thirds of the Jammu and Kashmir princely state including the Kashmir Valley the Jamm province and Ladakh Pakistan had control of one third of the state three western districts later named Azad Jammu and Kashmir and the northern areas including the Gilgit district the Gilgit Agency and the Baltistan tehsil of the Ladakh district later renamed Gilgit Baltistan 121 124 125 126 After two further wars in 1965 and 1971 only minor changes in the ground situation had been effected After the last war the two countries reached the 1972 Simla Agreement converting the cease fire line into a Line of Control and disavowing the use of force across it Military awardsBattle honours After the war a total of number of 11 battle honours and one theatre honour were awarded to units of the Indian Army the notable amongst which are 127 Jammu and Kashmir 1947 48 theatre honour Gurais Kargil Naoshera Punch Rajouri Srinagar Tithwal Zoji La Gallantry awards For bravery a number of soldiers and officers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra and the Pakistani award Nishan E Haider IndiaMajor Som Nath Sharma Posthumous Lance Naik Karam Singh Second Lieutenant Rama Raghoba Rane Naik Jadu Nath Singh Posthumous Company Havildar Major Piru Singh Shekhawat Posthumous PakistanCaptain Muhammad SarwarSee alsoSiege of Skardu Rann of Kuch War Battle of Badgam Indo Pakistani War of 1965 Indo Pakistani wars and conflicts Kargil War Brigadier Mohammad Usman Siachen war Sino Indian War List of wars between democraciesNotes At the beginning of 1947 all the posts above the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army were held by British officers 34 Pakistan had only four lieutenant colonels 35 two of whom were involved in the Kashmir conflict Akbar Khan and Sher Khan 36 At the beginning of the war India had about 500 British officers and Pakistan over 1000 37 Major Kalkat was the brigade major at the Bannu Brigade who opened a Demi Official letter marked Personal Top Secret on 20 August 1947 signed by General Frank Messervy the then Commander in Chief of the Pakistan Army It was addressed to Kalkat s commanding officer Brig C P Murray who happened to be away at another post The Pakistani officials suspected Kalkat and placed him under house arrest He escaped and made his way to New Delhi on 18 October However the Indian military authorities and defence minister did not believe his information He was recalled and debriefed on 24 October after the tribal invasion of Kashmir had started 44 Under the Jammu and Kashmir Arms Act of 1940 the possession of all fire arms was prohibited in the state The Dogra Rajputs were however exempted in practice 55 According to scholar Christine Fair at the time of independence Pakistan had one major general two brigadiers and six colonels even though the requirements were for 13 major generals 40 brigadiers and 52 colonels 66 Accession from Kashmir was requested mainly at the insistence of the Governor General Lord Mountbatten who was congnizant of the apprehensions of the British military officers on both the sides over the possibility of an inter dominion war 88 In fact there was a Stand Down Order already issued by the Supreme Commander Claude Auchinleck that in the event of an inter Dominion war all the British officers on both the sides should immediately stand down 89 However Mountbatten s decision has been questioned by Joseph Korbel and biographer Philip Ziegler 90 Citations Kumar Bharat 2014 An incredible war Indian 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Persistence and transformation in the Eastern Hindu Kush a study of resource management systems in Mehlp Valley Chitral North Pakistan In Kommission bei Asgard Verlag p 32 ISBN 978 3 537 87668 3 Wilcox Wayne Ayres 1 January 1963 Pakistan Snedden Christopher 1 January 2015 Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris Oxford University Press ISBN 978 1 84904 342 7 Effendi Col M Y 2007 Punjab Cavalry Evolution Role Organisation and Tactical Doctrine 11 Cavalry Frontier Force 1849 1971 Karachi Oxford University Press pp 157 160 ISBN 978 0 19 547203 5 Tikoo Colonel Tej K 2013 Genesis of Kashmir Problem and how it got Complicated Events between 1931 and 1947 AD Kashmir Its Aborigines and their Exodus New Delhi Atlanta Lancer Publishers ISBN 978 1 935501 58 9 Singh Rohit Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947 1948 PDF Centre for Land Warfare Studies pp 141 142 Archived PDF from the original on 20 October 2016 Prasad S N Dharm Pal 1987 History of Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947 1948 New Delhi 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13 August 1948 Archived from the original on 7 March 2016 Retrieved 3 April 2016 Kulke Hermann Rothermund Dietmar 2004 A History of India Fourth ed Routledge p 324 ISBN 978 0 415 32919 4 The Indian army defended Kashmir against Pakistani aggression Wilcox Wayne Ayres 1963 Pakistan The Consolidation of a Nation Columbia University Press p 66 ISBN 978 0 231 02589 8 The war for states had not only ended in Indian military victory but had given its leaders enormous self confidence and satisfaction over a job well done a b New Zealand Defence Quarterly Issues 24 29 New Zealand Ministry of Defence 1999 India won and gained two thirds of Kashmir which it successfully held against another Pakistani invasion in 1965 Brozek Jason 2008 War bellies the critical relationship between resolve and domestic audiences University of Wisconsin Madison p 142 ISBN 978 1 109 04475 1 the 1947 First Kashmir won by India according to MIDS classification Hoontrakul Pongsak 2014 The Global Rise of Asian 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1820 1956 The State Force Background PDF brahmasingh co nf ISBN 978 81 7062 091 4 archived from the original PDF on 6 March 2016 Cheema Brig Amar 2015 The Crimson Chinar The Kashmir Conflict A Politico Military Perspective Lancer Publishers pp 51 ISBN 978 81 7062 301 4 Dasgupta C 2014 2002 War and Diplomacy in Kashmir 1947 48 SAGE Publications ISBN 978 81 321 1795 7 Effendi Col M Y 2007 Punjab Cavalry Evolution Role Organisation and Tactical Doctrine 11 Cavalry Frontier Force 1849 1971 Karachi Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 547203 5 Guha Ramachandra 2008 India after Gandhi The History of the World s Largest Democracy Pan Macmillan ISBN 978 0 330 39611 0 Hajari Nisid 2015 Midnight s Furies The Deadly Legacy of India s Partition Houghton Mifflin Harcourt pp 185 ISBN 978 0 547 66924 3 Hiro Dilip 2015 The Longest August The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan Nation Books ISBN 978 1 56858 503 1 Jamal Arif 2009 Shadow War The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir Melville House ISBN 978 1 933633 59 6 Joshi Manoj 2008 Kashmir 1947 1965 A Story Retold India Research Press ISBN 978 81 87943 52 5 Hodson H V 1969 The Great Divide Britain India Pakistan London Hutchinson ISBN 978 0 09 097150 3 Korbel Josef 1966 1954 Danger in Kashmir second ed Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 7523 8 Mahajan Mehr Chand 1963 Looking Back The Autobiography of Mehr Chand Mahajan Former Chief Justice of India Asia Publishing House Moore Robin James 1987 Making the new Commonwealth Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 820112 0 Palit D K 1972 Jammu and Kashmir Arms History of the J amp K Rifles Palit amp Dutt Prasad Sri Nandan Pal Dharm 1987 Operations in Jammu amp Kashmir 1947 48 History Division Ministry of Defence Government of India Raghavan Srinath 2010 War and Peace in Modern India Palgrave Macmillan pp 101 ISBN 978 1 137 00737 7 Archived from the original on 19 August 2019 Nawaz Shuja May 2008 The First Kashmir War Revisited India Review 7 2 115 154 doi 10 1080 14736480802055455 S2CID 155030407 Nawaz Shuja 2008 Crossed Swords Pakistan Its Army and the Wars Within Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 547660 6 Sarila Narendra Singh 2007 The Shadow of the Great Game The Untold Story of India s Partition Constable ISBN 978 1 84529 588 2 Schofield Victoria 2003 2000 Kashmir in Conflict London and New York I B Taurus amp Co ISBN 1 86064 898 3 Snedden Christopher 2013 first published as The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir 2012 Kashmir The Unwritten History HarperCollins India ISBN 978 9350298985 Zaheer Hasan 1998 The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy 1951 The First Coup Attempt in Pakistan Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 577892 2 Further readingMajor sourcesMinistry of Defence Government of India Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947 1948 1987 Thomson Press India Limited New Delhi This is the Indian Official History Lamb Alastair Kashmir A Disputed Legacy 1846 1990 1991 Roxford Books ISBN 0 907129 06 4 Praval K C The Indian Army After Independence 1993 Lancer International ISBN 1 897829 45 0 Sen Maj Gen L P Slender Was The Thread The Kashmir confrontation 1947 1948 1969 Orient Longmans Ltd New Delhi Vas Lt Gen E A Without Baggage A personal account of the Jammu and Kashmir Operations 1947 1949 1987 Natraj Publishers Dehradun ISBN 81 85019 09 6 Other sourcesCohen Lt Col Maurice Thunder over Kashmir 1955 Orient Longman Ltd Hyderabad Hinds Brig Gen SR Battle of Zoji La 1962 Military Digest New Delhi Sandhu Maj Gen Gurcharan The Indian Armour History Of The Indian Armoured Corps 1941 1971 1987 Vision Books Private Limited New Delhi ISBN 81 7094 004 4 Singh Maj K Brahma History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles 1820 1956 1990 Lancer International New Delhi ISBN 81 7062 091 0 Ayub Muhammad 2005 An army Its Role and Rule A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947 1999 RoseDog Books ISBN 9780805995947 External links Media related to Indo Pakistani War of 1947 at Wikimedia Commons Partition and Indo Pak War of 1947 48 Indian Army archived 5 April 2011 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indo Pakistani War of 1947 1948 amp oldid 1149465522, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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