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Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei ((北)魏孝文帝) (October 13, 467[2] – April 26, 499[3]), personal name né Tuoba Hong (拓拔宏), later Yuan Hong (元宏), was an emperor of China's Northern Wei dynasty, reigning from September 20, 471 to April 26, 499.[4]

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
北魏孝文帝
Emperor of Northern Wei
ReignSeptember 20, 471[1] – April 26, 499
PredecessorEmperor Xianwen
SuccessorEmperor Xuanwu
RegentEmpress Wencheng Wenming (until 490)
BornOctober 13, 467
DiedApril 26, 499 (aged 31)
Burial
Chang Mausoleum (長陵)
ConsortsEmpress Feng Qing of Changle
Empress You
Empress Wenzhao
Empress Zhen
IssueSee § Family
Names
Family name: Initially Tuòbá (拓拔), later Yuán (元, changed 496);
Given name: Hóng (宏)
Era dates
  • Yán xīng (延興) 471–476
  • Chéng míng (承明) 476
  • Tài hé (太和) 477–499
Posthumous name
Emperor Xiàowén (孝文皇帝, lit. "filial and civil")
Temple name
Gāozǔ (高祖)
HouseYuan (Tuoba)
DynastyNorthern Wei
FatherEmperor Xianwen
MotherEmpress Si

Under the regent of Empress Dowager Feng, Emperor Xiaowen enacted a new land-tenure system named the equal-field system in 485, which was aimed at boosting agricultural production and tax receipts. The implementation of the equal-field system was largely due to the court's desire to break the economic power of local magnates who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages.[5] Under this system, all land was owned by the state, and then equally distributed to taxpaying farmers.[6] This system successfully created a stable fiscal infrastructure and a basis for universal military conscription for the Northern Wei, and continued well into the Tang dynasty. The equal-field program was coupled with another initiative, the "Three Elders" system, aimed at compiling accurate population registers so that land could be distributed accordingly.[7]

Emperor Xiaowen implemented a policy of sinicization, intending to centralize the government and make the multi-ethnic state easier to govern. These policies included changing artistic styles to reflect Chinese preferences and forcing court officials to speak the language and to wear Chinese clothes. He compelled his own Xianbei people and others to adopt Chinese surnames, and changed his own family surname from Tuoba to Yuan. He also encouraged intermarriage between Xianbei and Han.

In 494, Emperor Xiaowen moved the Northern Wei capital from Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi) to Luoyang, a city long acknowledged as a major center in Chinese history. While the capital was moved to Luoyang, the military elite remained centered at the old capital, widening the differences between the administration and the military. The population at the old capital remained conservative, while the population at Luoyang were much more eager to adopt Xiaowen's policies of sinicization. His reforms were met with resistance by the Xianbei elite. In 496, two plots by Xianbei nobles, one centered on his crown prince Yuan Xun, and one centered on his distant uncle Yuan Yi (元頤). By 497, Xiaowen had destroyed the conspiracies and forced Yuan Xun to commit suicide.

Early life and regency of Emperor Xianwen edit

Tuoba Hong was born in 467, when his father Emperor Xianwen was himself young—at the age of 13, and not yet ruling by himself, but instead was emperor under the regency of Emperor Xianwen's stepmother Empress Dowager Feng. Tuoba Hong was Emperor Xianwen's oldest son. His mother, Consort Li, was the daughter of Li Hui, a mid-level official at the time, who was a brother of Emperor Xianwen's mother. Empress Dowager Feng, following Tuoba Hong's birth, ended her regency and returned power to Emperor Xianwen, while spending her time raising Tuoba Hong. In 469, at age two, Tuoba Hong was created crown prince. That same year, his mother Consort Li died—and while traditional histories did not describe how she died, it appeared likely that she was forced to commit suicide according to the Northern Wei tradition of forcing crown princes' mothers to commit suicide, for it was written that the entire palace mourned her bitterly.

In 471, Emperor Xianwen, who favored Taoist and Buddhist philosophies, tired of the throne, and considered passing the throne to his uncle Tuoba Zitui (拓拔子推) the Prince of Jingzhao. After opposition by virtually all high level officials, however, Emperor Xianwen was still resolved to pass the throne to someone else, but decided to instead yield the throne to Crown Prince Hong. He subsequently did so, and Crown Prince Hong took the throne as Emperor Xiaowen, while Emperor Xianwen took the title of Taishang Huang (retired emperor), although, due to Emperor Xiaowen's young age, Emperor Xianwen continued to be in actual control of important matters. When needed on the frontlines against Rouran, he conducted military campaigns himself, while leaving important officials in charge of the capital Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi) with Emperor Xiaowen.

In 476, Empress Dowager Feng, resentful that Emperor Xianwen had put her lover Li Yi (李奕) to death in 470, had him assassinated. (Most historians, including Sima Guang, believed that she poisoned him, but another version indicated that Empress Dowager Feng readied assassins who, when Emperor Xianwen came to her palace to greet her, seized and smothered him.) She assumed regency over Emperor Xiaowen and assumed the title of Grand Empress Dowager.

Regency of Grand Empress Dowager Feng edit

 
Emperor Xiaowen and his entourage worshipping the Buddha 522-523 CE. Central Binyang Cave (also known as Cave 3) in the Longmen complex

After Grand Empress Dowager Feng re-assumed regency, she was said to be more dictatorial than she was before, but intelligent in her decisions and frugal in her living. Not only was she highly literate, but she also was capable in mathematics. However, she trusted several eunuchs and permitted them to interfere in governmental matters. Further, she greatly promoted her lovers Wang Rui (王叡) and Li Chong (李沖) – both of whom were apparently talented officials, but whose promotions were beyond what their talents and contributions called for. She balanced her reputation by also promoting some honored officials who were not her lovers. Because she was concerned that she would be criticized for what was seen as immoral conduct, she punished those whom she perceived to be criticizing her or parodying her behavior with severe punishment, including death. One of her victims was Li Xin, who had contributed to her prior lover Li Yi's death, as she had Li Xin put to death in 477. Fearful that Emperor Xiaowen's mother's clan would try to take power, she falsely accused his grandfather Li Hui (李惠) the Prince of Nan Commandery of treason in 478 and had him and his clan slaughtered. She apparently accelerated the policy of Sinicization, which included social stratification, as she issued an edict in 478 requiring people to marry in their social classes.

The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s.[8] Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,[9][10] Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty.[11] Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜.[12]

In 479, after rival Liu Song's throne was usurped by the general Xiao Daocheng, who established Southern Qi as its Emperor Gao, Northern Wei commissioned Liu Chang (劉昶) the Prince of Danyang, a Liu Song prince who had fled to Northern Wei in 465, with an army and promising him support to rebuild Liu Song. However, Liu Chang's abilities were not up to task, and he was never able to gain much following in the border regions to mount a major drive to reestablish Liu Song. By 481, the campaign had fizzled.[13]

Also in 481, the Buddhist monk Faxiu (法秀) tried to start a popular uprising at Pingcheng, but was discovered, captured, and executed. Some officials advocating the execution of all Buddhist monks, but Grand Empress Dowager Feng refused. Also that year, she started the building of her future tomb at Fang Mountain (方山), near Pingcheng, leaving instructions that after she died that it would be unnecessary for her to be buried with her husband Emperor Wengcheng, who was buried near the old Northern Wei capital Shengle (盛樂, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia). Later that year, a new criminal code that she commissioned Gao Lü to write was completed—with 832 sections, 16 of them prescribing clan-slaughter as penalty, 235 of them prescribing personal death penalty, and 377 prescribing other forms of punishment.

Sometime during Emperor Xiaowen's rise to power, Grand Empress Dowager Feng had him detained and considered deposing him in favor of his brother Tuoba Xi (拓拔禧), but her attendants persuaded her otherwise. While Grand Empress Dowager Feng never formally returned imperial powers to him, by about 483 he appeared to be fairly in control of the government, although Grand Empress Dowager Feng continued to retain substantial powers. Indeed, it was by her order that that year, after Emperor Xiaowen's concubine Consort Lin bore his oldest son, Tuoba Xun, Consort Lin was forced to commit suicide pursuant to Northern Wei customs. She raised Tuoba Xun herself. In 485, after Emperor Xiaowen created his younger brothers princes, Grand Empress Dowager Feng established an imperial school for these princes. In 486, perhaps as both a sign of Sinicization and demonstration of Emperor Xiaowen's authority, he began to assume traditional Chinese imperial clothing, including a robe with dragon patterns and a tasseled hat. As Emperor Xiaowen was raised by Grand Empress Dowager Feng, he also became very close to the family of her brother Feng Xi (馮熙). For some time, he took two of his daughters as concubines, but one of them soon died of illness, and the other, Consort Feng Run, also suffered a major illness and was sent back to her father house, where she became a Buddhist nun.

The power-sharing arrangement between stepgrandmother and stepgrandson could perhaps be illustrated by an incident in 489, when Emperor Wencheng's younger brothers Tuoba Tianci (拓拔天賜) the Prince of Ruyin and Tuoba Zhen (拓拔楨) the Prince of Nan'an were accused of corruption, a death offense. Grand Empress Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen jointly convened an imperial council to discuss their punishment. Grand Empress Dowager Feng opened by asking the officials, "Do you believe that we should care about familial relations and destroy law, or to disregard familial relations and follow the law?" The officials largely pleaded for the princes' lives. After Grand Empress Dowager Feng fell silent, Emperor Xiaowen stated: "What the two princes committed is unpardonable, but the Grand Empress Dowager takes after the brotherly love that Gaozong [Emperor Wengcheng's Temple name] had. Further, the Prince of Nan'an is filially pious toward his mother. Therefore, the two will be spared the death penalty, but their offices and titles will be stripped from them, and they will be reduced to commoner status with no political rights."

In 490, Grand Empress Dowager Feng died, and she was buried with magnificent honors. Emperor Xiaowen was so distraught that he was unable to take in food or water for five days, and subsequently observed a three-year mourning period for her, notwithstanding officials' pleas for him to shorten the mourning period in accordance with rules that Emperor Wen of Han had set.

Early personal reign edit

After Grand Empress Dowager Feng's death, Emperor Xiaowen not only continued the sinicization campaign, but carried it out in earnest, changing many laws and customs of the Northern Wei states to conform with Han, particularly Confucian, customs. While he sought out his mother Consort Li's cousins (Consort Li's brothers had been executed with their father Li Hui) and rewarded them with relatively low offices, he later retracted the rewards, bringing criticism that he was treating the Fengs with too much kindness and not treating the Lis with sufficient kindness.

in 492, in conformance with past dynasties' tradition, Emperor Xiaowen demoted the many princes in the state, unless they were descendants of the dynasty founder Emperor Daowu, to the titles of duke, with two exceptions: Baba Guan (拔拔觀) the Prince of Shangdang, because of the great accomplishments of his grandfather Baba Daosheng (拔拔道生), was allowed to remain prince; and the former Liu Song prince Liu Chang the Prince of Danyang, while having his own rank reduced to Duke of Qi Commandery, was given a special title, which appeared to be non-inheritable, of Prince of Song.

In 493, Emperor Xiaowen married another daughter of Feng Xi, Feng Qing, as empress.

Also in 493, Emperor Xiaowen began the first of a number of campaigns that he would conduct against Southern Qi – although in the case of this campaign, it was intended to instead allow him to move the capital from Pingcheng south to the Han heartland of Luoyang, to further his sinicization campaign. As he reached Luoyang in the late fall, he ordered a continued advance despite heavy rains, and then, when the Xianbei officials who opposed the campaign tried again to stop him, he offered a compromise—that the capital be moved to Luoyang, and the campaign be abandoned. The officials agreed. He also entrusted the matters of changing Xianbei ceremonies and music to Han ceremonies to the official Wang Su (王肅), who had only recently defected from Southern Qi.

in 494, Emperor Xiaowen made a return to Pingcheng, and, for reasons that are not clear, reopened the discussions on whether to move the capital to Luoyang. This time, the Xianbei officials largely opposed the move, but Emperor Xiaowen overruled them and continued moving the governmental agencies to Luoyang, although maintaining a fairly substantial governmental presence at Pingcheng for it to serve as the secondary capital. To alleviate the concerns that the move from Pingcheng to Luoyang would cause a supply shortage of horses and other livestock, he had the general Yuwen Fu (宇文福) set up a large livestock grazing zone at Heyang (河陽, in modern Jiaozuo and Xinxiang, Henan).

A fief of 100 households and the rank of 崇聖侯 Marquis who worships the sage was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant, Yan Hui's lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius's lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of 崇聖大夫 Grandee who venerates the sage was bestowed on 孔乘 Kong Sheng who was Confucius's scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei.[14][15]

Late personal reign edit

Late in 494, under the stated reason that Southern Qi's Emperor Ming had usurped the throne (from his grandnephew Xiao Zhaowen), Emperor Xiaowen prepared a major campaign against Southern Qi, departing Luoyang about new year 495. He initially put the important cities Shouyang (壽陽, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) and Yiyang (義陽, in modern Xinyang, Henan) under siege, but could not capture them easily, and battles that his armies conducted against Southern Qi armies were largely indecisive. By late spring 495, he abandoned the campaign.

In summer 495, Emperor Xiaowen issued a number of edicts that made what was stated policy official law—that Xianbei clothing and language be prohibited, and that the Han clothing and language be used instead. (An exemption was given to those over 30.) In spring 496, he also ordered that the Xianbei family names be changed to Han ones, changing his own clan's name from Tuoba to Yuan. He also strengthened the social stratification that had already been underway for some time, making eight Xianbei clans and five Han clans particularly honored, and ordering that all political offices be given by clan status, not by abilities, despite heavy opposition by his official Li Chong. The particularly honored clans were:

  • Xianbei
    • Mu (穆, originally Qiumuling)
    • Lu (陸, originally Buliugu)
    • He (賀, originally Helai)
    • Liu (劉, originally Dugu)
    • Lou (樓, originally Helou)
    • Yu (于, originally Wuniuyu)
    • Xi (奚, originally Daxi)
    • Yu (尉, originally Yuchi)
  • Han
    • Lu (盧)
    • Cui (崔)
    • Zheng (鄭)
    • Wang (王)
    • Li (李)

Emperor Xiaowen went as far as ordering his six younger brothers to demote their current wives to concubine status, and taking the daughters of officials from the five Han clans to be their new wives, an action heavily criticized by historians.

Sometime prior to fall 496, Emperor Xiaowen had, perhaps due to recommendation from Empress Feng, welcomed her older sister Feng Run back to the palace to again be his concubine, and Feng Run, believing herself to be the older sister, refused to yield to Empress Feng and began to find ways to undermine her position. In summer 496, Emperor Xiaowen deposed Empress Feng, who then went to Yaoguang Temple (瑤光寺) and became a Buddhist nun.

Also in fall 496, the crown prince Yuan Xun, who did not adjust well to Han customs or the much hotter weather in Luoyang, plotted with his followers to flee back to Pingcheng, perhaps to hold that city against his father. His plot, however, was discovered, and Emperor Xiaowen, after asking his brother Yuan Xi (元禧) the Prince of Xianyang to cane Yuan Xun with him, deposed Yuan Xun. However, a second plot quickly arose, organized by the officials Mu Tai (穆泰) and Lu Rui (陸叡), who intended to again hold the northern regions against the Emperor. However, their plot was revealed by Emperor Xiaowen's distant uncle Yu Yi (元頤) the Prince of Yangping, whom they had intended to make their leader but who had only pretended to go along with their plot. Emperor Xiaowen sent a force commanded by his cousin Yuan Cheng (元澄) the Prince of Rencheng to Pingcheng, putting down the plot before it started in earnest, and putting Mu and Lu to death.

In spring 497, Emperor Xiaowen created another son, Yuan Ke, crown prince. Believing in reports by the official Li Biao (李彪), who then had the former Crown Prince Xun under house arrest, that Yuan Xun was still plotting rebellion, he forced Yuan Xun to commit suicide. In fall 497, Emperor Xiaowen created Feng Run to be empress, and when Yuan Ke's mother Consort Gao subsequently died, common belief was that Empress Feng had her secretly poisoned so that she could raise Yuan Ke herself.

Also in fall 497, Emperor Xiaowen launched another major attack against Southern Qi, this time first concentrating on the city Wancheng (宛城, in modern Nanyang, Henan). While he was able to capture Wancheng and Xinye (新野, also in modern Nanyang), the battles were still largely indecisive. During his absence, a major conflict erupted between Li Chong and Li Biao in the capital Luoyang, and Li Chong, after putting Li Biao under arrest, died in anger. Partly because of this and partly because, once Southern Qi's Emperor Ming died in fall 498, that he should not continue to attack a country that was mourning for its emperor, he ended the campaign in fall 498. At that same time, he himself was falling ill, and he entrusted the important matters to his brother Yuan Xie the Prince of Pengcheng, although he subsequently recovered and was able to return to Luoyang.

Meanwhile, however, in Emperor Xiaowen's absence, Empress Feng had been carrying on an affair with the attendant Gao Pusa (高菩薩). When she, also in Emperor Xiaowen's absence, tried to force Emperor Xiaowen's sister Princess Pengcheng, whose husband Liu Chengxu (劉承緒, Liu Chang's son) had died earlier, to marry her brother Feng Su (馮夙) the Duke of Beiping, Princess Pengcheng fled out of Luoyang and arrived at Emperor Xiaowen's camp, accusing Empress Feng of adultery. Once Emperor Xiaowen arrived back in Luoyang, he arrested Gao and Empress Feng's assistant Shuang Meng (雙蒙) and interrogated them. He then interrogated Empress Feng personally as well, concluding that she had in fact committed adultery. However, claiming that he did not want to shame the Feng clan, he did not depose her, but refused to see her again and also ordered Crown Prince Ke to not to see her again either.

Emperor Xiaowen, despite his own weakened physical state, then decided to again advance south to react against a retaliation campaign by the Southern Qi general Chen Xianda (陳顯達). He was able to repel and defeat Chen, but while on the campaign, he died. Yuan Xie and Yuan Cheng kept his death secret until his body could be returned to Luoyang, and then announced his death. Yuan Ke succeeded to the throne as Emperor Xuanwu. By Emperor Xiaowen's will, Empress Feng was forced to commit suicide.

Family edit

Consorts and Issue:

  • Empress, of the Feng clan of Changle (皇后 長樂馮氏), personal name Qing ()
  • Empress You, of the Feng clan of Changle (幽皇后 長樂馮氏; 469–499), personal name Run ()
  • Empress Wenzhao, of the Gao clan of Goguryeo (文昭皇后 高句麗高氏; 469–497), personal name Zhaorong (照容)
    • Yuan Ke, Emperor Xuanwu (宣武皇帝 元恪; 483–515), second son
    • Yuan Huai, Emperor Wumu (武穆皇帝 元懷; 488–517), fifth son
    • Princess Changle (長樂公主; 489–525), personal name Ying ()
      • Married Gao Meng of Goguryeo, Duke Bohai (高句麗 高猛; 483–523)
  • Empress Zhen, of the Lin clan (貞皇后 林氏; d. 483)
    • Yuan Xun, Crown Prince (皇太子 元恂; 483–497), first son
  • Guiren, of the Yuan clan (貴人 袁氏)
    • Yuan Yu, Emperor Wenjing (文景皇帝 元愉; 488–508), third son
  • Furen, of the Luo clan (夫人 羅氏; d. 514)
    • Yuan Yi, Prince Qinghe Wenxian (清河文獻王 元懌; 488–520), fourth son
    • Yuan Yue, Prince Runan Wenxuan (汝南文宣王 元悅; 494–532), sixth son
  • Chonghua, of the Zheng clan (充華 鄭氏)
    • Yuan Tiao, Prince Shang (殤王 元恌; 494–500), seventh son
  • Chonghua, of the Zhao clan (充華 趙氏; 467–514)
    • Princess Yiyang (義陽公主)
      • Married Lu Yuanyu of Fanyang (范陽 盧元聿), and had issue (one son)
  • Unknown
    • Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主), second daughter
      • Married Liu Hui, Duke Qi (劉輝; d. 521)
    • Princess Huaiyang (淮陽公主), fourth daughter
      • Married Yi Yuan of Henan (河南 乙瑗; 489–534), and had issue (one son, Lady Yifu)
    • Princess Huayang (華陽公主; d. 524)
      • Married Sima Fei of Henei, Viscount Yuyang (河內 司馬朏; d. 524), and had issue (one son)
    • Princess Shunyang (順陽公主)
      • Married Feng Mu of Changle, Duke Fufeng (長樂 馮穆; d. 528)
    • Princess Jinan (濟南公主)
      • Married Lu Daoqian of Fanyang, Count Linzi (范陽 盧道虔), and had issue (two sons)
    • Princess Nanyang (南陽公主)
      • Married Xiao Baoyin of Lanling (蘭陵; 487–530) in 502, and had issue (three sons)

Ancestry edit

Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei (408–452)
Tuoba Huang (428–451)
Empress Jing'ai (d. 428)
Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei (440–465)
Yujiulü Chen
Empress Gong
Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei (454–476)
Li Fangshu
Empress Yuan (d. 456)
Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (467–499)
Li Gai
Li Hui
Lady Yu
Empress Si (d. 469)
Han Tui
Lady Han

In popular culture edit

See also edit

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ bingwu day of the 8th month of the 5th year of the Huangxing era, per volume 7 (part 1) of Book of Wei
  2. ^ wushen day of the 8th month of the 1st year of the Huangxing era, per volume 7 (part 1) of Book of Wei
  3. ^ bingwu (1st) day of the 4th month of the 23rd year of the Taihe era, per volume 7 (part 2) of Book of Wei
  4. ^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 65. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9.
  5. ^ Xiong, Victor (2019). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 2, The Six Dynasties, 220-589. Cambridge University Press. pp. 312–313.
  6. ^ Pearce, Scott (2019). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 2, The Six Dynasties, 220–589. Cambridge University Press. p. 174.
  7. ^ von Glahn, Richard (2016). The Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century. p. 173.
  8. ^ Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press. pp. 80–. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.
  9. ^ Lee (2014).
  10. ^ Papers on Far Eastern History. Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. 1983. p. 86.
  11. ^ China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1. Xiao Baoyin.
  12. ^ Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four. BRILL. 22 September 2014. pp. 1566–. ISBN 978-90-04-27185-2.
  13. ^ See Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 135.
  14. ^ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 257–. ISBN 978-90-04-17585-3.
  15. ^ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 257–. ISBN 978-90-474-2929-6.

Sources edit

External links edit

  • Wisdom embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (no. 6)

emperor, xiaowen, northern, tuoba, hong, redirects, here, other, northern, emperor, with, this, name, emperor, xianwen, northern, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sour. Tuoba Hong redirects here For the other Northern Wei emperor with this name see Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei news newspapers books scholar JSTOR December 2007 Learn how and when to remove this template message Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei 北 魏孝文帝 October 13 467 2 April 26 499 3 personal name ne Tuoba Hong 拓拔宏 later Yuan Hong 元宏 was an emperor of China s Northern Wei dynasty reigning from September 20 471 to April 26 499 4 Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei北魏孝文帝Emperor of Northern WeiReignSeptember 20 471 1 April 26 499PredecessorEmperor XianwenSuccessorEmperor XuanwuRegentEmpress Wencheng Wenming until 490 BornOctober 13 467DiedApril 26 499 aged 31 BurialChang Mausoleum 長陵 ConsortsEmpress Feng Qing of ChangleEmpress YouEmpress WenzhaoEmpress ZhenIssueSee FamilyNamesFamily name Initially Tuoba 拓拔 later Yuan 元 changed 496 Given name Hong 宏 Era datesYan xing 延興 471 476 Cheng ming 承明 476 Tai he 太和 477 499Posthumous nameEmperor Xiaowen 孝文皇帝 lit filial and civil Temple nameGaozǔ 高祖 HouseYuan Tuoba DynastyNorthern WeiFatherEmperor XianwenMotherEmpress SiUnder the regent of Empress Dowager Feng Emperor Xiaowen enacted a new land tenure system named the equal field system in 485 which was aimed at boosting agricultural production and tax receipts The implementation of the equal field system was largely due to the court s desire to break the economic power of local magnates who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages 5 Under this system all land was owned by the state and then equally distributed to taxpaying farmers 6 This system successfully created a stable fiscal infrastructure and a basis for universal military conscription for the Northern Wei and continued well into the Tang dynasty The equal field program was coupled with another initiative the Three Elders system aimed at compiling accurate population registers so that land could be distributed accordingly 7 Emperor Xiaowen implemented a policy of sinicization intending to centralize the government and make the multi ethnic state easier to govern These policies included changing artistic styles to reflect Chinese preferences and forcing court officials to speak the language and to wear Chinese clothes He compelled his own Xianbei people and others to adopt Chinese surnames and changed his own family surname from Tuoba to Yuan He also encouraged intermarriage between Xianbei and Han In 494 Emperor Xiaowen moved the Northern Wei capital from Pingcheng 平城 in modern Datong Shanxi to Luoyang a city long acknowledged as a major center in Chinese history While the capital was moved to Luoyang the military elite remained centered at the old capital widening the differences between the administration and the military The population at the old capital remained conservative while the population at Luoyang were much more eager to adopt Xiaowen s policies of sinicization His reforms were met with resistance by the Xianbei elite In 496 two plots by Xianbei nobles one centered on his crown prince Yuan Xun and one centered on his distant uncle Yuan Yi 元頤 By 497 Xiaowen had destroyed the conspiracies and forced Yuan Xun to commit suicide Contents 1 Early life and regency of Emperor Xianwen 2 Regency of Grand Empress Dowager Feng 3 Early personal reign 4 Late personal reign 5 Family 6 Ancestry 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 Sources 10 External linksEarly life and regency of Emperor Xianwen editTuoba Hong was born in 467 when his father Emperor Xianwen was himself young at the age of 13 and not yet ruling by himself but instead was emperor under the regency of Emperor Xianwen s stepmother Empress Dowager Feng Tuoba Hong was Emperor Xianwen s oldest son His mother Consort Li was the daughter of Li Hui a mid level official at the time who was a brother of Emperor Xianwen s mother Empress Dowager Feng following Tuoba Hong s birth ended her regency and returned power to Emperor Xianwen while spending her time raising Tuoba Hong In 469 at age two Tuoba Hong was created crown prince That same year his mother Consort Li died and while traditional histories did not describe how she died it appeared likely that she was forced to commit suicide according to the Northern Wei tradition of forcing crown princes mothers to commit suicide for it was written that the entire palace mourned her bitterly In 471 Emperor Xianwen who favored Taoist and Buddhist philosophies tired of the throne and considered passing the throne to his uncle Tuoba Zitui 拓拔子推 the Prince of Jingzhao After opposition by virtually all high level officials however Emperor Xianwen was still resolved to pass the throne to someone else but decided to instead yield the throne to Crown Prince Hong He subsequently did so and Crown Prince Hong took the throne as Emperor Xiaowen while Emperor Xianwen took the title of Taishang Huang retired emperor although due to Emperor Xiaowen s young age Emperor Xianwen continued to be in actual control of important matters When needed on the frontlines against Rouran he conducted military campaigns himself while leaving important officials in charge of the capital Pingcheng 平城 in modern Datong Shanxi with Emperor Xiaowen In 476 Empress Dowager Feng resentful that Emperor Xianwen had put her lover Li Yi 李奕 to death in 470 had him assassinated Most historians including Sima Guang believed that she poisoned him but another version indicated that Empress Dowager Feng readied assassins who when Emperor Xianwen came to her palace to greet her seized and smothered him She assumed regency over Emperor Xiaowen and assumed the title of Grand Empress Dowager Regency of Grand Empress Dowager Feng edit nbsp Emperor Xiaowen and his entourage worshipping the Buddha 522 523 CE Central Binyang Cave also known as Cave 3 in the Longmen complexAfter Grand Empress Dowager Feng re assumed regency she was said to be more dictatorial than she was before but intelligent in her decisions and frugal in her living Not only was she highly literate but she also was capable in mathematics However she trusted several eunuchs and permitted them to interfere in governmental matters Further she greatly promoted her lovers Wang Rui 王叡 and Li Chong 李沖 both of whom were apparently talented officials but whose promotions were beyond what their talents and contributions called for She balanced her reputation by also promoting some honored officials who were not her lovers Because she was concerned that she would be criticized for what was seen as immoral conduct she punished those whom she perceived to be criticizing her or parodying her behavior with severe punishment including death One of her victims was Li Xin who had contributed to her prior lover Li Yi s death as she had Li Xin put to death in 477 Fearful that Emperor Xiaowen s mother s clan would try to take power she falsely accused his grandfather Li Hui 李惠 the Prince of Nan Commandery of treason in 478 and had him and his clan slaughtered She apparently accelerated the policy of Sinicization which included social stratification as she issued an edict in 478 requiring people to marry in their social classes The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s 8 Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen were married to Han Chinese elites the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉 married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei 9 10 Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏 a descendant of Jin dynasty 266 420 royalty Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔 Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤 a member of Southern Qi royalty 11 Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei s sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang s son Xiao Zong 蕭綜 12 In 479 after rival Liu Song s throne was usurped by the general Xiao Daocheng who established Southern Qi as its Emperor Gao Northern Wei commissioned Liu Chang 劉昶 the Prince of Danyang a Liu Song prince who had fled to Northern Wei in 465 with an army and promising him support to rebuild Liu Song However Liu Chang s abilities were not up to task and he was never able to gain much following in the border regions to mount a major drive to reestablish Liu Song By 481 the campaign had fizzled 13 Also in 481 the Buddhist monk Faxiu 法秀 tried to start a popular uprising at Pingcheng but was discovered captured and executed Some officials advocating the execution of all Buddhist monks but Grand Empress Dowager Feng refused Also that year she started the building of her future tomb at Fang Mountain 方山 near Pingcheng leaving instructions that after she died that it would be unnecessary for her to be buried with her husband Emperor Wengcheng who was buried near the old Northern Wei capital Shengle 盛樂 in modern Hohhot Inner Mongolia Later that year a new criminal code that she commissioned Gao Lu to write was completed with 832 sections 16 of them prescribing clan slaughter as penalty 235 of them prescribing personal death penalty and 377 prescribing other forms of punishment Sometime during Emperor Xiaowen s rise to power Grand Empress Dowager Feng had him detained and considered deposing him in favor of his brother Tuoba Xi 拓拔禧 but her attendants persuaded her otherwise While Grand Empress Dowager Feng never formally returned imperial powers to him by about 483 he appeared to be fairly in control of the government although Grand Empress Dowager Feng continued to retain substantial powers Indeed it was by her order that that year after Emperor Xiaowen s concubine Consort Lin bore his oldest son Tuoba Xun Consort Lin was forced to commit suicide pursuant to Northern Wei customs She raised Tuoba Xun herself In 485 after Emperor Xiaowen created his younger brothers princes Grand Empress Dowager Feng established an imperial school for these princes In 486 perhaps as both a sign of Sinicization and demonstration of Emperor Xiaowen s authority he began to assume traditional Chinese imperial clothing including a robe with dragon patterns and a tasseled hat As Emperor Xiaowen was raised by Grand Empress Dowager Feng he also became very close to the family of her brother Feng Xi 馮熙 For some time he took two of his daughters as concubines but one of them soon died of illness and the other Consort Feng Run also suffered a major illness and was sent back to her father house where she became a Buddhist nun The power sharing arrangement between stepgrandmother and stepgrandson could perhaps be illustrated by an incident in 489 when Emperor Wencheng s younger brothers Tuoba Tianci 拓拔天賜 the Prince of Ruyin and Tuoba Zhen 拓拔楨 the Prince of Nan an were accused of corruption a death offense Grand Empress Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen jointly convened an imperial council to discuss their punishment Grand Empress Dowager Feng opened by asking the officials Do you believe that we should care about familial relations and destroy law or to disregard familial relations and follow the law The officials largely pleaded for the princes lives After Grand Empress Dowager Feng fell silent Emperor Xiaowen stated What the two princes committed is unpardonable but the Grand Empress Dowager takes after the brotherly love that Gaozong Emperor Wengcheng s Temple name had Further the Prince of Nan an is filially pious toward his mother Therefore the two will be spared the death penalty but their offices and titles will be stripped from them and they will be reduced to commoner status with no political rights In 490 Grand Empress Dowager Feng died and she was buried with magnificent honors Emperor Xiaowen was so distraught that he was unable to take in food or water for five days and subsequently observed a three year mourning period for her notwithstanding officials pleas for him to shorten the mourning period in accordance with rules that Emperor Wen of Han had set Early personal reign editAfter Grand Empress Dowager Feng s death Emperor Xiaowen not only continued the sinicization campaign but carried it out in earnest changing many laws and customs of the Northern Wei states to conform with Han particularly Confucian customs While he sought out his mother Consort Li s cousins Consort Li s brothers had been executed with their father Li Hui and rewarded them with relatively low offices he later retracted the rewards bringing criticism that he was treating the Fengs with too much kindness and not treating the Lis with sufficient kindness in 492 in conformance with past dynasties tradition Emperor Xiaowen demoted the many princes in the state unless they were descendants of the dynasty founder Emperor Daowu to the titles of duke with two exceptions Baba Guan 拔拔觀 the Prince of Shangdang because of the great accomplishments of his grandfather Baba Daosheng 拔拔道生 was allowed to remain prince and the former Liu Song prince Liu Chang the Prince of Danyang while having his own rank reduced to Duke of Qi Commandery was given a special title which appeared to be non inheritable of Prince of Song In 493 Emperor Xiaowen married another daughter of Feng Xi Feng Qing as empress Also in 493 Emperor Xiaowen began the first of a number of campaigns that he would conduct against Southern Qi although in the case of this campaign it was intended to instead allow him to move the capital from Pingcheng south to the Han heartland of Luoyang to further his sinicization campaign As he reached Luoyang in the late fall he ordered a continued advance despite heavy rains and then when the Xianbei officials who opposed the campaign tried again to stop him he offered a compromise that the capital be moved to Luoyang and the campaign be abandoned The officials agreed He also entrusted the matters of changing Xianbei ceremonies and music to Han ceremonies to the official Wang Su 王肅 who had only recently defected from Southern Qi in 494 Emperor Xiaowen made a return to Pingcheng and for reasons that are not clear reopened the discussions on whether to move the capital to Luoyang This time the Xianbei officials largely opposed the move but Emperor Xiaowen overruled them and continued moving the governmental agencies to Luoyang although maintaining a fairly substantial governmental presence at Pingcheng for it to serve as the secondary capital To alleviate the concerns that the move from Pingcheng to Luoyang would cause a supply shortage of horses and other livestock he had the general Yuwen Fu 宇文福 set up a large livestock grazing zone at Heyang 河陽 in modern Jiaozuo and Xinxiang Henan A fief of 100 households and the rank of 崇聖侯 Marquis who worships the sage was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant Yan Hui s lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius s lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of 崇聖大夫 Grandee who venerates the sage was bestowed on 孔乘 Kong Sheng who was Confucius s scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei 14 15 Late personal reign editLate in 494 under the stated reason that Southern Qi s Emperor Ming had usurped the throne from his grandnephew Xiao Zhaowen Emperor Xiaowen prepared a major campaign against Southern Qi departing Luoyang about new year 495 He initially put the important cities Shouyang 壽陽 in modern Lu an Anhui and Yiyang 義陽 in modern Xinyang Henan under siege but could not capture them easily and battles that his armies conducted against Southern Qi armies were largely indecisive By late spring 495 he abandoned the campaign In summer 495 Emperor Xiaowen issued a number of edicts that made what was stated policy official law that Xianbei clothing and language be prohibited and that the Han clothing and language be used instead An exemption was given to those over 30 In spring 496 he also ordered that the Xianbei family names be changed to Han ones changing his own clan s name from Tuoba to Yuan He also strengthened the social stratification that had already been underway for some time making eight Xianbei clans and five Han clans particularly honored and ordering that all political offices be given by clan status not by abilities despite heavy opposition by his official Li Chong The particularly honored clans were Xianbei Mu 穆 originally Qiumuling Lu 陸 originally Buliugu He 賀 originally Helai Liu 劉 originally Dugu Lou 樓 originally Helou Yu 于 originally Wuniuyu Xi 奚 originally Daxi Yu 尉 originally Yuchi Han Lu 盧 Cui 崔 Zheng 鄭 Wang 王 Li 李 Emperor Xiaowen went as far as ordering his six younger brothers to demote their current wives to concubine status and taking the daughters of officials from the five Han clans to be their new wives an action heavily criticized by historians Sometime prior to fall 496 Emperor Xiaowen had perhaps due to recommendation from Empress Feng welcomed her older sister Feng Run back to the palace to again be his concubine and Feng Run believing herself to be the older sister refused to yield to Empress Feng and began to find ways to undermine her position In summer 496 Emperor Xiaowen deposed Empress Feng who then went to Yaoguang Temple 瑤光寺 and became a Buddhist nun Also in fall 496 the crown prince Yuan Xun who did not adjust well to Han customs or the much hotter weather in Luoyang plotted with his followers to flee back to Pingcheng perhaps to hold that city against his father His plot however was discovered and Emperor Xiaowen after asking his brother Yuan Xi 元禧 the Prince of Xianyang to cane Yuan Xun with him deposed Yuan Xun However a second plot quickly arose organized by the officials Mu Tai 穆泰 and Lu Rui 陸叡 who intended to again hold the northern regions against the Emperor However their plot was revealed by Emperor Xiaowen s distant uncle Yu Yi 元頤 the Prince of Yangping whom they had intended to make their leader but who had only pretended to go along with their plot Emperor Xiaowen sent a force commanded by his cousin Yuan Cheng 元澄 the Prince of Rencheng to Pingcheng putting down the plot before it started in earnest and putting Mu and Lu to death In spring 497 Emperor Xiaowen created another son Yuan Ke crown prince Believing in reports by the official Li Biao 李彪 who then had the former Crown Prince Xun under house arrest that Yuan Xun was still plotting rebellion he forced Yuan Xun to commit suicide In fall 497 Emperor Xiaowen created Feng Run to be empress and when Yuan Ke s mother Consort Gao subsequently died common belief was that Empress Feng had her secretly poisoned so that she could raise Yuan Ke herself Also in fall 497 Emperor Xiaowen launched another major attack against Southern Qi this time first concentrating on the city Wancheng 宛城 in modern Nanyang Henan While he was able to capture Wancheng and Xinye 新野 also in modern Nanyang the battles were still largely indecisive During his absence a major conflict erupted between Li Chong and Li Biao in the capital Luoyang and Li Chong after putting Li Biao under arrest died in anger Partly because of this and partly because once Southern Qi s Emperor Ming died in fall 498 that he should not continue to attack a country that was mourning for its emperor he ended the campaign in fall 498 At that same time he himself was falling ill and he entrusted the important matters to his brother Yuan Xie the Prince of Pengcheng although he subsequently recovered and was able to return to Luoyang Meanwhile however in Emperor Xiaowen s absence Empress Feng had been carrying on an affair with the attendant Gao Pusa 高菩薩 When she also in Emperor Xiaowen s absence tried to force Emperor Xiaowen s sister Princess Pengcheng whose husband Liu Chengxu 劉承緒 Liu Chang s son had died earlier to marry her brother Feng Su 馮夙 the Duke of Beiping Princess Pengcheng fled out of Luoyang and arrived at Emperor Xiaowen s camp accusing Empress Feng of adultery Once Emperor Xiaowen arrived back in Luoyang he arrested Gao and Empress Feng s assistant Shuang Meng 雙蒙 and interrogated them He then interrogated Empress Feng personally as well concluding that she had in fact committed adultery However claiming that he did not want to shame the Feng clan he did not depose her but refused to see her again and also ordered Crown Prince Ke to not to see her again either Emperor Xiaowen despite his own weakened physical state then decided to again advance south to react against a retaliation campaign by the Southern Qi general Chen Xianda 陳顯達 He was able to repel and defeat Chen but while on the campaign he died Yuan Xie and Yuan Cheng kept his death secret until his body could be returned to Luoyang and then announced his death Yuan Ke succeeded to the throne as Emperor Xuanwu By Emperor Xiaowen s will Empress Feng was forced to commit suicide Family editConsorts and Issue Empress of the Feng clan of Changle 皇后 長樂馮氏 personal name Qing 清 Empress You of the Feng clan of Changle 幽皇后 長樂馮氏 469 499 personal name Run 潤 Empress Wenzhao of the Gao clan of Goguryeo 文昭皇后 高句麗高氏 469 497 personal name Zhaorong 照容 Yuan Ke Emperor Xuanwu 宣武皇帝 元恪 483 515 second son Yuan Huai Emperor Wumu 武穆皇帝 元懷 488 517 fifth son Princess Changle 長樂公主 489 525 personal name Ying 瑛 Married Gao Meng of Goguryeo Duke Bohai 高句麗 高猛 483 523 Empress Zhen of the Lin clan 貞皇后 林氏 d 483 Yuan Xun Crown Prince 皇太子 元恂 483 497 first son Guiren of the Yuan clan 貴人 袁氏 Yuan Yu Emperor Wenjing 文景皇帝 元愉 488 508 third son Furen of the Luo clan 夫人 羅氏 d 514 Yuan Yi Prince Qinghe Wenxian 清河文獻王 元懌 488 520 fourth son Yuan Yue Prince Runan Wenxuan 汝南文宣王 元悅 494 532 sixth son Chonghua of the Zheng clan 充華 鄭氏 Yuan Tiao Prince Shang 殤王 元恌 494 500 seventh son Chonghua of the Zhao clan 充華 趙氏 467 514 Princess Yiyang 義陽公主 Married Lu Yuanyu of Fanyang 范陽 盧元聿 and had issue one son Unknown Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 second daughter Married Liu Hui Duke Qi 劉輝 d 521 Princess Huaiyang 淮陽公主 fourth daughter Married Yi Yuan of Henan 河南 乙瑗 489 534 and had issue one son Lady Yifu Princess Huayang 華陽公主 d 524 Married Sima Fei of Henei Viscount Yuyang 河內 司馬朏 d 524 and had issue one son Princess Shunyang 順陽公主 Married Feng Mu of Changle Duke Fufeng 長樂 馮穆 d 528 Princess Jinan 濟南公主 Married Lu Daoqian of Fanyang Count Linzi 范陽 盧道虔 and had issue two sons Princess Nanyang 南陽公主 Married Xiao Baoyin of Lanling 蘭陵 487 530 in 502 and had issue three sons Ancestry editEmperor Taiwu of Northern Wei 408 452 Tuoba Huang 428 451 Empress Jing ai d 428 Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei 440 465 Yujiulu ChenEmpress GongEmperor Xianwen of Northern Wei 454 476 Li FangshuEmpress Yuan d 456 Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei 467 499 Li GaiLi HuiLady YuEmpress Si d 469 Han TuiLady HanIn popular culture editPortrayed by Zhang Bowen in the 2018 Chinese TV series Untouchable Lovers See also editChange of Xianbei names to Han namesReferences editCitations edit bingwu day of the 8th month of the 5th year of the Huangxing era per volume 7 part 1 of Book of Wei wushen day of the 8th month of the 1st year of the Huangxing era per volume 7 part 1 of Book of Wei bingwu 1st day of the 4th month of the 23rd year of the Taihe era per volume 7 part 2 of Book of Wei Grousset Rene 1970 The Empire of the Steppes Rutgers University Press pp 65 ISBN 0 8135 1304 9 Xiong Victor 2019 The Cambridge History of China Volume 2 The Six Dynasties 220 589 Cambridge University Press pp 312 313 Pearce Scott 2019 The Cambridge History of China Volume 2 The Six Dynasties 220 589 Cambridge University Press p 174 von Glahn Richard 2016 The Economic History of China From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century p 173 Rubie Sharon Watson 1991 Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society University of California Press pp 80 ISBN 978 0 520 07124 7 Lee 2014 Papers on Far Eastern History Australian National University Department of Far Eastern History 1983 p 86 China Dawn of a Golden Age 200 750 AD Metropolitan Museum of Art 2004 pp 30 ISBN 978 1 58839 126 1 Xiao Baoyin Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature vol 3 amp 4 A Reference Guide Part Three amp Four BRILL 22 September 2014 pp 1566 ISBN 978 90 04 27185 2 See Zizhi Tongjian vol 135 John Lagerwey Pengzhi Lu 30 October 2009 Early Chinese Religion The Period of Division 220 589 Ad BRILL pp 257 ISBN 978 90 04 17585 3 John Lagerwey Pengzhi Lu 23 November 2009 Early Chinese Religion Part Two The Period of Division 220 589 AD 2 vols BRILL pp 257 ISBN 978 90 474 2929 6 Sources edit Graff David A 2002 Medieval Chinese Warfare 300 900 London Routledge ISBN 0 415 23954 0 Book of Wei vol 7 parts 1 2 History of Northern Dynasties vol 3 1 Lee Jen der 2014 Crime and Punishment The Case of Liu Hui in the Wei Shu Early Medieval China A Sourcebook New York NY Columbia University Press pp 156 165 ISBN 978 0 231 15987 6 Zizhi Tongjian vols 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 External links editWisdom embodied Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries fully available online as PDF which contains material on Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei no 6 Regnal titlesPreceded byEmperor Xianwen of Northern Wei Emperor of Northern Wei471 499 Succeeded byEmperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei amp oldid 1189796344, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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