fbpx
Wikipedia

Cattle

February 16, 2024

"Cow" and "Cows" redirect here. For other uses, see Cattle (disambiguation) and Cow (disambiguation).
"Taurus cattle" redirects here. For the breeding project, see Taurus Project.

Cattle (Bos taurus) are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are called cows and mature male cattle are bulls. Young female cattle (heifers), young male cattle (oxen or bullocks), and castrated male cattle (steers) are all colloquially called "cows".

Cattle
A brown Swiss Fleckvieh cow wearing a cowbell
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Bovinae
Genus: Bos
Species:
B. taurus
Binomial name
Bos taurus
Bovine distribution
Synonyms
  • Bos primigenius taurus
  • Bos longifrons

Cattle are commonly raised for meat, for dairy products, and for leather. As draft animals, they pull carts and farm implements. In India, cattle are sacred animals. Small breeds such as the miniature Zebu are kept as pets.

Taurine cattle are widely distributed across Europe and temperate areas of Asia, the Americas, and Australia. Zebus are found mainly in India and tropical areas of Asia, America, and Australia. Sanga cattle are found primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. These types, sometimes classified as separate species or subspecies, are further divided into over 1,000 recognized breeds.

Around 10,500 years ago, taurine cattle were domesticated from wild aurochs progenitors in central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran. A separate domestication event occurred in the Indian subcontinent, which gave rise to zebu. There were over 940 million cattle in the world in 2022. Cattle are responsible for around 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Cattle were one of the first domesticated animals to have a fully-mapped genome.

Etymology

Further information: List of cattle terminology

The term Cattle was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latin caput 'head'. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property (the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens—they were sold as part of the land).[1][2] The word is a variant of chattel (a unit of personal property) and closely related to capital in the economic sense.[3][4][2] The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū (plural cȳ), from Common Indo-European gʷōus (genitive gʷowés) 'a bovine animal', cf. Persian: gâv, Sanskrit: go-, Welsh: buwch.[5] In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, cattle means livestock, as opposed to deer which are wild.[2]

Characteristics

Description

 
Skeleton
 
Anatomical model, showing the large 4-chambered stomach

Cattle are large artiodactyls, mammals with cloven hooves,[6] kept on farms to produce meat, milk, and leather, and sometimes to pull carts or farm implements.[7] Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows, for example, weigh 600–800 kg (1,300–1,800 lb), while the bulls weigh 1,000–1,200 kg (2,200–2,600 lb).[8] Before 1790, beef cattle averaged only 160 kg (350 lb) net. Thereafter, weights climbed steadily.[9][10][11] The natural life of domestic cattle is some 25–30 years. Beef cattle go to slaughter at around 18 months, and dairy cows at about five years.[12]

Digestive system

Further information: Digestive system of ruminants

Cattle are ruminants, meaning their digestive system is highly specialized for processing plant material such as grass rich in cellulose, a tough carbohydrate polymer which many animals cannot digest. They do this in symbiosis with micro-organisms – bacteria, fungi, and protozoa – that possess cellulases, enzymes that split cellulose into its constituent sugars. Among the many bacteria that contribute are Fibrobacter succinogenes, Ruminococcus flavefaciens, and Ruminococcus albus. Cellulolytic fungi include several species of Neocallimastix, while the protozoa include the ciliates Eudiplodinium maggie and Ostracodinium album.[13]

Cattle have one large stomach with four compartments, the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. The rumen is the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The abomasum has a similar function to the human stomach.[14]

Cattle regurgitate and re-chew their food in the process of chewing the cud, like most ruminants. While feeding, cows swallow their food without chewing; it goes into the rumen for storage. Later, the food is regurgitated to the mouth, a mouthful at a time, where the cud is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by the micro-organisms in the cow's stomach.[14]

Reproduction

 
A cow giving birth

The gestation period for a cow is about nine months long. The ratio of male to female offspring at birth is approximately 52:48.[15] A cow's udder has two pairs of mammary glands or teats.[16] Farms often use artificial insemination, the artificial deposition of semen in the female's genital tract; this allows farmers to choose from a wide range of bulls to breed their cattle. Estrus too may be artificially induced to facilitate the process.[17]

Cows seek secluded areas for calving.[18] Semi-wild Highland cattle heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5%.[19] Beef calves suckle an average of 5 times per day, spending some 46 minutes suckling. There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling, peaking at roughly 6am, 11:30am, and 7pm.[20] Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life.[21]

Cognition

Cattle have a variety of cognitive abilities. They can memorize the locations of multiple food sources;[22] young cattle learn more quickly than adults,[23][24] and can retain memories for at least 48 days.[25][26] Calves are capable of discrimination learning,[27][28] distinguishing familiar and unfamiliar animals,[29] and between humans, using faces and other cues.[30][31] Calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations to those of an unfamiliar mother.[32] Vocalizations provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and reproductive status of the caller, and may indicate estrus in cows and competitive display in bulls.[33] Cows can categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.[29] Cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, suggesting that kin discrimination may be a basis of grouping behaviour.[34] Cattle use visual/brain lateralisation when scanning novel and familiar stimuli.[35] They prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye (using the right brain hemisphere), but the right eye for familiar stimuli.[36]

Senses

Vision is the dominant sense; cattle obtain almost half of their information visually.[37] Being prey animals, cattle evolved to look out for predators almost all round, with eyes are on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a field of view of 330°, but limits binocular vision (and therefore stereopsis) to some 30° to 50°, compared to 140° in humans.[29][38] They are dichromatic, like most mammals.[39] Cattle avoid bitter-tasting foods, selecting sweet foods for energy. Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal pH.[37] They seek out salty foods by taste and smell to maintain their electrolyte balance.[40][41] Their hearing is better than that of horses[42] but less good at localising sounds than goats, and much less good than dogs or humans.[43] Olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life, indicating social and reproductive status.[37][44] Cattle can tell when other animals are stressed by smelling the alarm chemicals in their urine.[45] The odour of dog faeces induces behavioural changes prior to cattle feeding.[46] Cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.[44]

Behavior

Dominance hierarchy

Cattle live in a dominance hierarchy. This is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way. Licking is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus,[47] however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.[19] Dominance-associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.[19] The horns of cattle are honest signals used in mate selection. Horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle, resulting in more stable social relationships.[48] In calves, agonistic behavior becomes less frequent as space allowance increases, but not as group size changes, whereas in adults, the number of agonistic encounters increases with group size.[49]

Dominance relationships in semi-wild highland cattle are very firm, with few overt aggressive conflicts: most disputes are settled by agonistic (non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors with no physical contact between opponents, reducing the risk of injury. Dominance status depends on age and sex, with older animals usually dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gain superior dominance status over adult cows when they reach about 2 years of age.[19]

Grazing behavior

Cattle eat mixed diets, but prefer to eat approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.[50] When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing 750-kilogram (1,650 lb) steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm2 (30 sq in). Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass/area.[51] Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.[52] Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep,[53] but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbits.[54]

Temperament and emotions

 
Ear postures of cows indicate emotional state and overall welfare.[55]

In cattle, temperament or behavioral disposition can affect productivity, overall health, and reproduction.[56] Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed: shyness–boldness, exploration–avoidance, activity, aggressiveness, and sociability.[57] Different studies have found many indicators of emotion in cattle. Holstein–Friesian heifers that had made clear improvements in a learning experiment had higher heart rates, indicating an emotional reaction to their own learning.[58] After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves reacted negatively, indicating low mood.[59] Similarly, after hot-iron dehorning, calves reacted negatively to the post-operative pain.[60] The position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state.[29] Cattle can tell when othercattle are stressed by the chemicals in their urine.[45] Cattle are gregarious, and even short-term isolation causes psychological stress. When heifers are isolated, vocalizations, heart rate and plasma cortisol all increase. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalizations rapidly decline; heart rate decreases more rapidly if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual.[61] Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.[62]

Sleep

Further information: Sleep in non-human animals

The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day.[63] Cattle do have a stay apparatus,[64] but do not sleep standing up;[65] they lie down to sleep deeply.[66]

Genetics

Further information: Bovine genome

On 24 April 2009, edition of the journal Science, a team of researchers led by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Agriculture reported having mapped the bovine genome.[67] The scientists found cattle have about 22,000 genes, and 80% of their genes are shared with humans; they have about 1000 genes that they share with dogs and rodents, but not with humans. Using this bovine "HapMap", researchers can track the differences between the breeds that affect the quality of meat and milk yields.[68]

Behavioral traits of cattle can be as heritable as some production traits, and often, the two can be related.[69] The heritability of fear varies markedly in cattle from low (0.1) to high (0.53); such high variation is also found in pigs and sheep, probably due to differences in the methods used.[70] The heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 for habituation to handling.[71] Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0.36.[72]

Quantitative trait loci have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle.[73]

Evolution

Phylogeny

Cattle have played a key role in human history, having been domesticated since at least the early neolithic age. Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one in central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran, giving rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area that is now Pakistan, resulting in the indicine line.[74] Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80 aurochs tamed in the upper reaches of Mesopotamia near the villages of Çayönü Tepesi in what is now southeastern Turkey, and Dja'de el-Mughara in what is now northern Syria.[75]

Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants.[74] A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and Europe.[76] Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from the North African aurochs.[74] Whether there have been two or three domestications, European, African, and Asian cattle share much of their genomes both through their species ancestry and through repeated migrations of livestock and genetic material between species, as shown in the diagram.[77]

 
Cattle phylogeny and migrations involve two major species, at least two domestications, and migrations between these.[77]

Taxonomy

See also: Bos and Bovinae
 
Żubroń, a European bison–cattle hybrid

Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, the European or "taurine" cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia); Bos indicus, the Indicine or "zebu"; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle.[78] They were later reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with the aurochs (B. t. primigenius), zebu (B. t. indicus), and taurine (B. t. taurus) cattle as subspecies.[79] However, this taxonomy is contentious and some sources prefer the separate species classification, such as the American Society of Mammalogists' Mammal Diversity Database.[80][81]

Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle (Bos taurus africanus x Bos indicus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks (the dzo or yattle[82]), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos, as well.[83] The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak.[84]

The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Mazovia, Poland, in about 1627.[85] Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to the aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck breed.[86]

A group of taurine-type cattle exist in Africa; they either represent an independent domestication event or were the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs, but they are genetically distinct;[87] some authors name them as a separate subspecies, Bos taurus africanus.[88] The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are the N'Dama, Kuri and some varieties of the West African Shorthorn.[89]

Feral cattle are those that have been allowed to go wild.[90] Populations exist in many parts of the world,[91][92] sometimes on small islands.[93][94][95] Some, such as Amsterdam Island cattle,[79] Chillingham cattle,[96] and Aleutian wild cattle have become sufficiently distinct to be described as breeds.[97]

Husbandry

Practices

Further information: Animal husbandry
 
In concentrated animal feeding operations, the cattle are not allowed to wander and graze, as food is brought to them in a feedlot.[98]

Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland. Raising cattle in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily feeding, cleaning and milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging, dehorning, loading, medical operations, artificial insemination, vaccinations and hoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. Around the world, Fulani husbandry rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe, cattle are controlled primarily by physical means, such as fences.[99] Breeders use cattle husbandry to reduce tuberculosis susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.[100] In the United States, many cattle are kept in concentrated animal feeding operations, meaning there are at least 700 mature dairy cows or at least 1000 other cattle stabled or confined in a feedlot for "45 days or more in a 12-month period".[98]

  •  
    A Hereford being inspected for ticks. Cattle are often restrained or confined in cattle crushes (squeeze chutes) when given medical attention.
  •  
    A calf with a nose ring to prevent it from suckling, usually to assist in weaning
  •  
    Cattle feedlot in Colorado, United States

Population

Historically, the cattle population of Britain rose from 9.8 million in 1878 to 11.7 million in 1908, but beef consumption rose much faster. Britain became the "stud farm of the world" exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle. In 1929 80% of the meat trade of the world was products of what were originally English breeds. There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s.[101]

Cattle have the largest biomass of any animal species on Earth, at roughly 400 million tonnes, followed closely by Antarctic krill at 379 million tonnes and humans at 373 million tonnes.[102] In 2023, the countries with the most cattle were India with 307.5 million (32.6% of the total), Brazil with 194.4 million, and China with 101.5 million, out of a total of 942.6 million in the world.[103]

Economy

Meat

Further information: Beef cattle and Beef

The meat of adult cattle is known as beef, and that of calves is veal. Other animal parts are used as food products, including blood, liver, kidney, heart and oxtail. Approximately 300 million cattle, including dairy animals, are slaughtered each year for food.[104] About a quarter of the world's meat comes from cattle.[105] World cattle meat production in 2021 was 72.3 million tons.[106]

  •  
    The Hereford is a widespread beef breed, introduced in the 18th century
  •  
    Australian Droughtmaster cattle on an extensive farm in Queensland
  •  
    Aberdeen Angus, a popular small breed, here in Austria with a traditional cattle bell
  • FAO data for 2021
  •  
    Cattle is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwide.
  •  
    Beef has the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.
  •  
    Production of beef worldwide, by country in 2021.

Dairy

Main articles: Dairy cattle and Dairy product

Certain breeds of cattle, such as the Holstein-Friesian, are used to produce milk,[107][108] much of which is processed into dairy products such as butter, cheese, and yogurt. Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk production. Most cows are milked twice per day, with milk processed at a dairy, which may be onsite at the farm or the milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product.[109] Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs, or by a combination of those methods.[110][111] For mother cows to continue producing milk, they give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it generally is slaughtered at a young age to produce veal.[112] They will continue to produce milk until three weeks before birth.[108] Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow. The Holstein-Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. Around 22 litres per day is average in the UK.[107][108]

Dairy is a large industry worldwide. In 2023, the 27 European Union countries produced 143 million tons of cow's milk; the United States 104.1 million tons; and India 99.5 million tons.[113] India further produces 94.4 million tons of buffalo milk,[114] making it (in 2023) the world's largest milk producer; its dairy industry employs some 80 million people.[115]

  •  
    Holstein cattle are the primary dairy breed, bred for high milk production.
  •  
    The milking of cattle was once largely by hand. Demonstration at Cobbes Farm Museum, England
  •  
    A modern rotary milking parlour, Germany
  • FAO data for 2021
  •  
    World production of bovine milk (cow + buffalo)

Hides

Cattle are not often kept solely for hides, which are usually a by-product of beef production. Hides are used mainly for leather, for products such as shoes. In 2012, India was the world's largest producer of cattle hides.[116]

Draft animals

Further information: Ox
 
Oxen used in traditional ploughing – Karnataka

Oxen are cattle trained as draft animals. Oxen can pull heavier loads and for a longer period of time than horses.[117] Oxen are used worldwide, especially in developing countries. There are some 11 million draft oxen in sub-Saharan Africa,[118] while in 1998 India had over 65 million oxen.[119] At the start of the 21st century, about half the world's crop production depended on land preparation by draft animals.[120]

Health

Pests and diseases

Further information: Veterinary medicine

Cattle are subject to pests including arthropod parasites such as ticks (which can in turn transmit diseases caused by bacteria and protozoa),[121] and diseases caused by pathogens including bacteria and viruses. Some such as bluetongue are viral diseases spread by insects, in its case by midges. Psoroptic mange is a disabling skin condition caused by mites. Bovine tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium; it causes disease in humans and in wild animals such as deer and badgers.[122] Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is a neurodegenerative disease spread by a prion, a misfolded brain protein, in contaminated meat.[123] Among the intestinal parasites of cattle are Paramphistomum flukes, affecting the rumen, and hookworms in the small intestine.[124]

Effect of climate change

Main article: Effects of climate change on livestock

Climate change is expected to exacerbate heat stress in cattle, and for longer periods.[125] Heat-stressed cattle may experience accelerated breakdown of adipose tissue by the liver, causing lipidosis.[126] Cattle eat less when heat stressed, resulting in ruminal acidosis, which can lead to laminitis. Cattle can attempt to deal with higher temperatures by panting more often; this rapidly decreases carbon dioxide concentrations at the price of increasing pH, respiratory alkalosis. To deal with this, cattle are forced to shed bicarbonate through urination, at the expense of rumen buffering. These two pathologies can both cause lameness.[126] Another specific risk is mastitis.[126][127] This worsens as Calliphora blowflies increase in number with continued warming, spreading mastitis-causing bacteria.[128] Ticks too are likely to increase in temperate zones as the climate warms, increasing the risk of tick-borne diseases.[129]

Impact of cattle husbandry

On public health

Cattle diseases were at the center of attention in the 1980s and 1990s when bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) was of concern.[130][131][132] Cattle health is at once a veterinary issue (for animal welfare and productivity), a public health issue (to limit the spread of disease), and a food safety issue (to ensure meat and dairy products are safe to eat). These concerns are reflected in farming regulations.[133] These rules can become political matters, as when it was proposed in the UK in 2011 that milk from tuberculosis-infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain.[134]

On the environment

Main article: Environmental impact of cattle production

The gut flora of cattle produce methane, a powerful[135] greenhouse gas, as a byproduct of enteric fermentation, which cattle belch out.[136][137] Livestock production creates around 14.5% of greenhouse gas emissions, some 65% of which is due to cattle.[138][139][140][141] Additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of stored manure.[142]

Concentrated animal feeding operations in particular produce substantial amounts of wastewater and manure,[143][144] which can cause environmental harms such as soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E. coli contamination.[145][146] In many world regions, overgrazing by cattle has reduced biodiversity of the grazed plants and of animals at different trophic levels in the ecosystem.[147]

On animal welfare

Further information: Cruelty to animals § Welfare concerns of farm animals

Cattle husbandry practices including branding,[148] castration,[149] dehorning,[150] ear tagging,[151] nose ringing,[152] restraint,[153] tail docking,[154] the use of veal crates,[155] and cattle prods[156] have raised welfare concerns.[157]

Stocking density is the number of animals within a specified area. High stocking density can affect cattle health, welfare, productivity,[158] and feeding behaviour.[159] Densely-stocked cattle feed more rapidly and lie down sooner, increasing the risk of teat infection, mastitis, and embryo loss.[160][161] The stress and negative health impacts induced by high stocking density such as in concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots, auctions, and transport may be detrimental to cattle welfare.[162][163][164]

To produce milk from dairy cattle, most calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and fed milk replacement in order to retain the cows' milk for human consumption.[165] Animal welfare advocates are critical of this practice, stating that this breaks the natural bond between the mother and her calf.[165] The welfare of veal calves is also a concern.[166]

Two sports involving cattle are thought to be cruel by animal welfare groups: rodeos and bullfighting. Such groups oppose rodeo activities including bull riding, calf roping and steer roping, stating that rodeos are unnecessary and cause stress, injury, and death to the animals.[167] In Spain, the Running of the bulls faces opposition due to the stress and injuries incurred by the bulls during the event.[168][169] Bullfighting is opposed as a blood sport in which bulls are forced to suffer severe stress and death.[170]

In culture

As early as 9000 BC, cattle were used as money or traded in barter.[171][172][173] One of the advantages of using cattle as currency is that it allows the seller to set a fixed price.[172]

Cattle play a part in several religions. Veneration of the cow is a symbol of Hindu community identity,[174] especially since the end of the 19th century. Slaughter of cows (including oxen, bulls and calves) is forbidden by law in several states of the Indian Union. McDonald's outlets in India do not serve beef. In Maharaja Ranjit Singh's empire of the early 19th century, the killing of a cow was punishable by death.[175] In Christian art, the Evangelist St. Luke is symbolised as an ox.[176] The second and longest surah of the Quran is named Al-Baqara ("The Cow"); it mentions cows seven times.[177][178] The Ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac. The astrological sign Taurus is represented as a bull in the Western zodiac.[179] The akabeko (赤べこ, red cow) is a traditional toy from the Aizu region of Japan that is thought to ward off illness.[180]

See also

References

  1. ^ Harper, Douglas. "cattle". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
  2. ^ a b c "cattle, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2014. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. ^ Harper, Douglas. "chattel". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
  4. ^ Harper, Douglas. "capital". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
  5. ^ "cow, n.1.". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2014. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  6. ^ "Artiodactyla". Science Direct. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  7. ^ "Cattle". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  8. ^ "Hereford cattle weight". from the original on 24 January 2015.
  9. ^ American Economic Growth and Standards of Living before the Civil War, Robert E. Gallman, John Joseph Wallis. 2007 p. 248
  10. ^ "Cattle increasing in size". Beef Magazine. February 2009. from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
  11. ^ Mathews, Kenneth H. (1999). U.S. Beef Industry: Cattle Cycles, Price Spreads, and Packer concentration. US Department of Agriculture. p. 6.
  12. ^ "Cattle factsheet". RSPCA. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  13. ^ Hua, Dengke; Hendriks, Wouter H.; Xiong, Benhai; Pellikaan, Wilbert F. (3 November 2022). "Starch and Cellulose Degradation in the Rumen and Applications of Metagenomics on Ruminal Microorganisms". Animals. 12 (21): 3020. doi:10.3390/ani12213020. ISSN 2076-2615. PMC 9653558. PMID 36359144.
  14. ^ a b Orr, Adam I. (28 June 2023). "How Cows Eat Grass: Exploring Cow Digestion". Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  15. ^ Roche, J.R.; Lee, J.M.; Berry, D.P. (2006). "Pre-Conception Energy Balance and Secondary Sex Ratio—Partial Support for the Trivers-Willard Hypothesis in Dairy Cows". Journal of Dairy Science. American Dairy Science Association. 89 (6): 2119–2125. doi:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(06)72282-2. ISSN 0022-0302. PMID 16702278.
  16. ^ Hasheider, Phillip (25 June 2011). The Family Cow Handbook. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-4067-7.
  17. ^ Hopper, Richard M. (2014). "32. Artificial Insemination; 33. Pharmacological Intervention of Estrous Cycles". Bovine Reproduction. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-47085-5.
  18. ^ Edwards, S.A.; Broom, D.M. (1982). "Behavioural interactions of dairy cows with their newborn calves and the effects of parity". Animal Behaviour. 30 (2): 525–535. doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(82)80065-1. S2CID 53145854.
  19. ^ a b c d Reinhardt, C.; Reinhardt, A.; Reinhardt, V. (1986). "Social behaviour and reproductive performance in semi-wild Scottish Highland cattle". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 15 (2): 125–136. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(86)90058-4.
  20. ^ Odde, K. G.; Kiracofe, G.H.; Schalles, R.R. (1985). "Suckling behavior in range beef calves". Journal of Animal Science. 61 (2): 307–309. doi:10.2527/jas1985.612307x. PMID 4044428.
  21. ^ Johnsen, J.F.; Ellingsen, K.; Grøndahl, A.M.; Bøe, K.E.; Lidfors, L.; Mejdell, C.M. (2015). "The effect of physical contact between dairy cows and calves during separation on their post-separation behavioural". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 166: 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2015.03.002. (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2017.
  22. ^ Bailey, D.W.; Rittenhouse, L.R.; Hart, R.H.; Richards, R.W (1989). "Characteristics of spatial memory in cattle". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 23 (4): 331–340. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(89)90101-9.
  23. ^ Kovalčik, K.; Kovalčik, M. (1986). "Learning ability and memory testing in cattle of different ages". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 15 (1): 27–29. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(86)90019-5.
  24. ^ Mendl, M.; Nicol, C.J. (2009). "Chapter 5: Learning and cognition". In Jensen, P. (ed.). The Ethology of Domestic Animals: An Introductory Text. CABI. pp. 61–63.
  25. ^ Ksiksi, T.; Laca, E.A. (2002). "Cattle do remember locations of preferred food over extended periods". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 15 (6): 900–904. doi:10.5713/ajas.2002.900.
  26. ^ Hirata, M.; Takeno, N. (2014). "Do cattle (Bos taurus) retain an association of a visual cue with a food reward for a year?". Animal Science Journal. 85 (6): 729–734. doi:10.1111/asj.12210. PMID 24798642.
  27. ^ Schaeffer, R.G.; Sikes, J.D. (1971). "Discrimination learning in dairy calves". Journal of Dairy Science. 54 (6): 893–896. doi:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(71)85937-4. PMID 5141440.
  28. ^ Kilgour, R. (1981). "Use of the Hebb–Williams closed-field test to study the learning ability of Jersey cows". Animal Behaviour. 29 (3): 850–860. doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(81)80020-6. S2CID 53153428.
  29. ^ a b c d Coulon, M.; Baudoin, C.; Heyman, Y.; Deputte, B.L. (2011). "Cattle discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics by using only head visual cues". Animal Cognition. 14 (2): 279–290. doi:10.1007/s10071-010-0361-6. PMID 21132446. S2CID 39755371.
  30. ^ de Passille, A.M.; Rushen, J.; Ladewig, J.; Petherick, C. (1996). "Dairy calves' discrimination of people based on previous handling". Journal of Animal Science. 74 (5): 969–974. doi:10.2527/1996.745969x. PMID 8726728.
  31. ^ Mendl, M.; Nicol, C.J. (2009). "Chapter 5: Learning and cognition". In Jensen, P. (ed.). The Ethology of Domestic Animals: An Introductory Text. CABI. p. 144.
  32. ^ Barfield, C.H.; Tang-Martinez, Z.; Trainer, J.M. (1994). "Domestic calves (Bos taurus) recognize their own mothers by auditory cues". Ethology. 97 (4): 257–264. Bibcode:1994Ethol..97..257B. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb01045.x.
  33. ^ Watts, J.M.; Stookey, J.M. (2000). "Vocal behaviour in cattle: the animal's commentary on its biological processes and welfare". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 67 (1): 15–33. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00108-2. PMID 10719186.
  34. ^ Coulon, M.; Baudoin, C.; Abdi, H.; Heyman, Y.; Deputte, B.L. (2010). "Social behavior and kin discrimination in a mixed group of cloned and non cloned heifers (Bos taurus)". Theriogenology. 74 (9): 1596–1603. doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.06.031. PMID 20708240.
  35. ^ Phillips, C.J.C.; Oevermans, H.; Syrett, K.L.; Jespersen, A.Y.; Pearce, G.P. (2015). "Lateralization of behavior in dairy cows in response to conspecifics and novel persons". Journal of Dairy Science. 98 (4): 2389–2400. doi:10.3168/jds.2014-8648. PMID 25648820.
  36. ^ Robins, A.; Phillips, C. (2010). "Lateralised visual processing in domestic cattle herds responding to novel and familiar stimuli". Laterality. 15 (5): 514–534. doi:10.1080/13576500903049324. PMID 19629847. S2CID 13283847.
  37. ^ a b c Adamczyk, K.; Górecka-Bruzda, A.; Nowicki, J.; Gumułka, M.; Molik, E.; Schwarz, T.; Klocek, C. (2015). "Perception of environment in farm animals – A review". Annals of Animal Science. 15 (3): 565–589. doi:10.1515/aoas-2015-0031.
  38. ^ Phillips, C. (2008). Cattle Behaviour and Welfare. John Wiley and Sons.
  39. ^ Jacobs, G.H.; Deegan, J.F.; Neitz, J. (1998). "Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in cows, goats and sheep". Vis. Neurosci. 15 (3): 581–584. doi:10.1017/s0952523898153154. PMID 9685209. S2CID 3719972.
  40. ^ Bell, F.R.; Sly, J. (1983). "The olfactory detection of sodium and lithium salts by sodium deficient cattle". Physiology and Behavior. 31 (3): 307–312. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(83)90193-2. PMID 6634998. S2CID 34619742.
  41. ^ Bell, F. R. (1984). "Aspects of ingestive behavior in cattle". Journal of Animal Science. 59 (5): 1369–1372. doi:10.2527/jas1984.5951369x. PMID 6392276.
  42. ^ Heffner, R.S.; Heffner, H.E. (1983). "Hearing in large mammals: Horses (Equus caballus) and cattle (Bos taurus)". Behavioral Neuroscience. 97 (2): 299–309. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.97.2.299.
  43. ^ Heffner, R.S.; Heffner, H.E. (1992). "Hearing in large mammals: sound-localization acuity in cattle (Bos taurus) and goats (Capra hircus)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 106 (2): 107–113. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.106.2.107. PMID 1600717.
  44. ^ a b Bouissou, M.F.; Boissy, A.; Le Niendre, P.; Vessier, I. (2001). "The Social Behaviour of Cattle 5.". In Keeling, L.; Gonyou, H. (eds.). Social Behavior in Farm Animals. CABI Publishing. pp. 113–133.
  45. ^ a b Boissy, A.; Terlouw, C.; Le Neindre, P. (1998). "Presence of cues from stressed conspecifics increases reactivity to aversive events in cattle: evidence for the existence of alarm substances in urine". Physiology and Behavior. 63 (4): 489–495. doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(97)00466-6. PMID 9523888. S2CID 36904002.
  46. ^ Terlouw, E.C.; Boissy, A.; Blinet, P. (1998). "Behavioural responses of cattle to the odours of blood and urine from conspecifics and to the odour of faeces from carnivores". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 57 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(97)00122-6.
  47. ^ "Signs of Heat (Heat Detection and Timing of Insemination for Cattle)". Heat Detection and Timing of Insemination for Cattle (Penn State Extension). from the original on 5 November 2016.
  48. ^ Knierim, U.; Irrgang, N.; Roth, B.A. (2015). "To be or not to be horned–consequences in cattle". Livestock Science. 179: 29–37. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2015.05.014.
  49. ^ Kondo, S.; Sekine, J.; Okubo, M.; Asahida, Y. (1989). "The effect of group size and space allowance on the agonistic and spacing behavior of cattle". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 24 (2): 127–135. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(89)90040-3.
  50. ^ Rutter, S.M. (2006). "Diet preference for grass and legumes in free-ranging domestic sheep and cattle: current theory and future application". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 97 (1): 17–35. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.11.016.
  51. ^ Laca, E.A.; Ungar, E.D.; Seligman, N.; Demment, M.W. (1992). "Effects of sward height and bulk density on bite dimensions of cattle grazing homogeneous swards". Grass and Forage Science. 47 (1): 91–102. Bibcode:1992GForS..47...91L. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2494.1992.tb02251.x.
  52. ^ Bailey, D.W.; Gross, J.E.; Laca, E.A.; Rittenhouse, L.R.; Coughenour, M.B.; Swift, D.M.; Sims, P.L. (1996). "Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns". Journal of Range Management. 49 (5): 386–400. doi:10.2307/4002919. hdl:10150/644282. JSTOR 4002919.
  53. ^ Forbes, T.D.A.; Hodgson, J. (1985). "The reaction of grazing sheep and cattle to the presence of dung from the same or the other species". Grass and Forage Science. 40 (2): 177–182. Bibcode:1985GForS..40..177F. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2494.1985.tb01735.x.
  54. ^ Daniels, M.J.; Ball, N.; Hutchings, M.R.; Greig, A. (2001). "The grazing response of cattle to pasture contaminated with rabbit faeces and the implications for the transmission of paratuberculosis". The Veterinary Journal. 161 (3): 306–313. doi:10.1053/tvjl.2000.0550. PMID 11352488.
  55. ^ Proctor, Helen S.; Carder, Gemma (9 October 2014). . Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 161: 20–27. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2014.09.015. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
  56. ^ Brand, B.; Hadlich, F.; Brandt, B.; Schauer, N.; Graunke, K.L.; Langbein, J.; ... and Schwerin, M. (2015). "Temperament type specific metabolite profiles of the prefrontal cortex and serum in cattle". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0125044. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1025044B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125044. PMC 4416037. PMID 25927228.
  57. ^ Réale, D.; Reader, S.M.; Sol, D.; McDougall, P.T.; Dingemanse, N.J. (2007). "Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution". Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 82 (2): 291–318. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185x.2007.00010.x. hdl:1874/25732. PMID 17437562. S2CID 44753594.
  58. ^ Hagen, K.; Broom, D. (2004). "Emotional reactions to learning in cattle". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 85 (3–4): 203–213. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2003.11.007.
  59. ^ Daros, R.R.; Costa, J.H.; von Keyserlingk, M.A.; Hötzel, M.J.; Weary, D.M. (2014). "Separation from the dam causes negative judgement bias in dairy calves". PLOS ONE. 9 (5): e98429. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...998429D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098429. PMC 4029834. PMID 24848635.
  60. ^ Neave, H.W.; Daros, R.R.; Costa, J.H.C.; von Keyserlingk, M.A.G.; Weary, D.M. (2013). "Pain and pessimism: Dairy calves exhibit negative judgement bias following hot-iron disbudding". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e80556. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...880556N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080556. PMC 3851165. PMID 24324609.
  61. ^ Boissy, A.; Le Neindre, P. (1997). "Behavioral, cardiac and cortisol responses to brief peer separation and reunion in cattle". Physiology & Behavior. 61 (5): 693–699. doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(96)00521-5. PMID 9145939. S2CID 8507049.
  62. ^ Piller, Carol A.K.; Stookey, Joseph M; Watts, Jon M (1999). "Effects of mirror-image exposure on heart rate and movement of isolated heifers". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 63 (2): 93–102. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00010-6.
  63. ^ "40 Winks?" Jennifer S. Holland, National Geographic Vol. 220, No. 1. July 2011.
  64. ^ Asprea, Lori; Sturtz, Robin (2012). Anatomy and physiology for veterinary technicians and nurses a clinical approach. Chichester: Iowa State University Pre. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-118-40584-0.
  65. ^ "Animal MythBusters – Manitoba Veterinary Medical Association". www.mvma.ca. from the original on 15 April 2016.
  66. ^ Collins, Nick (6 September 2013). "Cow tipping myth dispelled". The Daily Telegraph. from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  67. ^ Brown, David (23 April 2009). "Scientists Unravel Genome of the Cow". The Washington Post. from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2009.
  68. ^ Gill, Victoria (23 April 2009). "BBC: Cow genome 'to transform farming'". BBC News. from the original on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  69. ^ Canario, L.; Mignon-Grasteau, S.; Dupont-Nivet, M.; Phocas, F. (2013). "Genetics of behavioural adaptation of livestock to farming conditions" (PDF). Animal. 7 (3): 357–377. Bibcode:2013Anim....7..357C. doi:10.1017/S1751731112001978. PMID 23127553.
  70. ^ Jensen, P., ed. (2009). The Ethology of Domestic Animals: An Introductory Text. CABI. p. 111.
  71. ^ Schmutz, S. M.; Stookey, J. M.; Winkelman-Sim, D. C.; Waltz, C. S.; Plante, Y.; Buchanan, F. C. (2001). "A QTL study of cattle behavioral traits in embryo transfer families". Journal of Heredity. 92 (3): 290–292. doi:10.1093/jhered/92.3.290. PMID 11447250.
  72. ^ Canario, L.; Mignon-Grasteau, S.; Dupont-Nivet, M.; Phocas, F. (2013). "Genetics of behavioural adaptation of livestock to farming conditions" (PDF). Animal. 7 (3): 357–377. Bibcode:2013Anim....7..357C. doi:10.1017/S1751731112001978. PMID 23127553.
  73. ^ Friedrich, J.; Brand, B.; Schwerin, M. (2015). "Genetics of cattle temperament and its impact on livestock production and breeding – a review". Archives Animal Breeding. 58: 13–21. doi:10.5194/aab-58-13-2015. (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015.
  74. ^ a b c McTavish, E.J.; Decker, J.E.; Schnabel, R.D.; Taylor, J.F.; Hillis, D.M.year=2013 (2013). "New World cattle show ancestry from multiple independent domestication events". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110 (15): E1398–1406. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110E1398M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1303367110. PMC 3625352. PMID 23530234.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  75. ^ Bollongino, R.; Burger, J.; Powell, A.; Mashkour, M.; Vigne, J.-D.; Thomas, M. G. (2012). "Modern taurine cattle descended from small number of Near-Eastern founders". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 29 (9): 2101–2104. doi:10.1093/molbev/mss092. PMID 22422765. Op. cit. in Wilkins, Alasdair (28 March 2012). "DNA reveals that cows were almost impossible to domesticate". io9. from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
  76. ^ Decker, J.E.; McKay, S.D.; Rolf, M.M.; Kim, J.; Molina Alcalá, A.; Sonstegard, T.S.; et al. (2014). "Worldwide patterns of ancestry, divergence, and admixture in domesticated cattle". PLOS Genet. 10 (3): e1004254. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004254. PMC 3967955. PMID 24675901.
  77. ^ a b Pitt, Daniel; Sevane, Natalia; Nicolazzi, Ezequiel L.; MacHugh, David E.; Park, Stephen D. E.; Colli, Licia; Martinez, Rodrigo; Bruford, Michael W.; Orozco-terWengel, Pablo (2019). "Domestication of cattle: Two or three events?". Evolutionary Applications. 12 (1): 123–136. Bibcode:2019EvApp..12..123P. doi:10.1111/eva.12674. ISSN 1752-4571. PMC 6304694. PMID 30622640.
  78. ^ Ajmone-Marsan, Paolo; Garcia, J.F; Lenstra, Johannes (January 2010). "On the origin of cattle: How aurochs became domestic and colonized the world". Evolutionary Anthropology. 19: 148–157. doi:10.1002/evan.20267. S2CID 86035650. from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
  79. ^ a b Grubb, P. (2005). "Bos taurus". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 637–722. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  80. ^ "Explore the Database". www.mammaldiversity.org. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
  81. ^ Gentry, Anthea; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Groves, Colin P. (1 May 2004). "The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (5): 645–651. Bibcode:2004JArSc..31..645G. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006. ISSN 0305-4403.
  82. ^ Mummolo, Jonathan (11 August 2007). . The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  83. ^ Groves, C. P., 1981. Systematic relationships in the Bovini (Artiodactyla, Bovidae). Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung, 4:264–278., quoted in Grubb, P. (2005). "Genus Bison". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 637–722. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  84. ^ Takeda, Kumiko; et al. (April 2004). "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Nepalese domestic dwarf cattle Lulu". Animal Science Journal. 75 (2): 103–110. doi:10.1111/j.1740-0929.2004.00163.x.
  85. ^ Van Vuure, C.T. 2003. De Oeros – Het spoor terug (in Dutch), Cis van Vuure, Wageningen University and Research Centrum: quoted by The Extinction Website: Bos primigenius primigenius. 20 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  86. ^ Heck, H. (1951). "The Breeding-Back of the Aurochs". Oryx. 1 (3): 117–122. doi:10.1017/S0030605300035286.
  87. ^ Pitt, Daniel; Sevane, Natalia; Nicolazzi, Ezequiel L.; MacHugh, David E.; Park, Stephen D. E.; Colli, Licia; Martinez, Rodrigo; Bruford, Michael W.; Orozco-terWengel, Pablo (January 2019). "Domestication of cattle: Two or three events?". Evolutionary Applications. 12 (1): 123–136. Bibcode:2019EvApp..12..123P. doi:10.1111/eva.12674. PMC 6304694. PMID 30622640.
  88. ^ Strydom, P.E.; Naude, R.T.; Smith, M.F.; Kotze, A.; Scholtz, M.M.; Van Wyk, J.B. (1 March 2001). "Relationships between production and product traits in subpopulations of Bonsmara and Nguni cattle". South African Journal of Animal Science. 31 (3): 181–194. doi:10.4314/sajas.v31i3.3801.
  89. ^ Meghen, C.; MacHugh, D.E.; Bradley, D.G. "Genetic characterization and West African cattle". fao.org. from the original on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  90. ^ "Definition of Feral cattle". from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
  91. ^ Sahagun, Louis (2 March 2018). "Feral cattle terrorize hikers and devour native plants in a California national monument". Los Angeles Times.
  92. ^ "NGRC Bos taurus". www.nodai-genome.org. from the original on 23 February 2016.
  93. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
  94. ^ "葛島（野生化した和牛のいる島） – 奈留島港レンタカー". www.narusima.com. from the original on 14 July 2016.
  95. ^ "牛ばかりいる台湾の孤島・金門島 / 牛による牛のためのモーモーパラダイスだったことが判明". 世界を旅するガイドブック Photrip フォトリップ. from the original on 7 May 2016.
  96. ^ "Science – Chillingham Wild Cattle". chillinghamwildcattle.com. 16 June 2015. from the original on 9 May 2016.
  97. ^ . The Washington Post. 23 October 2005. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  98. ^ a b "2. AFOs and CAFOs". NPDES Permit Writers' Manual for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). February 2012. EPA 833-F-12-001.
  99. ^ Lott, Dale F.; Hart, Benjamin L. (October 1979). "Applied ethology in a nomadic cattle culture". Applied Animal Ethology. 5 (4): 309–319. doi:10.1016/0304-3762(79)90102-0.
  100. ^ Krebs, J.R.; Anderson, T.; Clutton-Brock, W.T.; et al. (1997). (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2004. Retrieved 4 September 2006.
  101. ^ Otter, Chris (2020). Diet for a large planet. USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-226-69710-9.
  102. ^ Bar-On, Yinon M.; Phillips, Rob; Milo, Ron (21 May 2018). "The biomass distribution on Earth". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (25): 6506–6511. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.6506B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711842115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6016768. PMID 29784790.
  103. ^ Cook, Rob (9 January 2024). "Ranking Of Countries With The Most Cattle". National Beef Wire. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  104. ^ "FAOSTAT". www.fao.org. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
  105. ^ "AskUSDA: What is the most consumed meat in the world?". U.S. Department of Agriculture. 17 July 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
  106. ^ "Mapped: Global Livestock Distribution and Density". Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  107. ^ a b "UK Dairy Cows". from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
  108. ^ a b c "Compassion in World Farming: Dairy Cattle". from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
  109. ^ Pearson, R.E.; Fulton, L.A.; Thompson, P.D.; Smith, J.W. (1979). "Milking 3 Times per day". Journal of Dairy Science. 62 (12): 1941–1950. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(79)83526-2. PMID 541464.
  110. ^ Glenza, Jessica (14 February 2018). "Transgender woman able to breastfeed in first documented case". The Guardian. from the original on 13 November 2023.
  111. ^ Reisman, Tamar; Goldstein, Zil (2018). "Case Report: Induced Lactation in a Transgender Woman". Transgender Health. 3 (1): 24–26. doi:10.1089/trgh.2017.0044. PMC 5779241. PMID 29372185.
  112. ^ "About calves reared for veal". Compassion in World Farming. from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
  113. ^ "Major producers of cow milk worldwide in 2023, by country". Statista. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  114. ^ "Buffalo Milk". Tridge. Retrieved 14 February 2024. FAO Code: 0951 - Raw milk of buffalo
  115. ^ "India Largest Producer of Milk in the World". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 1 June 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  116. ^ "World Statistical Compendium for raw hides and skins, leather and leather footwear 1993-2012" (PDF). FAO. (PDF) from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
  117. ^ Taylor, Tess (3 May 2011). "On Small Farms, Hoof Power Return s". The New York Times. from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
  118. ^ Muruvimi, F. and J. Ellis-Jones. 1999. A farming systems approach to improving draft animal power in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Starkey, P. and P. Kaumbutho. 1999. Meeting the challenges of animal traction. Intermediate Technology Publications, London. pp. 10–19.
  119. ^ Phaniraja, K. L. and H. H. Panchasara. 2009. Indian draught animals power. Veterinary World 2:404–407.
  120. ^ Nicholson, C. F, R. W. Blake, R. S. Reid and J. Schelhas. 2001. Environmental impacts of livestock in the developing world. Environment 43(2): 7–17.
  121. ^ "Ectoparasites of Cattle". NADIS Animal Health Skills. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  122. ^ "Diseases that affect cattle". Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  123. ^ (PDF). Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture. December 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 8 April 2008.
  124. ^ VanHoy, Grace (June 2023). "Common Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle". MSD Manual. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  125. ^ Çaylı, Ali M.; Arslan, Bilge (7 February 2022). "Analysis of the Thermal Environment and Determination of Heat Stress Periods for Dairy Cattle Under Eastern Mediterranean Climate Conditions". Journal of Biosystems Engineering. 47: 39–47. doi:10.1007/s42853-021-00126-6. S2CID 246655199.
  126. ^ a b c Lacetera, Nicola (3 January 2019). "Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare". Animal Frontiers. 9 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1093/af/vfy030. ISSN 2160-6056. PMC 6951873. PMID 32002236.
  127. ^ Lecchi, Cristina; Rota, Nicola; Vitali, Andrea; Ceciliani, Fabrizio; Lacetera, Nicola (December 2016). "In vitro assessment of the effects of temperature on phagocytosis, reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis in bovine polymorphonuclear cells". Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology. 182: 89–94. doi:10.1016/j.vetimm.2016.10.007. hdl:2434/454100. PMID 27863557.
  128. ^ Goulson, Dave; Derwent, Lara C.; Hanley, Michael E.; Dunn, Derek W.; Abolins, Steven R. (5 September 2005). "Predicting calyptrate fly populations from the weather, and probable consequences of climate change". Journal of Applied Ecology. 42 (5): 795–804. Bibcode:2005JApEc..42..795G. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01078.x. S2CID 3892520.
  129. ^ Nava, Santiago; Gamietea, Ignacio J.; Morel, Nicolas; Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Estrada-Pena, Agustin (6 July 2022). "Assessment of habitat suitability for the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus in temperate areas". Research in Veterinary Science. 150: 10–21. doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.04.020. PMID 35803002. S2CID 250252036.
  130. ^ "Common and important diseases of cattle". from the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
  131. ^ "Identification of new cattle virus will help rule out mad cow disease". Retrieved 17 November 2013.
  132. ^ "Cattle Diseases". from the original on 25 November 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
  133. ^ "Cattle Disease Guide". Retrieved 4 December 2013.
  134. ^ Harvey, Fiona (17 May 2011). "Easing of farming regulations could allow milk from TB-infected cattle into food chain". The Guardian. from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
  135. ^ "Methane vs Carbon Dioxide: A Greenhouse Gas Showdown". One Green Planet. 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
  136. ^ Myhre, Gunnar (2013), "Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing" (PDF), Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2017, retrieved 22 December 2016. See Table 8.7.
  137. ^ IPCC. 2007. Fourth Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
  138. ^ . FAO. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
  139. ^ "Treating beef like coal would make a big dent in greenhouse-gas emissions". The Economist. 2 October 2021. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 3 November 2021.
  140. ^ IPCC. 2001. Third Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group I: The Scientific Basis. Table 4.2
  141. ^ Steinfeld, Henning; Gerber, Pierre; Wassenaar, T. D.; Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United; Castel, Vincent; Rosales, Mauricio; M, Mauricio Rosales; Haan, Cees de (2006). Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Food & Agriculture Org. ISBN 978-92-5-105571-7.
  142. ^ US EPA. 2012. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gase emissions and sinks: 1990–2010. US. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-12-001. Section 6.2.
  143. ^ Bradford, S. A., E. Segal, W. Zheng, Q. Wang, and S. R. Hutchins. 2008. Reuse of concentrated animal feeding operation wastewater on agricultural lands. J. Env. Qual. 37 (supplement): S97-S115.
  144. ^ Koelsch, Richard; Balvanz, Carol; George, John; Meyer, Dan; Nienaber, John; Tinker, Gene. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  145. ^ "Ikerd, John. The Economics of CAFOs & Sustainable Alternatives". Web.missouri.edu. from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  146. ^ "Gurian-Sherman, Doug. CAFOs Uncovered: The Untold Costs of Confined Animal Feeding Operations" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  147. ^ Filazzola, Alessandro; et al. (2020). "The effects of livestock grazing on biodiversity are multi-trophic: a meta-analysis". Ecology Letters. 23 (8): 1298–1309. doi:10.1111/ele.13527. PMID 32369874.
  148. ^ Schwartzkopf-Genswein, K. S.; Stookey, J. M.; Welford, R. (1 August 1997). "Behavior of cattle during hot-iron and freeze branding and the effects on subsequent handling ease". Journal of Animal Science. 75 (8): 2064–2072. doi:10.2527/1997.7582064x. ISSN 0021-8812. PMID 9263052.
  149. ^ Coetzee, Hans (19 May 2013). Pain Management, An Issue of Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-4557-7376-3.
  150. ^ . www.avma.org. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  151. ^ Goode, Erica (25 January 2012). "Ear-Tagging Proposal May Mean Fewer Branded Cattle". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  152. ^ Grandin, Temple (21 July 2015). Improving Animal Welfare, 2 Edition: A Practical Approach. CABI. ISBN 978-1-78064-467-7.
  153. ^ "Restraint of Livestock". www.grandin.com. from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  154. ^ Doyle, Rebecca; Moran, John (3 February 2015). Cow Talk: Understanding Dairy Cow Behaviour to Improve Their Welfare on Asian Farms. Csiro Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4863-0162-1.
  155. ^ McKenna, C. (2001). "The case against the veal crate: An examination of the scientific evidence that led to the banning of the veal crate system in the EU and of the alternative group housed systems that are better for calves, farmers and consumers" (PDF). Compassion in World Farming. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
  156. ^ "Using Prods and Persuaders Properly to Handle Cattle, Pigs, and Sheep". grandin.com. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  157. ^ "Cattle". awionline.org. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  158. ^ Grant, R. (2011). "Taking advantage of natural behavior improves dairy cow performance". from the original on 2 December 2016.
  159. ^ Huzzey, J.; Keyserlingk, M.; Overton, T. (2012). "The behaviour and physiological consequences of overstocking dairy cattle". American Association of Bovine Practitioners: 92–97. doi:10.21423/aabppro20123879. S2CID 203405605.
  160. ^ Tyler, J.W; Fox, L.K.; Parish, S.M.; Swain, J.; Johnson, D.J.; Grassechi, H.A. (1997). "Effect of feed availability on post-milking standing time in dairy cows". Journal of Dairy Research. 64 (4): 617–620. doi:10.1017/s0022029997002501. PMID 9403771. S2CID 41754001.
  161. ^ Schefers, J.M.; Weigel, K.A.; Rawson, C.L.; Zwald, N.R.; Cook, N.B. (2010). "Management practices associated with conception rate and service rate of lactating Holstein cows in large, commercial dairy herds". Journal of Dairy Science. 93 (4): 1459–1467. doi:10.3168/jds.2009-2015. PMID 20338423.
  162. ^ Grant, R. (2011). "Taking advantage of natural behavior improves dairy cow performance". from the original on 2 December 2016.
  163. ^ Grandin, Temple (1 December 2016). "Evaluation of the welfare of cattle housed in outdoor feedlot pens". Veterinary and Animal Science. 1–2: 23–28. doi:10.1016/j.vas.2016.11.001. ISSN 2451-943X. PMC 7386639. PMID 32734021.
  164. ^ "Animal Cruelty – Beef". www.veganpeace.com. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  165. ^ a b Vegetarian Society. "Cattle". Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  166. ^ "EFSA: house calves in small groups to improve welfare". European Food Safety Authority. 29 March 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  167. ^ AP, Michael Smith / (17 July 2008). "Animal rights group targets popular rodeo". msnbc.com. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  168. ^ (in Catalan). 1 August 2005. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  169. ^ Antebi, Andres. "Passion for bulls in the street" (in Catalan). Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  170. ^ . League Against Cruel Sports. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011.
    • "ICABS calls on Vodafone to drop bullfighting from ad". www.banbloodsports.com.
    • . www.english.stieren.net. Archived from the original on 26 January 2009.
  171. ^ Gustavo A Slafer; Jose Luis Molina-Cano; Roxana Savin; Jose Luis Araus; Ignacio Romagosa (2002). Barley Science: Recent Advances from Molecular Biology to Agronomy of Yield and Quality. CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-56022-910-0.
  172. ^ a b Glyn Davies; Julian Hodge Bank (2002). A history of money: from ancient times to the present day. University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1717-4.
  173. ^ Huerta de Soto, Jesús (2006). Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles. Ludwig von Mises Institute. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-61016-388-0.
  174. ^ Jha, D. N. (2002). The myth of the holy cow. London: Verso. pp. 20, 130. ISBN 978-1-85984-676-6.
  175. ^ Swamy, Subramanian (19 January 2016). "Save the cow, save earth". The New Indian Express. from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
  176. ^ Zuffi, Stefano (2003). "The Evangelists and their symbols". Gospel Figures in Art. Getty Publications. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-89236-727-6.
  177. ^ Diane Morgan (2010). Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice. ABC-CLIO. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-313-36025-1.
  178. ^ Thomas Hughes (1995) [first published in 1885]. Dictionary of Islam. Asian Educational Services. p. 364. ISBN 9788120606722.
  179. ^ "Taurus". The Warburg Institute. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
  180. ^ Madden, Thomas (May 1992). "Akabeko 21 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine". OUTLOOK. Online copy accessed 18 January 2007.
  181. ^ "Cuthbert's Move to Durham: Two Stories". Durham Castle and Cathedral. Retrieved 12 February 2024.

Further reading

 
Wikispecies has information related to Cattle.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bos taurus.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bull (cattle).
  • Cattle Today. 2006. Breeds of beef cattle.
  • Johns, Catherine. 2011 Cattle: History, Myth, Art. London: The British Museum Press. 978-0-7141-5084-0.
  • Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006. Breeds of Cattle. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
  • Purdy, Herman R.; R. John Dawes; Robert Hough (2008). Breeds Of Cattle (2nd ed.). – A visual textbook containing History/Origin, Phenotype & Statistics of 45 breeds.
  • Rath, S. 1998. The Complete Cow. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-89658-375-9.

February 16, 2024
cattle, cows, redirect, here, other, uses, disambiguation, disambiguation, taurus, cattle, redirects, here, breeding, project, taurus, project, taurus, large, domesticated, bovid, ungulates, widely, kept, livestock, they, prominent, modern, members, subfamily,. Cow and Cows redirect here For other uses see Cattle disambiguation and Cow disambiguation Taurus cattle redirects here For the breeding project see Taurus Project Cattle Bos taurus are large domesticated bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos Mature female cattle are called cows and mature male cattle are bulls Young female cattle heifers young male cattle oxen or bullocks and castrated male cattle steers are all colloquially called cows CattleA brown Swiss Fleckvieh cow wearing a cowbellConservation statusDomesticatedScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder ArtiodactylaFamily BovidaeSubfamily BovinaeGenus BosSpecies B taurusBinomial nameBos taurusLinnaeus 1758Bovine distributionSynonymsBos primigenius taurus Bos longifronsCattle are commonly raised for meat for dairy products and for leather As draft animals they pull carts and farm implements In India cattle are sacred animals Small breeds such as the miniature Zebu are kept as pets Taurine cattle are widely distributed across Europe and temperate areas of Asia the Americas and Australia Zebus are found mainly in India and tropical areas of Asia America and Australia Sanga cattle are found primarily in sub Saharan Africa These types sometimes classified as separate species or subspecies are further divided into over 1 000 recognized breeds Around 10 500 years ago taurine cattle were domesticated from wild aurochs progenitors in central Anatolia the Levant and Western Iran A separate domestication event occurred in the Indian subcontinent which gave rise to zebu There were over 940 million cattle in the world in 2022 Cattle are responsible for around 10 of global greenhouse gas emissions Cattle were one of the first domesticated animals to have a fully mapped genome Contents 1 Etymology 2 Characteristics 2 1 Description 2 2 Digestive system 2 3 Reproduction 2 4 Cognition 2 5 Senses 3 Behavior 3 1 Dominance hierarchy 3 2 Grazing behavior 3 3 Temperament and emotions 3 4 Sleep 4 Genetics 5 Evolution 5 1 Phylogeny 5 2 Taxonomy 6 Husbandry 6 1 Practices 6 2 Population 7 Economy 7 1 Meat 7 2 Dairy 7 3 Hides 7 4 Draft animals 8 Health 8 1 Pests and diseases 8 2 Effect of climate change 9 Impact of cattle husbandry 9 1 On public health 9 2 On the environment 9 3 On animal welfare 10 In culture 11 See also 12 References 13 Further readingEtymologyFurther information List of cattle terminology The term Cattle was borrowed from Anglo Norman catel itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money capital itself derived in turn from Latin caput head Cattle originally meant movable personal property especially livestock of any kind as opposed to real property the land which also included wild or small free roaming animals such as chickens they were sold as part of the land 1 2 The word is a variant of chattel a unit of personal property and closely related to capital in the economic sense 3 4 2 The word cow came via Anglo Saxon cu plural cȳ from Common Indo European gʷōus genitive gʷowes a bovine animal cf Persian gav Sanskrit go Welsh buwch 5 In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible cattle means livestock as opposed to deer which are wild 2 CharacteristicsDescription nbsp Skeleton nbsp Anatomical model showing the large 4 chambered stomach Cattle are large artiodactyls mammals with cloven hooves 6 kept on farms to produce meat milk and leather and sometimes to pull carts or farm implements 7 Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms British Hereford cows for example weigh 600 800 kg 1 300 1 800 lb while the bulls weigh 1 000 1 200 kg 2 200 2 600 lb 8 Before 1790 beef cattle averaged only 160 kg 350 lb net Thereafter weights climbed steadily 9 10 11 The natural life of domestic cattle is some 25 30 years Beef cattle go to slaughter at around 18 months and dairy cows at about five years 12 Digestive system Further information Digestive system of ruminants Cattle are ruminants meaning their digestive system is highly specialized for processing plant material such as grass rich in cellulose a tough carbohydrate polymer which many animals cannot digest They do this in symbiosis with micro organisms bacteria fungi and protozoa that possess cellulases enzymes that split cellulose into its constituent sugars Among the many bacteria that contribute are Fibrobacter succinogenes Ruminococcus flavefaciens and Ruminococcus albus Cellulolytic fungi include several species of Neocallimastix while the protozoa include the ciliates Eudiplodinium maggie and Ostracodinium album 13 Cattle have one large stomach with four compartments the rumen reticulum omasum and abomasum The rumen is the largest compartment The reticulum the smallest compartment is known as the honeycomb The omasum s main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed The abomasum has a similar function to the human stomach 14 Cattle regurgitate and re chew their food in the process of chewing the cud like most ruminants While feeding cows swallow their food without chewing it goes into the rumen for storage Later the food is regurgitated to the mouth a mouthful at a time where the cud is chewed by the molars grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by the micro organisms in the cow s stomach 14 Reproduction nbsp A cow giving birthThe gestation period for a cow is about nine months long The ratio of male to female offspring at birth is approximately 52 48 15 A cow s udder has two pairs of mammary glands or teats 16 Farms often use artificial insemination the artificial deposition of semen in the female s genital tract this allows farmers to choose from a wide range of bulls to breed their cattle Estrus too may be artificially induced to facilitate the process 17 Cows seek secluded areas for calving 18 Semi wild Highland cattle heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality Average calving interval is 391 days and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5 19 Beef calves suckle an average of 5 times per day spending some 46 minutes suckling There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling peaking at roughly 6am 11 30am and 7pm 20 Under natural conditions calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life 21 Cognition Cattle have a variety of cognitive abilities They can memorize the locations of multiple food sources 22 young cattle learn more quickly than adults 23 24 and can retain memories for at least 48 days 25 26 Calves are capable of discrimination learning 27 28 distinguishing familiar and unfamiliar animals 29 and between humans using faces and other cues 30 31 Calves prefer their own mother s vocalizations to those of an unfamiliar mother 32 Vocalizations provide information on the age sex dominance status and reproductive status of the caller and may indicate estrus in cows and competitive display in bulls 33 Cows can categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals 29 Cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups suggesting that kin discrimination may be a basis of grouping behaviour 34 Cattle use visual brain lateralisation when scanning novel and familiar stimuli 35 They prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye using the right brain hemisphere but the right eye for familiar stimuli 36 Senses Vision is the dominant sense cattle obtain almost half of their information visually 37 Being prey animals cattle evolved to look out for predators almost all round with eyes are on the sides of their head rather than the front This gives them a field of view of 330 but limits binocular vision and therefore stereopsis to some 30 to 50 compared to 140 in humans 29 38 They are dichromatic like most mammals 39 Cattle avoid bitter tasting foods selecting sweet foods for energy Their sensitivity to sour tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal pH 37 They seek out salty foods by taste and smell to maintain their electrolyte balance 40 41 Their hearing is better than that of horses 42 but less good at localising sounds than goats and much less good than dogs or humans 43 Olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life indicating social and reproductive status 37 44 Cattle can tell when other animals are stressed by smelling the alarm chemicals in their urine 45 The odour of dog faeces induces behavioural changes prior to cattle feeding 46 Cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only 44 BehaviorDominance hierarchy Cattle live in a dominance hierarchy This is maintained in several ways Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other s strength in a non aggressive way Licking is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus 47 however this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species 19 Dominance associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position but is closely related to rank distance between individuals 19 The horns of cattle are honest signals used in mate selection Horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle resulting in more stable social relationships 48 In calves agonistic behavior becomes less frequent as space allowance increases but not as group size changes whereas in adults the number of agonistic encounters increases with group size 49 Dominance relationships in semi wild highland cattle are very firm with few overt aggressive conflicts most disputes are settled by agonistic non aggressive competitive behaviors with no physical contact between opponents reducing the risk of injury Dominance status depends on age and sex with older animals usually dominant to young ones and males dominant to females Young bulls gain superior dominance status over adult cows when they reach about 2 years of age 19 Grazing behavior Cattle eat mixed diets but prefer to eat approximately 70 clover and 30 grass This preference has a diurnal pattern with a stronger preference for clover in the morning and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening 50 When grazing cattle vary several aspects of their bite i e tongue and jaw movements depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue in one study observing 750 kilogram 1 650 lb steers bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm2 30 sq in Bite depth increases with the height of the plants By adjusting their behavior cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short dense swards of equal mass area 51 Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage 52 Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep 53 but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbits 54 Temperament and emotions nbsp Ear postures of cows indicate emotional state and overall welfare 55 In cattle temperament or behavioral disposition can affect productivity overall health and reproduction 56 Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed shyness boldness exploration avoidance activity aggressiveness and sociability 57 Different studies have found many indicators of emotion in cattle Holstein Friesian heifers that had made clear improvements in a learning experiment had higher heart rates indicating an emotional reaction to their own learning 58 After separation from their mothers Holstein calves reacted negatively indicating low mood 59 Similarly after hot iron dehorning calves reacted negatively to the post operative pain 60 The position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state 29 Cattle can tell when othercattle are stressed by the chemicals in their urine 45 Cattle are gregarious and even short term isolation causes psychological stress When heifers are isolated vocalizations heart rate and plasma cortisol all increase When visual contact is re instated vocalizations rapidly decline heart rate decreases more rapidly if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual 61 Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle 62 Sleep Further information Sleep in non human animals The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day 63 Cattle do have a stay apparatus 64 but do not sleep standing up 65 they lie down to sleep deeply 66 GeneticsFurther information Bovine genome On 24 April 2009 edition of the journal Science a team of researchers led by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Agriculture reported having mapped the bovine genome 67 The scientists found cattle have about 22 000 genes and 80 of their genes are shared with humans they have about 1000 genes that they share with dogs and rodents but not with humans Using this bovine HapMap researchers can track the differences between the breeds that affect the quality of meat and milk yields 68 Behavioral traits of cattle can be as heritable as some production traits and often the two can be related 69 The heritability of fear varies markedly in cattle from low 0 1 to high 0 53 such high variation is also found in pigs and sheep probably due to differences in the methods used 70 The heritability of temperament response to isolation during handling has been calculated as 0 36 and 0 46 for habituation to handling 71 Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0 36 72 Quantitative trait loci have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle 73 EvolutionPhylogeny Cattle have played a key role in human history having been domesticated since at least the early neolithic age Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs Bos primigenius approximately 10 500 years ago There were two major areas of domestication one in central Anatolia the Levant and Western Iran giving rise to the taurine line and a second in the area that is now Pakistan resulting in the indicine line 74 Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80 aurochs tamed in the upper reaches of Mesopotamia near the villages of Cayonu Tepesi in what is now southeastern Turkey and Dja de el Mughara in what is now northern Syria 75 Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage gene flow from African cattle partially of indicine origin contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants 74 A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa Asia North and South America Australia and Europe 76 Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from the North African aurochs 74 Whether there have been two or three domestications European African and Asian cattle share much of their genomes both through their species ancestry and through repeated migrations of livestock and genetic material between species as shown in the diagram 77 nbsp Cattle phylogeny and migrations involve two major species at least two domestications and migrations between these 77 Taxonomy See also Bos and Bovinae nbsp Zubron a European bison cattle hybridCattle were originally identified as three separate species Bos taurus the European or taurine cattle including similar types from Africa and Asia Bos indicus the Indicine or zebu and the extinct Bos primigenius the aurochs The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle 78 They were later reclassified as one species Bos taurus with the aurochs B t primigenius zebu B t indicus and taurine B t taurus cattle as subspecies 79 However this taxonomy is contentious and some sources prefer the separate species classification such as the American Society of Mammalogists Mammal Diversity Database 80 81 Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist not only between taurine cattle and zebu such as the sanga cattle Bos taurus africanus x Bos indicus but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos yaks the dzo or yattle 82 banteng and gaur Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos as well 83 The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious for example genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed the only taurine type cattle in Nepal found them to be a mix of taurine cattle zebu and yak 84 The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe North Africa and much of Asia In historical times its range became restricted to Europe and the last known individual died in Mazovia Poland in about 1627 85 Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to the aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle creating the Heck breed 86 A group of taurine type cattle exist in Africa they either represent an independent domestication event or were the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs but they are genetically distinct 87 some authors name them as a separate subspecies Bos taurus africanus 88 The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are the N Dama Kuri and some varieties of the West African Shorthorn 89 Feral cattle are those that have been allowed to go wild 90 Populations exist in many parts of the world 91 92 sometimes on small islands 93 94 95 Some such as Amsterdam Island cattle 79 Chillingham cattle 96 and Aleutian wild cattle have become sufficiently distinct to be described as breeds 97 HusbandryPractices Further information Animal husbandry nbsp In concentrated animal feeding operations the cattle are not allowed to wander and graze as food is brought to them in a feedlot 98 Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland Raising cattle in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops The most common interactions with cattle involve daily feeding cleaning and milking Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging dehorning loading medical operations artificial insemination vaccinations and hoof care as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations Around the world Fulani husbandry rests on behavioural techniques whereas in Europe cattle are controlled primarily by physical means such as fences 99 Breeders use cattle husbandry to reduce tuberculosis susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease 100 In the United States many cattle are kept in concentrated animal feeding operations meaning there are at least 700 mature dairy cows or at least 1000 other cattle stabled or confined in a feedlot for 45 days or more in a 12 month period 98 nbsp A Hereford being inspected for ticks Cattle are often restrained or confined in cattle crushes squeeze chutes when given medical attention nbsp A calf with a nose ring to prevent it from suckling usually to assist in weaning nbsp Cattle feedlot in Colorado United StatesPopulation Historically the cattle population of Britain rose from 9 8 million in 1878 to 11 7 million in 1908 but beef consumption rose much faster Britain became the stud farm of the world exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle In 1929 80 of the meat trade of the world was products of what were originally English breeds There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s 101 Cattle have the largest biomass of any animal species on Earth at roughly 400 million tonnes followed closely by Antarctic krill at 379 million tonnes and humans at 373 million tonnes 102 In 2023 the countries with the most cattle were India with 307 5 million 32 6 of the total Brazil with 194 4 million and China with 101 5 million out of a total of 942 6 million in the world 103 EconomyMeat Further information Beef cattle and Beef The meat of adult cattle is known as beef and that of calves is veal Other animal parts are used as food products including blood liver kidney heart and oxtail Approximately 300 million cattle including dairy animals are slaughtered each year for food 104 About a quarter of the world s meat comes from cattle 105 World cattle meat production in 2021 was 72 3 million tons 106 nbsp The Hereford is a widespread beef breed introduced in the 18th century nbsp Australian Droughtmaster cattle on an extensive farm in Queensland nbsp Aberdeen Angus a popular small breed here in Austria with a traditional cattle bellFAO data for 2021 nbsp Cattle is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwide nbsp Beef has the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity nbsp Production of beef worldwide by country in 2021 Dairy Main articles Dairy cattle and Dairy product Certain breeds of cattle such as the Holstein Friesian are used to produce milk 107 108 much of which is processed into dairy products such as butter cheese and yogurt Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk production Most cows are milked twice per day with milk processed at a dairy which may be onsite at the farm or the milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product 109 Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation by drugs or by a combination of those methods 110 111 For mother cows to continue producing milk they give birth to one calf per year If the calf is male it generally is slaughtered at a young age to produce veal 112 They will continue to produce milk until three weeks before birth 108 Over the last fifty years dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow The Holstein Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK Europe and the United States It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow Around 22 litres per day is average in the UK 107 108 Dairy is a large industry worldwide In 2023 the 27 European Union countries produced 143 million tons of cow s milk the United States 104 1 million tons and India 99 5 million tons 113 India further produces 94 4 million tons of buffalo milk 114 making it in 2023 the world s largest milk producer its dairy industry employs some 80 million people 115 nbsp Holstein cattle are the primary dairy breed bred for high milk production nbsp The milking of cattle was once largely by hand Demonstration at Cobbes Farm Museum England nbsp A modern rotary milking parlour GermanyFAO data for 2021 nbsp World production of bovine milk cow buffalo Hides Cattle are not often kept solely for hides which are usually a by product of beef production Hides are used mainly for leather for products such as shoes In 2012 India was the world s largest producer of cattle hides 116 Draft animals Further information Ox nbsp Oxen used in traditional ploughing KarnatakaOxen are cattle trained as draft animals Oxen can pull heavier loads and for a longer period of time than horses 117 Oxen are used worldwide especially in developing countries There are some 11 million draft oxen in sub Saharan Africa 118 while in 1998 India had over 65 million oxen 119 At the start of the 21st century about half the world s crop production depended on land preparation by draft animals 120 HealthPests and diseases Further information Veterinary medicine Cattle are subject to pests including arthropod parasites such as ticks which can in turn transmit diseases caused by bacteria and protozoa 121 and diseases caused by pathogens including bacteria and viruses Some such as bluetongue are viral diseases spread by insects in its case by midges Psoroptic mange is a disabling skin condition caused by mites Bovine tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium it causes disease in humans and in wild animals such as deer and badgers 122 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is a neurodegenerative disease spread by a prion a misfolded brain protein in contaminated meat 123 Among the intestinal parasites of cattle are Paramphistomum flukes affecting the rumen and hookworms in the small intestine 124 Effect of climate change Main article Effects of climate change on livestock Climate change is expected to exacerbate heat stress in cattle and for longer periods 125 Heat stressed cattle may experience accelerated breakdown of adipose tissue by the liver causing lipidosis 126 Cattle eat less when heat stressed resulting in ruminal acidosis which can lead to laminitis Cattle can attempt to deal with higher temperatures by panting more often this rapidly decreases carbon dioxide concentrations at the price of increasing pH respiratory alkalosis To deal with this cattle are forced to shed bicarbonate through urination at the expense of rumen buffering These two pathologies can both cause lameness 126 Another specific risk is mastitis 126 127 This worsens as Calliphora blowflies increase in number with continued warming spreading mastitis causing bacteria 128 Ticks too are likely to increase in temperate zones as the climate warms increasing the risk of tick borne diseases 129 Impact of cattle husbandryOn public health Cattle diseases were at the center of attention in the 1980s and 1990s when bovine spongiform encephalopathy mad cow disease was of concern 130 131 132 Cattle health is at once a veterinary issue for animal welfare and productivity a public health issue to limit the spread of disease and a food safety issue to ensure meat and dairy products are safe to eat These concerns are reflected in farming regulations 133 These rules can become political matters as when it was proposed in the UK in 2011 that milk from tuberculosis infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain 134 On the environment Main article Environmental impact of cattle production The gut flora of cattle produce methane a powerful 135 greenhouse gas as a byproduct of enteric fermentation which cattle belch out 136 137 Livestock production creates around 14 5 of greenhouse gas emissions some 65 of which is due to cattle 138 139 140 141 Additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of stored manure 142 Concentrated animal feeding operations in particular produce substantial amounts of wastewater and manure 143 144 which can cause environmental harms such as soil erosion human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E coli contamination 145 146 In many world regions overgrazing by cattle has reduced biodiversity of the grazed plants and of animals at different trophic levels in the ecosystem 147 On animal welfare Further information Cruelty to animals Welfare concerns of farm animals Cattle husbandry practices including branding 148 castration 149 dehorning 150 ear tagging 151 nose ringing 152 restraint 153 tail docking 154 the use of veal crates 155 and cattle prods 156 have raised welfare concerns 157 Stocking density is the number of animals within a specified area High stocking density can affect cattle health welfare productivity 158 and feeding behaviour 159 Densely stocked cattle feed more rapidly and lie down sooner increasing the risk of teat infection mastitis and embryo loss 160 161 The stress and negative health impacts induced by high stocking density such as in concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots auctions and transport may be detrimental to cattle welfare 162 163 164 To produce milk from dairy cattle most calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and fed milk replacement in order to retain the cows milk for human consumption 165 Animal welfare advocates are critical of this practice stating that this breaks the natural bond between the mother and her calf 165 The welfare of veal calves is also a concern 166 Two sports involving cattle are thought to be cruel by animal welfare groups rodeos and bullfighting Such groups oppose rodeo activities including bull riding calf roping and steer roping stating that rodeos are unnecessary and cause stress injury and death to the animals 167 In Spain the Running of the bulls faces opposition due to the stress and injuries incurred by the bulls during the event 168 169 Bullfighting is opposed as a blood sport in which bulls are forced to suffer severe stress and death 170 In cultureAs early as 9000 BC cattle were used as money or traded in barter 171 172 173 One of the advantages of using cattle as currency is that it allows the seller to set a fixed price 172 Cattle play a part in several religions Veneration of the cow is a symbol of Hindu community identity 174 especially since the end of the 19th century Slaughter of cows including oxen bulls and calves is forbidden by law in several states of the Indian Union McDonald s outlets in India do not serve beef In Maharaja Ranjit Singh s empire of the early 19th century the killing of a cow was punishable by death 175 In Christian art the Evangelist St Luke is symbolised as an ox 176 The second and longest surah of the Quran is named Al Baqara The Cow it mentions cows seven times 177 178 The Ox is one of the 12 year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac The astrological sign Taurus is represented as a bull in the Western zodiac 179 The akabeko 赤べこ red cow is a traditional toy from the Aizu region of Japan that is thought to ward off illness 180 nbsp St Luke the evangelist depicted with a bull in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle nbsp A legend claims that monks carrying the body of Saint Cuthbert were led by a milk maid who had lost her dun cow They built Durham Cathedral where it was found 181 nbsp Dutch Golden Age painting Young Herdsman with Cows by Aelbert Cuyp 1655 60 nbsp An evening at the hut of the cow herdesses Knud Bergslien before 1858 nbsp Bull in the coat of arms of Turin ItalySee also1966 anti cow slaughter agitation Category Individual cattle British Cattle Health Initiative Bull baiting Bullocky Bulls and Cows game Cattle age determination Cowboy List of cattle breedsReferences Harper Douglas cattle Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 18 July 2021 a b c cattle n Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press September 2014 Subscription or participating institution membership required Harper Douglas chattel Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 18 July 2021 Harper Douglas capital Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 18 July 2021 cow n 1 Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press September 2014 Subscription or participating institution membership required Artiodactyla Science Direct Retrieved 14 February 2024 Cattle Food and Agriculture Organization Retrieved 14 February 2024 Hereford cattle weight Archived from the original on 24 January 2015 American Economic Growth and Standards of Living before the Civil War Robert E Gallman John Joseph Wallis 2007 p 248 Cattle increasing in size Beef Magazine February 2009 Archived from the original on 3 May 2015 Retrieved 5 May 2015 Mathews Kenneth H 1999 U S Beef Industry Cattle Cycles Price Spreads and Packer concentration US Department of Agriculture p 6 Cattle factsheet RSPCA Retrieved 13 February 2024 Hua Dengke Hendriks Wouter H Xiong Benhai Pellikaan Wilbert F 3 November 2022 Starch and Cellulose Degradation in the Rumen and Applications of Metagenomics on Ruminal Microorganisms Animals 12 21 3020 doi 10 3390 ani12213020 ISSN 2076 2615 PMC 9653558 PMID 36359144 a b Orr Adam I 28 June 2023 How Cows Eat Grass Exploring Cow Digestion Food and Drug Administration Retrieved 13 February 2024 Roche J R Lee J M Berry D P 2006 Pre Conception Energy Balance and Secondary Sex Ratio Partial Support for the Trivers Willard Hypothesis in Dairy Cows Journal of Dairy Science American Dairy Science Association 89 6 2119 2125 doi 10 3168 jds s0022 0302 06 72282 2 ISSN 0022 0302 PMID 16702278 Hasheider Phillip 25 June 2011 The Family Cow Handbook Voyageur Press ISBN 978 0 7603 4067 7 Hopper Richard M 2014 32 Artificial Insemination 33 Pharmacological Intervention of Estrous Cycles Bovine Reproduction Wiley ISBN 978 1 118 47085 5 Edwards S A Broom D M 1982 Behavioural interactions of dairy cows with their newborn calves and the effects of parity Animal Behaviour 30 2 525 535 doi 10 1016 s0003 3472 82 80065 1 S2CID 53145854 a b c d Reinhardt C Reinhardt A Reinhardt V 1986 Social behaviour and reproductive performance in semi wild Scottish Highland cattle Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15 2 125 136 doi 10 1016 0168 1591 86 90058 4 Odde K G Kiracofe G H Schalles R R 1985 Suckling behavior in range beef calves Journal of Animal Science 61 2 307 309 doi 10 2527 jas1985 612307x PMID 4044428 Johnsen J F Ellingsen K Grondahl A M Boe K E Lidfors L Mejdell C M 2015 The effect of physical contact between dairy cows and calves during separation on their post separation behavioural Applied Animal Behaviour Science 166 11 19 doi 10 1016 j applanim 2015 03 002 Archived PDF from the original on 7 July 2017 Bailey D W Rittenhouse L R Hart R H Richards R W 1989 Characteristics of spatial memory in cattle Applied Animal Behaviour Science 23 4 331 340 doi 10 1016 0168 1591 89 90101 9 Kovalcik K Kovalcik M 1986 Learning ability and memory testing in cattle of different ages Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15 1 27 29 doi 10 1016 0168 1591 86 90019 5 Mendl M Nicol C J 2009 Chapter 5 Learning and cognition In Jensen P ed The Ethology of Domestic Animals An Introductory Text CABI pp 61 63 Ksiksi T Laca E A 2002 Cattle do remember locations of preferred food over extended periods Asian Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 15 6 900 904 doi 10 5713 ajas 2002 900 Hirata M Takeno N 2014 Do cattle Bos taurus retain an association of a visual cue with a food reward for a year Animal Science Journal 85 6 729 734 doi 10 1111 asj 12210 PMID 24798642 Schaeffer R G Sikes J D 1971 Discrimination learning in dairy calves Journal of Dairy Science 54 6 893 896 doi 10 3168 jds s0022 0302 71 85937 4 PMID 5141440 Kilgour R 1981 Use of the Hebb Williams closed field test to study the learning ability of Jersey cows Animal Behaviour 29 3 850 860 doi 10 1016 s0003 3472 81 80020 6 S2CID 53153428 a b c d Coulon M Baudoin C Heyman Y Deputte B L 2011 Cattle discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics by using only head visual cues Animal Cognition 14 2 279 290 doi 10 1007 s10071 010 0361 6 PMID 21132446 S2CID 39755371 de Passille A M Rushen J Ladewig J Petherick C 1996 Dairy calves discrimination of people based on previous handling Journal of Animal Science 74 5 969 974 doi 10 2527 1996 745969x PMID 8726728 Mendl M Nicol C J 2009 Chapter 5 Learning and cognition In Jensen P ed The Ethology of Domestic Animals An Introductory Text CABI p 144 Barfield C H Tang Martinez Z Trainer J M 1994 Domestic calves Bos taurus recognize their own mothers by auditory cues Ethology 97 4 257 264 Bibcode 1994Ethol 97 257B doi 10 1111 j 1439 0310 1994 tb01045 x Watts J M Stookey J M 2000 Vocal behaviour in cattle the animal s commentary on its biological processes and welfare Applied Animal Behaviour Science 67 1 15 33 doi 10 1016 S0168 1591 99 00108 2 PMID 10719186 Coulon M Baudoin C Abdi H Heyman Y Deputte B L 2010 Social behavior and kin discrimination in a mixed group of cloned and non cloned heifers Bos taurus Theriogenology 74 9 1596 1603 doi 10 1016 j theriogenology 2010 06 031 PMID 20708240 Phillips C J C Oevermans H Syrett K L Jespersen A Y Pearce G P 2015 Lateralization of behavior in dairy cows in response to conspecifics and novel persons Journal of Dairy Science 98 4 2389 2400 doi 10 3168 jds 2014 8648 PMID 25648820 Robins A Phillips C 2010 Lateralised visual processing in domestic cattle herds responding to novel and familiar stimuli Laterality 15 5 514 534 doi 10 1080 13576500903049324 PMID 19629847 S2CID 13283847 a b c Adamczyk K Gorecka Bruzda A Nowicki J Gumulka M Molik E Schwarz T Klocek C 2015 Perception of environment in farm animals A review Annals of Animal Science 15 3 565 589 doi 10 1515 aoas 2015 0031 Phillips C 2008 Cattle Behaviour and Welfare John Wiley and Sons Jacobs G H Deegan J F Neitz J 1998 Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in cows goats and sheep Vis Neurosci 15 3 581 584 doi 10 1017 s0952523898153154 PMID 9685209 S2CID 3719972 Bell F R Sly J 1983 The olfactory detection of sodium and lithium salts by sodium deficient cattle Physiology and Behavior 31 3 307 312 doi 10 1016 0031 9384 83 90193 2 PMID 6634998 S2CID 34619742 Bell F R 1984 Aspects of ingestive behavior in cattle Journal of Animal Science 59 5 1369 1372 doi 10 2527 jas1984 5951369x PMID 6392276 Heffner R S Heffner H E 1983 Hearing in large mammals Horses Equus caballus and cattle Bos taurus Behavioral Neuroscience 97 2 299 309 doi 10 1037 0735 7044 97 2 299 Heffner R S Heffner H E 1992 Hearing in large mammals sound localization acuity in cattle Bos taurus and goats Capra hircus Journal of Comparative Psychology 106 2 107 113 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 106 2 107 PMID 1600717 a b Bouissou M F Boissy A Le Niendre P Vessier I 2001 The Social Behaviour of Cattle 5 In Keeling L Gonyou H eds Social Behavior in Farm Animals CABI Publishing pp 113 133 a b Boissy A Terlouw C Le Neindre P 1998 Presence of cues from stressed conspecifics increases reactivity to aversive events in cattle evidence for the existence of alarm substances in urine Physiology and Behavior 63 4 489 495 doi 10 1016 s0031 9384 97 00466 6 PMID 9523888 S2CID 36904002 Terlouw E C Boissy A Blinet P 1998 Behavioural responses of cattle to the odours of blood and urine from conspecifics and to the odour of faeces from carnivores Applied Animal Behaviour Science 57 1 9 21 doi 10 1016 s0168 1591 97 00122 6 Signs of Heat Heat Detection and Timing of Insemination for Cattle Heat Detection and Timing of Insemination for Cattle Penn State Extension Archived from the original on 5 November 2016 Knierim U Irrgang N Roth B A 2015 To be or not to be horned consequences in cattle Livestock Science 179 29 37 doi 10 1016 j livsci 2015 05 014 Kondo S Sekine J Okubo M Asahida Y 1989 The effect of group size and space allowance on the agonistic and spacing behavior of cattle Applied Animal Behaviour Science 24 2 127 135 doi 10 1016 0168 1591 89 90040 3 Rutter S M 2006 Diet preference for grass and legumes in free ranging domestic sheep and cattle current theory and future application Applied Animal Behaviour Science 97 1 17 35 doi 10 1016 j applanim 2005 11 016 Laca E A Ungar E D Seligman N Demment M W 1992 Effects of sward height and bulk density on bite dimensions of cattle grazing homogeneous swards Grass and Forage Science 47 1 91 102 Bibcode 1992GForS 47 91L doi 10 1111 j 1365 2494 1992 tb02251 x Bailey D W Gross J E Laca E A Rittenhouse L R Coughenour M B Swift D M Sims P L 1996 Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns Journal of Range Management 49 5 386 400 doi 10 2307 4002919 hdl 10150 644282 JSTOR 4002919 Forbes T D A Hodgson J 1985 The reaction of grazing sheep and cattle to the presence of dung from the same or the other species Grass and Forage Science 40 2 177 182 Bibcode 1985GForS 40 177F doi 10 1111 j 1365 2494 1985 tb01735 x Daniels M J Ball N Hutchings M R Greig A 2001 The grazing response of cattle to pasture contaminated with rabbit faeces and the implications for the transmission of paratuberculosis The Veterinary Journal 161 3 306 313 doi 10 1053 tvjl 2000 0550 PMID 11352488 Proctor Helen S Carder Gemma 9 October 2014 Can ear postures reliably measure the positive emotional state of cows Applied Animal Behaviour Science 161 20 27 doi 10 1016 j applanim 2014 09 015 Archived from the original on 3 October 2020 Retrieved 27 October 2016 Brand B Hadlich F Brandt B Schauer N Graunke K L Langbein J and Schwerin M 2015 Temperament type specific metabolite profiles of the prefrontal cortex and serum in cattle PLOS ONE 10 4 e0125044 Bibcode 2015PLoSO 1025044B doi 10 1371 journal pone 0125044 PMC 4416037 PMID 25927228 Reale D Reader S M Sol D McDougall P T Dingemanse N J 2007 Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 82 2 291 318 doi 10 1111 j 1469 185x 2007 00010 x hdl 1874 25732 PMID 17437562 S2CID 44753594 Hagen K Broom D 2004 Emotional reactions to learning in cattle Applied Animal Behaviour Science 85 3 4 203 213 doi 10 1016 j applanim 2003 11 007 Daros R R Costa J H von Keyserlingk M A Hotzel M J Weary D M 2014 Separation from the dam causes negative judgement bias in dairy calves PLOS ONE 9 5 e98429 Bibcode 2014PLoSO 998429D doi 10 1371 journal pone 0098429 PMC 4029834 PMID 24848635 Neave H W Daros R R Costa J H C von Keyserlingk M A G Weary D M 2013 Pain and pessimism Dairy calves exhibit negative judgement bias following hot iron disbudding PLOS ONE 8 12 e80556 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 880556N doi 10 1371 journal pone 0080556 PMC 3851165 PMID 24324609 Boissy A Le Neindre P 1997 Behavioral cardiac and cortisol responses to brief peer separation and reunion in cattle Physiology amp Behavior 61 5 693 699 doi 10 1016 s0031 9384 96 00521 5 PMID 9145939 S2CID 8507049 Piller Carol A K Stookey Joseph M Watts Jon M 1999 Effects of mirror image exposure on heart rate and movement of isolated heifers Applied Animal Behaviour Science 63 2 93 102 doi 10 1016 S0168 1591 99 00010 6 40 Winks Jennifer S Holland National Geographic Vol 220 No 1 July 2011 Asprea Lori Sturtz Robin 2012 Anatomy and physiology for veterinary technicians and nurses a clinical approach Chichester Iowa State University Pre p 109 ISBN 978 1 118 40584 0 Animal MythBusters Manitoba Veterinary Medical Association www mvma ca Archived from the original on 15 April 2016 Collins Nick 6 September 2013 Cow tipping myth dispelled The Daily Telegraph Archived from the original on 26 April 2016 Retrieved 18 May 2016 Brown David 23 April 2009 Scientists Unravel Genome of the Cow The Washington Post Archived from the original on 28 June 2011 Retrieved 23 April 2009 Gill Victoria 23 April 2009 BBC Cow genome to transform farming BBC News Archived from the original on 17 October 2013 Retrieved 15 October 2013 Canario L Mignon Grasteau S Dupont Nivet M Phocas F 2013 Genetics of behavioural adaptation of livestock to farming conditions PDF Animal 7 3 357 377 Bibcode 2013Anim 7 357C doi 10 1017 S1751731112001978 PMID 23127553 Jensen P ed 2009 The Ethology of Domestic Animals An Introductory Text CABI p 111 Schmutz S M Stookey J M Winkelman Sim D C Waltz C S Plante Y Buchanan F C 2001 A QTL study of cattle behavioral traits in embryo transfer families Journal of Heredity 92 3 290 292 doi 10 1093 jhered 92 3 290 PMID 11447250 Canario L Mignon Grasteau S Dupont Nivet M Phocas F 2013 Genetics of behavioural adaptation of livestock to farming conditions PDF Animal 7 3 357 377 Bibcode 2013Anim 7 357C doi 10 1017 S1751731112001978 PMID 23127553 Friedrich J Brand B Schwerin M 2015 Genetics of cattle temperament and its impact on livestock production and breeding a review Archives Animal Breeding 58 13 21 doi 10 5194 aab 58 13 2015 Archived PDF from the original on 24 September 2015 a b c McTavish E J Decker J E Schnabel R D Taylor J F Hillis D M year 2013 2013 New World cattle show ancestry from multiple independent domestication events Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110 15 E1398 1406 Bibcode 2013PNAS 110E1398M doi 10 1073 pnas 1303367110 PMC 3625352 PMID 23530234 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Bollongino R Burger J Powell A Mashkour M Vigne J D Thomas M G 2012 Modern taurine cattle descended from small number of Near Eastern founders Molecular Biology and Evolution 29 9 2101 2104 doi 10 1093 molbev mss092 PMID 22422765 Op cit in Wilkins Alasdair 28 March 2012 DNA reveals that cows were almost impossible to domesticate io9 Archived from the original on 12 May 2012 Retrieved 2 April 2012 Decker J E McKay S D Rolf M M Kim J Molina Alcala A Sonstegard T S et al 2014 Worldwide patterns of ancestry divergence and admixture in domesticated cattle PLOS Genet 10 3 e1004254 doi 10 1371 journal pgen 1004254 PMC 3967955 PMID 24675901 a b Pitt Daniel Sevane Natalia Nicolazzi Ezequiel L MacHugh David E Park Stephen D E Colli Licia Martinez Rodrigo Bruford Michael W Orozco terWengel Pablo 2019 Domestication of cattle Two or three events Evolutionary Applications 12 1 123 136 Bibcode 2019EvApp 12 123P doi 10 1111 eva 12674 ISSN 1752 4571 PMC 6304694 PMID 30622640 Ajmone Marsan Paolo Garcia J F Lenstra Johannes January 2010 On the origin of cattle How aurochs became domestic and colonized the world Evolutionary Anthropology 19 148 157 doi 10 1002 evan 20267 S2CID 86035650 Archived from the original on 4 December 2017 Retrieved 3 December 2017 a b Grubb P 2005 Bos taurus In Wilson D E Reeder D M eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press pp 637 722 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 Explore the Database www mammaldiversity org Retrieved 21 August 2021 Gentry Anthea Clutton Brock Juliet Groves Colin P 1 May 2004 The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives Journal of Archaeological Science 31 5 645 651 Bibcode 2004JArSc 31 645G doi 10 1016 j jas 2003 10 006 ISSN 0305 4403 Mummolo Jonathan 11 August 2007 Yattle What The Washington Post ISSN 0190 8286 Archived from the original on 1 July 2017 Retrieved 10 March 2023 Groves C P 1981 Systematic relationships in the Bovini Artiodactyla Bovidae Zeitschrift fur Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung 4 264 278 quoted in Grubb P 2005 Genus Bison In Wilson D E Reeder D M eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press pp 637 722 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 Takeda Kumiko et al April 2004 Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Nepalese domestic dwarf cattle Lulu Animal Science Journal 75 2 103 110 doi 10 1111 j 1740 0929 2004 00163 x Van Vuure C T 2003 De Oeros Het spoor terug in Dutch Cis van Vuure Wageningen University and Research Centrum quoted by The Extinction Website Bos primigenius primigenius Archived 20 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine Heck H 1951 The Breeding Back of the Aurochs Oryx 1 3 117 122 doi 10 1017 S0030605300035286 Pitt Daniel Sevane Natalia Nicolazzi Ezequiel L MacHugh David E Park Stephen D E Colli Licia Martinez Rodrigo Bruford Michael W Orozco terWengel Pablo January 2019 Domestication of cattle Two or three events Evolutionary Applications 12 1 123 136 Bibcode 2019EvApp 12 123P doi 10 1111 eva 12674 PMC 6304694 PMID 30622640 Strydom P E Naude R T Smith M F Kotze A Scholtz M M Van Wyk J B 1 March 2001 Relationships between production and product traits in subpopulations of Bonsmara and Nguni cattle South African Journal of Animal Science 31 3 181 194 doi 10 4314 sajas v31i3 3801 Meghen C MacHugh D E Bradley D G Genetic characterization and West African cattle fao org Archived from the original on 26 February 2019 Retrieved 20 September 2021 Definition of Feral cattle Archived from the original on 21 September 2015 Retrieved 4 May 2015 Sahagun Louis 2 March 2018 Feral cattle terrorize hikers and devour native plants in a California national monument Los Angeles Times NGRC Bos taurus www nodai genome org Archived from the original on 23 February 2016 口之島牛 Bos Taurus の成長曲線の作成とその特徴 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 25 April 2016 Retrieved 12 April 2016 葛島 野生化した和牛のいる島 奈留島港レンタカー www narusima com Archived from the original on 14 July 2016 牛ばかりいる台湾の孤島 金門島 牛による牛のためのモーモーパラダイスだったことが判明 世界を旅するガイドブック Photrip フォトリップ Archived from the original on 7 May 2016 Science Chillingham Wild Cattle chillinghamwildcattle com 16 June 2015 Archived from the original on 9 May 2016 Alaska Isle a Corral For Feral Cattle Herd U S Wants to Trade Cows for Birds The Washington Post 23 October 2005 Archived from the original on 20 October 2012 Retrieved 26 April 2016 a b 2 AFOs and CAFOs NPDES Permit Writers Manual for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations PDF Report Washington D C U S Environmental Protection Agency EPA February 2012 EPA 833 F 12 001 Lott Dale F Hart Benjamin L October 1979 Applied ethology in a nomadic cattle culture Applied Animal Ethology 5 4 309 319 doi 10 1016 0304 3762 79 90102 0 Krebs J R Anderson T Clutton Brock W T et al 1997 Bovine tuberculosis in cattle and badgers an independent scientific review PDF Report Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food Archived from the original PDF on 22 July 2004 Retrieved 4 September 2006 Otter Chris 2020 Diet for a large planet USA University of Chicago Press p 26 ISBN 978 0 226 69710 9 Bar On Yinon M Phillips Rob Milo Ron 21 May 2018 The biomass distribution on Earth Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115 25 6506 6511 Bibcode 2018PNAS 115 6506B doi 10 1073 pnas 1711842115 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 6016768 PMID 29784790 Cook Rob 9 January 2024 Ranking Of Countries With The Most Cattle National Beef Wire Retrieved 14 February 2024 FAOSTAT www fao org Retrieved 25 October 2019 AskUSDA What is the most consumed meat in the world U S Department of Agriculture 17 July 2019 Retrieved 5 December 2022 Mapped Global Livestock Distribution and Density Visual Capitalist Retrieved 14 February 2024 a b UK Dairy Cows Archived from the original on 18 May 2015 Retrieved 7 May 2015 a b c Compassion in World Farming Dairy Cattle Archived from the original on 18 May 2015 Retrieved 7 May 2015 Pearson R E Fulton L A Thompson P D Smith J W 1979 Milking 3 Times per day Journal of Dairy Science 62 12 1941 1950 doi 10 3168 jds S0022 0302 79 83526 2 PMID 541464 Glenza Jessica 14 February 2018 Transgender woman able to breastfeed in first documented case The Guardian Archived from the original on 13 November 2023 Reisman Tamar Goldstein Zil 2018 Case Report Induced Lactation in a Transgender Woman Transgender Health 3 1 24 26 doi 10 1089 trgh 2017 0044 PMC 5779241 PMID 29372185 About calves reared for veal Compassion in World Farming Archived from the original on 18 May 2015 Retrieved 9 May 2015 Major producers of cow milk worldwide in 2023 by country Statista Retrieved 14 February 2024 Buffalo Milk Tridge Retrieved 14 February 2024 FAO Code 0951 Raw milk of buffalo India Largest Producer of Milk in the World Press Information Bureau Government of India 1 June 2023 Retrieved 14 February 2024 World Statistical Compendium for raw hides and skins leather and leather footwear 1993 2012 PDF FAO Archived PDF from the original on 28 January 2015 Retrieved 16 May 2015 Taylor Tess 3 May 2011 On Small Farms Hoof Power Return s The New York Times Archived from the original on 22 May 2013 Retrieved 19 June 2011 Muruvimi F and J Ellis Jones 1999 A farming systems approach to improving draft animal power in Sub Saharan Africa In Starkey P and P Kaumbutho 1999 Meeting the challenges of animal traction Intermediate Technology Publications London pp 10 19 Phaniraja K L and H H Panchasara 2009 Indian draught animals power Veterinary World 2 404 407 Nicholson C F R W Blake R S Reid and J Schelhas 2001 Environmental impacts of livestock in the developing world Environment 43 2 7 17 Ectoparasites of Cattle NADIS Animal Health Skills Retrieved 14 February 2024 Diseases that affect cattle Department of Agriculture Environment and Rural Affairs Retrieved 14 February 2024 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopaphy An Overview PDF Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service United States Department of Agriculture December 2006 Archived from the original PDF on 8 March 2008 Retrieved 8 April 2008 VanHoy Grace June 2023 Common Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle MSD Manual Retrieved 14 February 2024 Cayli Ali M Arslan Bilge 7 February 2022 Analysis of the Thermal Environment and Determination of Heat Stress Periods for Dairy Cattle Under Eastern Mediterranean Climate Conditions Journal of Biosystems Engineering 47 39 47 doi 10 1007 s42853 021 00126 6 S2CID 246655199 a b c Lacetera Nicola 3 January 2019 Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare Animal Frontiers 9 1 26 31 doi 10 1093 af vfy030 ISSN 2160 6056 PMC 6951873 PMID 32002236 Lecchi Cristina Rota Nicola Vitali Andrea Ceciliani Fabrizio Lacetera Nicola December 2016 In vitro assessment of the effects of temperature on phagocytosis reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis in bovine polymorphonuclear cells Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 182 89 94 doi 10 1016 j vetimm 2016 10 007 hdl 2434 454100 PMID 27863557 Goulson Dave Derwent Lara C Hanley Michael E Dunn Derek W Abolins Steven R 5 September 2005 Predicting calyptrate fly populations from the weather and probable consequences of climate change Journal of Applied Ecology 42 5 795 804 Bibcode 2005JApEc 42 795G doi 10 1111 j 1365 2664 2005 01078 x S2CID 3892520 Nava Santiago Gamietea Ignacio J Morel Nicolas Guglielmone Alberto A Estrada Pena Agustin 6 July 2022 Assessment of habitat suitability for the cattle tick Rhipicephalus Boophilus microplus in temperate areas Research in Veterinary Science 150 10 21 doi 10 1016 j rvsc 2022 04 020 PMID 35803002 S2CID 250252036 Common and important diseases of cattle Archived from the original on 5 December 2013 Retrieved 17 November 2013 Identification of new cattle virus will help rule out mad cow disease Retrieved 17 November 2013 Cattle Diseases Archived from the original on 25 November 2013 Retrieved 4 December 2013 Cattle Disease Guide Retrieved 4 December 2013 Harvey Fiona 17 May 2011 Easing of farming regulations could allow milk from TB infected cattle into food chain The Guardian Archived from the original on 1 February 2014 Retrieved 4 December 2013 Methane vs Carbon Dioxide A Greenhouse Gas Showdown One Green Planet 2015 Retrieved 29 January 2022 Myhre Gunnar 2013 Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing PDF Climate Change 2013 The Physical Science Basis Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press archived PDF from the original on 6 February 2017 retrieved 22 December 2016 See Table 8 7 IPCC 2007 Fourth Assessment Report Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change News Article Key facts and findings FAO Archived from the original on 4 June 2021 Retrieved 4 June 2021 Treating beef like coal would make a big dent in greenhouse gas emissions The Economist 2 October 2021 ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved 3 November 2021 IPCC 2001 Third Assessment Report Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I The Scientific Basis Table 4 2 Steinfeld Henning Gerber Pierre Wassenaar T D Nations Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Castel Vincent Rosales Mauricio M Mauricio Rosales Haan Cees de 2006 Livestock s Long Shadow Environmental Issues and Options Food amp Agriculture Org ISBN 978 92 5 105571 7 US EPA 2012 Inventory of U S greenhouse gase emissions and sinks 1990 2010 US Environmental Protection Agency EPA 430 R 12 001 Section 6 2 Bradford S A E Segal W Zheng Q Wang and S R Hutchins 2008 Reuse of concentrated animal feeding operation wastewater on agricultural lands J Env Qual 37 supplement S97 S115 Koelsch Richard Balvanz Carol George John Meyer Dan Nienaber John Tinker Gene Applying Alternative Technologies to CAFOs A Case Study PDF Archived from the original PDF on 17 October 2013 Retrieved 16 January 2018 Ikerd John The Economics of CAFOs amp Sustainable Alternatives Web missouri edu Archived from the original on 10 August 2014 Retrieved 15 October 2013 Gurian Sherman Doug CAFOs Uncovered The Untold Costs of Confined Animal Feeding Operations PDF Archived PDF from the original on 26 January 2013 Retrieved 15 October 2013 Filazzola Alessandro et al 2020 The effects of livestock grazing on biodiversity are multi trophic a meta analysis Ecology Letters 23 8 1298 1309 doi 10 1111 ele 13527 PMID 32369874 Schwartzkopf Genswein K S Stookey J M Welford R 1 August 1997 Behavior of cattle during hot iron and freeze branding and the effects on subsequent handling ease Journal of Animal Science 75 8 2064 2072 doi 10 2527 1997 7582064x ISSN 0021 8812 PMID 9263052 Coetzee Hans 19 May 2013 Pain Management An Issue of Veterinary Clinics Food Animal Practice Elsevier Health Sciences ISBN 978 1 4557 7376 3 Welfare Implications of Dehorning and Disbudding Cattle www avma org Archived from the original on 5 September 2015 Retrieved 5 April 2017 Goode Erica 25 January 2012 Ear Tagging Proposal May Mean Fewer Branded Cattle The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 6 April 2017 Retrieved 5 April 2017 Grandin Temple 21 July 2015 Improving Animal Welfare 2 Edition A Practical Approach CABI ISBN 978 1 78064 467 7 Restraint of Livestock www grandin com Archived from the original on 13 December 2017 Retrieved 5 April 2017 Doyle Rebecca Moran John 3 February 2015 Cow Talk Understanding Dairy Cow Behaviour to Improve Their Welfare on Asian Farms Csiro Publishing ISBN 978 1 4863 0162 1 McKenna C 2001 The case against the veal crate An examination of the scientific evidence that led to the banning of the veal crate system in the EU and of the alternative group housed systems that are better for calves farmers and consumers PDF Compassion in World Farming Retrieved 19 April 2016 Using Prods and Persuaders Properly to Handle Cattle Pigs and Sheep grandin com Retrieved 31 May 2019 Cattle awionline org Retrieved 31 May 2019 Grant R 2011 Taking advantage of natural behavior improves dairy cow performance Archived from the original on 2 December 2016 Huzzey J Keyserlingk M Overton T 2012 The behaviour and physiological consequences of overstocking dairy cattle American Association of Bovine Practitioners 92 97 doi 10 21423 aabppro20123879 S2CID 203405605 Tyler J W Fox L K Parish S M Swain J Johnson D J Grassechi H A 1997 Effect of feed availability on post milking standing time in dairy cows Journal of Dairy Research 64 4 617 620 doi 10 1017 s0022029997002501 PMID 9403771 S2CID 41754001 Schefers J M Weigel K A Rawson C L Zwald N R Cook N B 2010 Management practices associated with conception rate and service rate of lactating Holstein cows in large commercial dairy herds Journal of Dairy Science 93 4 1459 1467 doi 10 3168 jds 2009 2015 PMID 20338423 Grant R 2011 Taking advantage of natural behavior improves dairy cow performance Archived from the original on 2 December 2016 Grandin Temple 1 December 2016 Evaluation of the welfare of cattle housed in outdoor feedlot pens Veterinary and Animal Science 1 2 23 28 doi 10 1016 j vas 2016 11 001 ISSN 2451 943X PMC 7386639 PMID 32734021 Animal Cruelty Beef www veganpeace com Retrieved 31 May 2019 a b Vegetarian Society Cattle Retrieved 31 May 2019 EFSA house calves in small groups to improve welfare European Food Safety Authority 29 March 2023 Retrieved 14 February 2024 AP Michael Smith 17 July 2008 Animal rights group targets popular rodeo msnbc com Retrieved 31 May 2019 The Valencian Country leads the festivities of the bulls in the street in Catalan 1 August 2005 Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 Retrieved 23 October 2020 Antebi Andres Passion for bulls in the street in Catalan Archived from the original on 11 September 2012 Retrieved 23 October 2020 What is bullfighting League Against Cruel Sports Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 ICABS calls on Vodafone to drop bullfighting from ad www banbloodsports com The suffering of bullfighting bulls www english stieren net Archived from the original on 26 January 2009 Gustavo A Slafer Jose Luis Molina Cano Roxana Savin Jose Luis Araus Ignacio Romagosa 2002 Barley Science Recent Advances from Molecular Biology to Agronomy of Yield and Quality CRC Press p 1 ISBN 978 1 56022 910 0 a b Glyn Davies Julian Hodge Bank 2002 A history of money from ancient times to the present day University of Wales Press ISBN 978 0 7083 1717 4 Huerta de Soto Jesus 2006 Money Bank Credit and Economic Cycles Ludwig von Mises Institute p 51 ISBN 978 1 61016 388 0 Jha D N 2002 The myth of the holy cow London Verso pp 20 130 ISBN 978 1 85984 676 6 Swamy Subramanian 19 January 2016 Save the cow save earth The New Indian Express Archived from the original on 10 September 2016 Retrieved 19 January 2016 Zuffi Stefano 2003 The Evangelists and their symbols Gospel Figures in Art Getty Publications p 8 ISBN 978 0 89236 727 6 Diane Morgan 2010 Essential Islam A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice ABC CLIO p 27 ISBN 978 0 313 36025 1 Thomas Hughes 1995 first published in 1885 Dictionary of Islam Asian Educational Services p 364 ISBN 9788120606722 Taurus The Warburg Institute Retrieved 12 February 2024 Madden Thomas May 1992 Akabeko Archived 21 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine OUTLOOK Online copy accessed 18 January 2007 Cuthbert s Move to Durham Two Stories Durham Castle and Cathedral Retrieved 12 February 2024 Further reading nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Cattle nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bos taurus nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bull cattle Cattle Today 2006 Breeds of beef cattle Johns Catherine 2011 Cattle History Myth Art London The British Museum Press 978 0 7141 5084 0 Oklahoma State University OSU 2006 Breeds of Cattle Retrieved 5 January 2007 Purdy Herman R R John Dawes Robert Hough 2008 Breeds Of Cattle 2nd ed A visual textbook containing History Origin Phenotype amp Statistics of 45 breeds Rath S 1998 The Complete Cow Stillwater MN Voyageur Press ISBN 0 89658 375 9 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Cattle amp oldid 1207436406 Terminology, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.