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Hammira Mahakavya

April 10, 2024

Hammira Mahakavya (IAST: Hammīra-Mahākāvya) is a 15th-century Indian Sanskrit epic poem written by the Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri. It is a legendary biography of the 13th century Chahamana king Hammira. While not entirely accurate from a historical point-of-view, the text provides valuable information about the medieval history of north-western India.

Hammira Mahakavya
AuthorNayachandra Suri
Original titleहम्मीर महाकाव्य
CountryIndia
LanguageSanskrit
SubjectBiographical epic poem
GenreEpic, Eulogy
Publication date
Early 15th century
TranslationHammira Mahakavya at Wikisource

Much of the text describes Hammira's ancestry and his conquests of the neighbouring Hindu kingdoms. The last third part describes his conflict with Ala-ud-Din Khalji, the Sultan of Delhi. The text attributes Hammira's defeat against Ala-ud-Din to betrayal by his officers.

Authorship and date edit

Hammira Mahakavya was composed by the Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri. The author's grandfather and teacher Jayasiṃha Sūri was a poet and a scholar. Jayasiṃha knew six languages, and composed three works - Nyāya Sāraṭika, a Sanskrit grammar, and a poem on Kumāra Nṛpati.[1] The author was not a contemporary of the text's hero Hammira.[2] He was possibly a court poet of the Tomara ruler Vīrama, since he states that he wrote the text as a response to a challenge in Virama's court that no contemporary poet was capable of composing a kāvya comparable to the works composed by the ancient poets such as Kalidasa, Bilhana and others. Nayachandra also states that Hammira appeared in his dream urging him to compose Hammira-Mahākāvya.[1]

The author states that Hammira appeared in his dream exactly 100 years after his death (which happened in 1301). This suggests that the composition of the poem must have began in 1401.[3] However, the exact date and place of the text's origin are not certain. According to scholar Cynthia Talbot, it was probably composed around 1400 CE,[4] possibly to please a Chauhan (Chahamana) ruler.[2] Based on the assertion that the poem was written as a response to a challenge in Virama's court, Phyllis Granoff theorizes that the poem was written at the Tomara court, around 1420 CE.[5][6]

Nayachandra's disciple Nayahamsa made a copy of the manuscript in 1496 CE,[7] at "Sri Perojpur" (possibly Firozpur[3], although this is not certain).[2] This manuscript was used by N. J. Kirtane to produce an editio princeps.[7] Nayahamsa also added an appendix, which praises Nayachandra Suri and his spiritual lineage. Kirtane received the manuscript from a person of Nashik, who had received it from someone else.[2]

Content edit

The Hammīra-Mahākāvya consists of 1500 verses, divided into 14 sargas (cantos).[1][8] The poem begins with an invocation to Hindu deities and Jain tirthankaras.[9] The poet uses several words with double meanings that can refer to either a Hindu deity or a Jain tirthankara. E.g.:[10]

The poem then describes the life Hammira, who is compared to the legendary heroes Mandhata, Yudhishthira and Rama.[11]

Cantos 1-4 are devoted to Hammira's ancestors, including kings from the Shakambhari Chahamana dynasty.[8] Cantos 5-7 describe Hammira's engagement in various services, sports and festivities. The information contained in this part is of little historical value.[12] The next few cantos describe his reign. The last third part of the text describes Hammira's conflict with Ala-ud-Din Khalji, the Muslim Sultan of Delhi.[13]

Hammira's ancestors edit

The text gives the following line of succession of the Chahamana kings, which does not match exactly with the historical genealogy of the dynasty:[14]

Much of the information about these ancestors is fanciful in nature.[8] For example, the dynasty's mythical progenitor Chahamana (or Chohan) is described as follows: Once Brahma wandered in search of a holy place for a sacrifice. The lotus held in has hand fell at a spot that later came to be known as Pushkar. Brahma decided to conduct a sacrifice at that place, and invoked Surya (the sun) to protect his sacrifice from the danavas (demons). A hero then sprung from the orb of the sun, and protected Brahma's sacrifice. With Brahma's blessings, this hero became a powerful king.[15]

Even the description of Hammira's historical ancestors does not provide much information of historical value. For example, Chandraraja is described as follows:[16]

Hammira Mahakavya on Chandraraja

Chandraraja, by his fame and the beauty of his countenance achieving a double conquest over the moon, vindicated the appropriate significance of his name which means 'Lord of the moon'. Strange was the power of the fire of his valour, for it burnt bright in the enemy in whom the stream of bravery flowed, while it was extinguished in that enemy who was destitute of this stream.

The description of the events from the death of Prithviraja III to the reign of Hammira is fairly historical, but still not entirely accurate.[8]

Legend of Prithviraja III edit

 
A statue of Prithviraja III

The text describes Prithviraja III's war against Muhammad of Ghor (Shahb-ud-Din) as follows: During the just rule of Prithviraja in the East, the Muslim king Shahab-ud-Din began attempts to subjugate the earth. The kings of the West, led by one Chandraraja, appealed Prithviraja to counter Shahab-ud-Din. Chandraraja told Prithviraja that Shahab-ud-Din had set up his capital at Multan, and had defeated the noblest of the Hindu Rajput kings. The invader had burned their cities, dishonoured their women and reduced them to a sorry state. Chandraraja compared Shahab-ud-Din to Parashurama, who had come to exterminate the warrior caste from the earth.[17]

On hearing this, Prithviraja became angry, and declared that he would force Shahab-ud-Din to beg them for an apology on his knees. After some days, he marched towards Multan and entered Shahab-ud-Din's territory. When the enemy king learned of this, he also set out from Multan, with an army. In the ensuing battle, Prithviraja defeated and captured Shahab-ud-Din. The Muslim king was made to bend on his knees, and seek forgiveness from the Rajput kings he had harassed. Subsequently, Prithviraja presented expensive gifts to all the kings (including Shahab-ud-Din), and asked them to return home.[18]

Despite being well-treated after his defeat, Shahab-ud-Din felt humiliated and sought revenge. He invaded Prithviraja's kingdom seven more times, but each time, he was defeated. Finally, he decided to seek help from the king of the Ghataika country.[18] From this king, he obtained a large infantry and cavalry, and captured Delhi. When Prithviraja heard about this, he had only a small force stationed at his capital Ajmer. He asked his general Udayaraja to gather a larger army, and immediately set out against Shahab-ud-Din with the small force. Although Prithviraja's contingent was small, Shahab-ud-Din was terrified at this news. At night, he sent some men to Prithviraja's camp and bribed the cavalry chief and the royal musicians.[19]

The next morning, Shahab-ud-Din sent a force to attack Prithviraja's camp. Prithviraja asked his men to prepare for war. The disloyal cavalry chief presented him a dancing horse named Natyarambha. As soon as the king mounted this horse, the disloyal musicians started playing music.[19] The horse started dancing to the music, and this performance diverted the king's attention. Meanwhile, the Muslim soldiers managed to kill a number of Rajputs. Prithviraja finally came to his senses, dismounted from the horse, and killed a number of attackers. But then he fell to the ground after an enemy soldier attacked him from behind. He was taken captive just as Udayaraja arrived with a larger army. Fearing Udayaraja's army, Shahab-ud-Din retreated to Delhi but took the captive Prithviraja with him. Udayaraja besieged Yoginipura (Delhi) for a month, in a bid to rescue Prithviraja.[20]

After being captured, Prithviraja refused to eat any food. One of Shahab-ud-Din's advisors remarked that he should release Prithviraja, who had released the Muslim king with honour in past. Shahab-ud-Din became angry at this suggestion, and ordered Prithviraja to be imprisoned in the fortress. Prithviraja died after a few days. When Udayaraja heard about this, he led his entire army to a decisive battle, in which he was defeated and killed.[21]

Prithviraja was succeeded by Hariraja. The new king spent most of his time in company of female dancers, who had been presented to him by the king of Gujarat. Hariraja squandered the state's revenues on dancers and musicians, even as the state's employees were not paid their salaries.[21] Shahab-ud-Din took advantage of these circumstances, and invaded Hariraja's kingdom. Hariraja, who was not prepared for a fight, chose to die by self-immolation (sak), along with his family members.[22]

Legend of the Ranthambore branch edit

 
Ranthambore Fort

Govindaraja had established a new kingdom with its capital at Ranathambore, after being banished by his father. Following Hariraja's defeat, several of Ajmer's officials sought his asylum. Govindaraja treated them well, and appointed them to suitable offices.[22] After Govindaraja's death, Balhana ascended the throne. Before his death, Balhana appointed his elder son Prahlada as the new king, and his younger son Vagabhata as the prime minister. Prahlada once killed a lion during a hunting expedition. As his party celebrated the killing, another lion severely injured him. On his deathbed, Vagabhata promised to serve his son Viranarayana faithfully.[23]

When Viranarayana became an adult, his marriage was arranged to the Kachhavaha princess of Jayapura. He set out for the Kachhavaha capital Amarapur for the marriage ceremony, but was forced to retreat because of a surprise attack by the Delhi Sultan Jalal-ud-din. Unable to defeat Viranarayana in the battle, Jalal-ud-Din made a plan to subdue him using deceitful means. He sent a flattering message to Viranarayana, stating that he was greatly impressed by his bravery, and wanted to be friends.[23] Viranarayana believed that a friendship with the Delhi Sultan would help him against his rival, Vigraha of Vakshasthalapura. He, therefore, accepted the Jalal-ud-Din's invitation to Delhi. Vagabhata advised him against this move, but the king insultingly rejected his advice. A dejected Vagabhata left for Malwa. Other courtiers also advised Viranarayana against accepting Jalal-ud-din's friendship, but the king didn't heed their advice. He went to Delhi, where he was received warmly, but ended up being poisoned after a few days.[24]

Jalal-ud-Din then captured Ranthambore, and sent a message to the king of Malwa ordering him to kill Vagabhata. But Vagabhata discovered this, and killed the king of Malwa. He then gathered an army of Rajputs, and formed an alliance with the Kharpuras (Mongols), who had rebelled against the Delhi Sultanate. With this army, he recaptured Ranthambore. He safeguarded the kingdom by placing large forces at the various frontier posts, and died after a reign of 12 years.[25]

Vagabhata was succeeded by Jaitrasingh. He fulfilled the desire of his pregnant queen Hira Devi to "bathe herself in the blood of the Sakas (Muslims)".[25][26] When her son Hammira was born, the astrologers predicted that he would drench the earth with the blood of his Muslim enemies. Hammira grew up to be a handsome man, and his father arranged his marriage to 7 beautiful women. In 1283 CE, Jaitrasingh appointed Hammira as his successor, and retired to forest.[27]

Hammira's early reign edit

 
Hammira's palace at the Ranthambore Fort

Soon after becoming the king, Hammira waged wars to expand his kingdom. First, he subdued Arjuna, the king of Saraspura. Next, he forced the ruler of Gadhamandala to pay him a tribute. After this, he marched to Malwa, where he defeated Bhoja II.[27] His army marched in a victory procession at Ujjain, where he prayed to Mahakala. On the way back to Ranthambore, he marched to Chitrakuta (Chittor), and sacked Medapata (modern Mewar).[28]

Subsequently, Hammira stayed for some days at the ashram of sage Vasishtha. Although he followed the religion of the Vedas, he also prayed at the temple of the Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva.[28]

Hammira then marched to Abu. The king of Abu was a great warrior, but chose to accept Hammira's suzerainty. After leaving Abu, Hammira plundered Varddhanapura and Changa. He then proceeded to Pushkar via Ajmer. At Pushkar, he worshipped Adivaraha and then marched to Shakambhari. During this journey, he plundered multiple towns including Marhata, Khandilla, Chamda and Kankroli. He then returned to his capital, Ranthmabore.[28]

Some days later, Hammira's spiritual guide Vishvarupa informed him that one could gain entry into heaven by performing the Koti-yajna sacrifice. Hammira performed this sacrifice in accordance with the shastras. He invited Brahmins from all over the country, and made generous donations to them. He also engaged in the month-long Munivrata observance.[29]

Hammira's conflict with Ala-ud-Din Khalji edit

Meanwhile, Ala-ud-Din Khalji had ascended the throne of Delhi. In third year of Ala-ud-Din's reign, his Mongol (also called Mughal or Mudgal[30]) noblemen rebelled against him, and were given asylum by Hammira in the Ranthambore Fort.[11] These included Mahima Sahi or Mahimashahi (Indianized version of "Muhammad Shah").[31]

He sent his younger brother Ullu Khan[32] (Ulugh Khan) to sack Ranthambore, because unlike Jaitrasingh, Hammira did not pay any tribute to the Delhi Sultanate. Ullu Khan's army entered Hammira's territory, but could not march to Ranthambore because his cavalry could not cross the Varnanasha river. Ullu Khan encamped on the banks of the river, burning and destroying several nearby villages. Hammira was still engaged in the Munivrata observance, and therefore could not personally lead an army against Ullu Khan. He sent his generals Bhimasingh and Dharmasingh to counter the Delhi army. In the ensuing battle, Ullu Khan suffered a defeat, and lost several of his soldiers. When Bhimasingh started marching back to Ranthambore, Ullu Khan secretly followed him with a large army. Bhimasingh's soldiers had captured a large amount of wealth in the battle, and had marched ahead to carry it safely to Ranthambore. Bhimasingh was left with a small number of men. Ullu Khan attacked this small detachment, killed Bhimasingh, and then returned to Delhi.[33]

In Ranthambore, Hammira had finished his sacrifice by the time he learned about Bhimasingh's death. He ordered Dharmasingh to be blinded and castrated for deserting Bhimasingh.[34] Dharmasingh decided to avenge his humiliation, and befriended a courtesan named Radha Devi, who told him about all the happenings at the royal court. One day, Radha Devi told him that many of Hammira's horses had died of a disease. He communicated to the king through Radha Devi that he would present the king with many horses if restored to his former post. The king agreed, and Dharmasingh gradually gained his confidence by filling the royal treasury with wealth confiscated from the citizens. This made the citizens detest Hammira.[35] The king's brother Bhoja tried to warn him against Dharmasingh's activities, but the king was very pleased with Dharmasingh's revenue generation, and entrusted full powers to Dharmasingh.[36]

Dejected, Bhoja and his younger brother Pitama decided to leave the kingdom. They told Hammira that they were leaving for Varanasi.[36] But after departing from Hammira's court, they went to Yoginipura (Delhi) and started serving Ala-ud-Din. At his instigation, Ala-ud-Din ordered Ullu Khan to invade Hammira's kingdom with a 100,000-horse cavalry.[37] Hammira ordered his eight generals to attack the invading army from eight directions. The Delhi army was defeated and forced to flee the battlefield.[38] After Hammira's victory celebrations were over, his Mongol chiefs sought his permission to punish Bhoja. The request was granted, and the Mongol chief Mahima Sahi raided Jagara, where he captured Pitama.[39]

Ullu Khan and Bhoja implored Ala-ud-Din Khalji to punish Hammira. The Delhi Sultan then raised an army by seeking forces from other rulers. These included the kings of Anga, Telanga, Magadha, Maisur, Kalinga, Banga, Bhot, Medapata, Panchal, Bangal, Thamim, Bhilla, Nepal, Dahal and the Himalayan foothills. These kings agreed to contribute to Ala-ud-Din's campaign for different reasons, including their love for war, the prospect of plunder, or simply the desire to watch a battle.[40]

Ala-ud-Din dispatched a massive army to Ranthambore, led by his brother Ullu Khan and Nusrat Khan. The army was so large that its horses drank up all the waters of rivers on the way. Ala-ud-Din himself stayed behind with a reserve force. After reaching a difficult mountain pass on the borders of the enemy territory, Ullu Khan advised Nusrat not to rely solely on a more powerful army. He made a plan to cross this mountain pass without being attacked. In accordance with this plan, Ullu and Nusrat sent Molhana Deva to negotiate a peace treaty with Hammira. While the negotiations were pending, Hammira's forces allowed the invading army to cross the mountain pass without being attacked. Hammira's camp believed that they had trapped their rivals into their territory, while the Delhi forces believed that they had managed to secure an advantageous position in the enemy territory.[41]

Meanwhile, in Hammira's court, Molhana Deva told Hammira that he will to have accept one of the following conditions in order to conclude a peace treaty with Ala-ud-Din Khalji:[42]

  • Pay a tribute of 100,000 gold coins, 4 elephants and 300 horses. Marry Hammira's daughter to Ala-ud-Din.
  • Surrender the four rebel Mongol chiefs to Ala-ud-Din.

A battle comparable to the Mahābhārata went on for two days such that it seemed that the sun had travelled to the far mountain [behind which the sun sets] in the west in order to speak to the horizon. In this battle 85,000 great, radiant Yavana warriors arrived in Yama-Loka.

Hammira-Mahakavya[43]

Hammira rejected the conditions, leading to a battle. Nusrat Khan was killed in this battle. Ullu Khan had to abandon the attack at the onset of the monsoon rains. He retreated to some distance from Ranthambore, and sent a message to Ala-ud-Din asking for help, along with Nusrat's dead body. Ala-ud-Din then himself led a force to Ranthambore, and besieged the fort. After two days of unsuccessfully trying to capture the fort, he sent a message to Hammira, praising the Chahamana king's bravery and promising to grant his any wish. Hammira replied that he wished to fight with Ala-ud-Din for two days. In the ensuing battle, the invading army lost around 85,000 men. Subsequently, both the parties agreed to a temporary ceasefire.[44]


She [Dhara-devi] was paying attention to her breasts and bottom that seemed to be competing with each other in largeness. Her body which seemed to be made for pleasure like a slender vine was intoxicating […] With endearing sideways glances, which seemed to revive the lord of love, she penetrated the minds of the courtiers and made them exultant. The courtiers kept eyeing her up and down like a monkey climbing up and down a vine.

Hammira-Mahakavya[43]

During the truce, Hammira's courtesan Radha Devi (or Dhara-devi[43]) performed a dance on a wall of the fort. She purposely turned her back towards Ala-ud-Din Khalji, who was encamped near the fort.[45] Angry at her conduct, Ala-ud-Din asked for someone who could kill the dancer with an arrow. One of his subordinate chiefs told him that only a captive named Uddanasingh was capable of this. Ala-ud-Din ordered the release of Uddanasingh, who killed Radha Devi with an arrow. In response, Hammira's Mongol chief Mahima Sahi killed Uddanasingh with same arrow.[46]

Hammira's defeat and death edit

Mahima Sahi's feat of archery greatly intimidated Ala-ud-Din, who moved his camp from the eastern side of the fort to the safer western side. When this happened, the Chahamanas realized that Ala-ud-Din's soldiers had been constructing a tunnel to the fort. They used cannon fire to kill these underground workers and destroy their work. Ala-ud-Din faced further trouble, when a group of rams ransacked his camp. Frustrated, Ala-ud-Din asked Hammira to send the Chahamana general Ratipala to conclude a peace treaty. Hammira sent Ratipala to hear Ala-ud-Din's offer, but this irked another Chahamana general Ranamalla, who was unhappy about not being chosen to visit Ala-ud-Din.[46]

When Ratipala came to Ala-ud-Din's camp, he was received with great honour. The Delhi Sultan presented him gifts, took him to his harem, and let him eat and drink in private with the Sultan's sister. Ala-ud-Din then promised to make Ratipala the governor of Ranthambore in return for his help in conquering the fort.[47] Ratnapala agreed to Ala-ud-Din's proposal to betray Hammira. Upon returning to the fort, he greatly exaggerated the strength of Ala-ud-Din's army. He then told Hammira that Ranamalla was angry with the king, and recommended that Hammira talk to him in the private to ensure his support against Ala-ud-Din. Next, Ratipala approached Ranamalla, and told him that Hammira was angry with him, and planned to imprison him that night. Ratipala advised Ranamalla to escape the fort and seek shelter with Ala-ud-Din.[48] Ratipala also spread a rumor among the queens that Ala-ud-Din's only condition for peace was marrying Hammira's daughter Devall-devi. Hammira's queens convinced his daughter to agree to the marriage, but Hammira rejected this proposal.[49][50]

Hammira's brother Virama warned the king that Ratipala seemed drunk, and therefore, should not be believed. Virama recommended that the king order Ratipala's killing, but Hammira dismissed his concerns. Hammira argued that the fort was strong enough to resist the enemy attack, and expressed concern that if Ratipala was innocent, his killing would demoralize others.[49] Hammira then decided to visit Ranamalla to seek his support, as advised by Ratipala. When Ranamalla heard about the king's visit, he thought that the king was coming to imprison him. He and his men left immediately, and sought shelter with Ala-ud-Din. Soon after, Ratipala also joined him.[51]

Hammira now decided to prepare for a battle. He asked his Kothari (store-keeper) about the status of the fort's granary. The granary had run out of foodgrains. But the Kothari, fearing for his job, told the king that there were enough foodgrains for a prolonged siege. Nevertheless, the king soon learned the truth, and ordered the killing of the Kothari.[51] Disturbed by the events of the day, especially the betrayals by his own men, Hammira could not sleep at night.[51]

The next day, Hammira's men prepared for a final war, determined to fight to death. Hammira offered his loyal Mongol chief Mahima Sahi the option to leave, as he did not want a foreigner dying for him. But Mahima Sahi readied for the battle, and killed all the female members of his family. Hammira's queens (including Ranga Devi or Arangi-devi) and daughters (including Devall-devi), also killed themselves by self-immolation to avoid being captured by the enemy soldiers.[52][53]

After performing a funeral ceremony for the deceased, Hammira and his loyal men attacked Ala-ud-Din's camp. A deadly battle ensued, in which Hammira's loyal generals died one by one: Virama, Mahima Sahi, Jaja, Gangadhar Tak, and Kshetrasingh Paramara. Finally, Hammira also fell, pierced by a hundred arrows.[54] He then slit his own throat to avoid capture.[31] This event happened during the 18th year of his reign, in the Shravana month.[54]

Historical reliability edit

Hammira Mahakavya does not provide a satisfactorily correct genealogy of the Chahamana kings. Nilkanth Janardan Kirtane, who translated the text into English in 1899, dismisses the text's description of the early Chahamana kings as "filled with fanciful conceptions", aimed at providing the author an opportunity to showcase "his power for poetical conceits." According to him, the text is "fairly historic" in its description of the kings from Prithviraja III to Hammira, but even in this portion, the author sometimes "relapses into rhapsody which amounts to a confession of his ignorance of the historical facts."[8]

Historian Asoke Kumar Majumdar agrees with Kirtane's assessment, and describes certain parts of the text as "very unreliable", specifically the portion which claims that Vigraharaja II killed Mularaja and conquered Gujarat.[55]

Historian R. B. Singh of Gorakhpur University notes that as a source for the history of the Chahamanas, Hammira Mahakavya is less reliable than Prithviraja Vijaya, as the former was composed two centuries later.[56] Historian Kalika Ranjan Kanungo describes Hammira Mahakavya as well as the later text Hammira Raso as pseudo-historical poems.[57] Aziz Ahmed (1963) describes it an unhistorical text that contains fantastical details.[58] Muni Jinavijaya (1968) presents the text as a "national poem", portraying Hammira as an Indian hero who fought against a foreign Muslim ruler.[59]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c Aditya Malik 2021, p. 7.
  2. ^ a b c d Cynthia Talbot 2015, p. 54.
  3. ^ a b Aditya Malik 2021, p. 15.
  4. ^ Cynthia Talbot 2015, p. 51.
  5. ^ Phyllis Granoff 2006, p. 42.
  6. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, p. 313.
  7. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 6.
  8. ^ a b c d e N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 10.
  9. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 8.
  10. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, p. 45.
  11. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 9.
  12. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 11.
  13. ^ Romila Thapar 2005, pp. 120–121.
  14. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, pp. 14–15.
  15. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, pp. 11–12.
  16. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 13.
  17. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 17.
  18. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 18.
  19. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 19.
  20. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 20.
  21. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 21.
  22. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 22.
  23. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 24.
  24. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, pp. 25–26.
  25. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 26.
  26. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, p. 50.
  27. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 27.
  28. ^ a b c N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 28.
  29. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 29.
  30. ^ Romila Thapar 2005, p. 121.
  31. ^ a b Aditya Malik 2021, p. 13.
  32. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, p. 138.
  33. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, pp. 29–30.
  34. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 30.
  35. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 31.
  36. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 32.
  37. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 33.
  38. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 34.
  39. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 35.
  40. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 36.
  41. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, pp. 37–38.
  42. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 38.
  43. ^ a b c Aditya Malik 2021, p. 145.
  44. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 39.
  45. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 40.
  46. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 41.
  47. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 42.
  48. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 43.
  49. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 44.
  50. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, p. 148.
  51. ^ a b c N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 45.
  52. ^ N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 46.
  53. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, p. 2.
  54. ^ a b N. J. Kirtane 1899, p. 47.
  55. ^ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 427.
  56. ^ R. B. Singh 1964, p. vi.
  57. ^ Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo 1987, p. 121.
  58. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, pp. 48–49.
  59. ^ Aditya Malik 2021, p. 22.

Bibliography edit

  • Aditya Malik (2021). Hammīra: Chapters in Imagination, Time, History. Religion and Society. Vol. 83. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-065959-7.
  • Asoke Kumar Majumdar (1956). Chaulukyas of Gujarat. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. OCLC 4413150.
  • Cynthia Talbot (2015). The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj Cauhan and the Indian Past, 1200–2000. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107118560.
  • Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo (1987). Archaeology of Orissa: with special reference to Nuapada and Kalahandi. R.N. Bhattacharya. ISBN 9788121200950.
  • N. J. Kirtane, ed. (1899). The Hammira Mahakavya Of Nayachandra Suri. Education Society's Press. OCLC 903939082.
  • R. B. Singh (1964). History of the Chāhamānas. N. Kishore. OCLC 11038728.
  • Romila Thapar (2005). Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History. Verso. ISBN 9781844670208.
  • Phyllis Granoff (2006). "Mountains of Eternity: Raidhū and the Colossal Jinas of Gwalior". Rivista di Studi Sudasiatici. 1. Firenze University Press: 31–50. doi:10.13128/RISS-2455.

External links edit

  • Hammira Mahakavyam (हम्मीरमहाकाव्यम्) in Sanskrit

April 10, 2024
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Hammira Mahakavya IAST Hammira Mahakavya is a 15th century Indian Sanskrit epic poem written by the Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri It is a legendary biography of the 13th century Chahamana king Hammira While not entirely accurate from a historical point of view the text provides valuable information about the medieval history of north western India Hammira MahakavyaAuthorNayachandra SuriOriginal titleहम म र मह क व यCountryIndiaLanguageSanskritSubjectBiographical epic poemGenreEpic EulogyPublication dateEarly 15th centuryTranslationHammira Mahakavya at WikisourceMuch of the text describes Hammira s ancestry and his conquests of the neighbouring Hindu kingdoms The last third part describes his conflict with Ala ud Din Khalji the Sultan of Delhi The text attributes Hammira s defeat against Ala ud Din to betrayal by his officers Contents 1 Authorship and date 2 Content 2 1 Hammira s ancestors 2 2 Legend of Prithviraja III 2 3 Legend of the Ranthambore branch 2 4 Hammira s early reign 2 5 Hammira s conflict with Ala ud Din Khalji 2 6 Hammira s defeat and death 3 Historical reliability 4 See also 5 References 5 1 Bibliography 6 External linksAuthorship and date editHammira Mahakavya was composed by the Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri The author s grandfather and teacher Jayasiṃha Suri was a poet and a scholar Jayasiṃha knew six languages and composed three works Nyaya Saraṭika a Sanskrit grammar and a poem on Kumara Nṛpati 1 The author was not a contemporary of the text s hero Hammira 2 He was possibly a court poet of the Tomara ruler Virama since he states that he wrote the text as a response to a challenge in Virama s court that no contemporary poet was capable of composing a kavya comparable to the works composed by the ancient poets such as Kalidasa Bilhana and others Nayachandra also states that Hammira appeared in his dream urging him to compose Hammira Mahakavya 1 The author states that Hammira appeared in his dream exactly 100 years after his death which happened in 1301 This suggests that the composition of the poem must have began in 1401 3 However the exact date and place of the text s origin are not certain According to scholar Cynthia Talbot it was probably composed around 1400 CE 4 possibly to please a Chauhan Chahamana ruler 2 Based on the assertion that the poem was written as a response to a challenge in Virama s court Phyllis Granoff theorizes that the poem was written at the Tomara court around 1420 CE 5 6 Nayachandra s disciple Nayahamsa made a copy of the manuscript in 1496 CE 7 at Sri Perojpur possibly Firozpur 3 although this is not certain 2 This manuscript was used by N J Kirtane to produce an editio princeps 7 Nayahamsa also added an appendix which praises Nayachandra Suri and his spiritual lineage Kirtane received the manuscript from a person of Nashik who had received it from someone else 2 Content editThe Hammira Mahakavya consists of 1500 verses divided into 14 sargas cantos 1 8 The poem begins with an invocation to Hindu deities and Jain tirthankaras 9 The poet uses several words with double meanings that can refer to either a Hindu deity or a Jain tirthankara E g 10 Nabhibhu navel born or progeny of Nabhi can mean Brahma or the first tirthankara Rishabhanatha Sri Parsva can mean Vishnu or Parshvanatha Saṃkara Viravibhu can mean Shiva or Mahavira Bhisvan Santi can mean Surya the sun or Shantinatha Samudra Janman can refer to Soma the moon or NeminathaThe poem then describes the life Hammira who is compared to the legendary heroes Mandhata Yudhishthira and Rama 11 Cantos 1 4 are devoted to Hammira s ancestors including kings from the Shakambhari Chahamana dynasty 8 Cantos 5 7 describe Hammira s engagement in various services sports and festivities The information contained in this part is of little historical value 12 The next few cantos describe his reign The last third part of the text describes Hammira s conflict with Ala ud Din Khalji the Muslim Sultan of Delhi 13 Hammira s ancestors edit The text gives the following line of succession of the Chahamana kings which does not match exactly with the historical genealogy of the dynasty 14 Chahamana Vasudeva Naradeva Chandraraja Jayapala Chakri Jayaraja Samantasimha Guyaka Nandan Vapraraja Hariraja Simharaja Bhima Vigraharaja Gangadeva Vallabharaja Rama Chamundaraja Durlabharaja Dushala Vishvala Prithviraja Alhana Anala Jagadeva Visala Jayapala Gangapala Someshvara Prithviraja Hariraja Govinda Bilhana Prahlada Viranarayana Vagabhata Jaitrasingh Hammira Much of the information about these ancestors is fanciful in nature 8 For example the dynasty s mythical progenitor Chahamana or Chohan is described as follows Once Brahma wandered in search of a holy place for a sacrifice The lotus held in has hand fell at a spot that later came to be known as Pushkar Brahma decided to conduct a sacrifice at that place and invoked Surya the sun to protect his sacrifice from the danavas demons A hero then sprung from the orb of the sun and protected Brahma s sacrifice With Brahma s blessings this hero became a powerful king 15 Even the description of Hammira s historical ancestors does not provide much information of historical value For example Chandraraja is described as follows 16 Hammira Mahakavya on Chandraraja Chandraraja by his fame and the beauty of his countenance achieving a double conquest over the moon vindicated the appropriate significance of his name which means Lord of the moon Strange was the power of the fire of his valour for it burnt bright in the enemy in whom the stream of bravery flowed while it was extinguished in that enemy who was destitute of this stream The description of the events from the death of Prithviraja III to the reign of Hammira is fairly historical but still not entirely accurate 8 Legend of Prithviraja III edit nbsp A statue of Prithviraja IIIThe text describes Prithviraja III s war against Muhammad of Ghor Shahb ud Din as follows During the just rule of Prithviraja in the East the Muslim king Shahab ud Din began attempts to subjugate the earth The kings of the West led by one Chandraraja appealed Prithviraja to counter Shahab ud Din Chandraraja told Prithviraja that Shahab ud Din had set up his capital at Multan and had defeated the noblest of the Hindu Rajput kings The invader had burned their cities dishonoured their women and reduced them to a sorry state Chandraraja compared Shahab ud Din to Parashurama who had come to exterminate the warrior caste from the earth 17 On hearing this Prithviraja became angry and declared that he would force Shahab ud Din to beg them for an apology on his knees After some days he marched towards Multan and entered Shahab ud Din s territory When the enemy king learned of this he also set out from Multan with an army In the ensuing battle Prithviraja defeated and captured Shahab ud Din The Muslim king was made to bend on his knees and seek forgiveness from the Rajput kings he had harassed Subsequently Prithviraja presented expensive gifts to all the kings including Shahab ud Din and asked them to return home 18 Despite being well treated after his defeat Shahab ud Din felt humiliated and sought revenge He invaded Prithviraja s kingdom seven more times but each time he was defeated Finally he decided to seek help from the king of the Ghataika country 18 From this king he obtained a large infantry and cavalry and captured Delhi When Prithviraja heard about this he had only a small force stationed at his capital Ajmer He asked his general Udayaraja to gather a larger army and immediately set out against Shahab ud Din with the small force Although Prithviraja s contingent was small Shahab ud Din was terrified at this news At night he sent some men to Prithviraja s camp and bribed the cavalry chief and the royal musicians 19 The next morning Shahab ud Din sent a force to attack Prithviraja s camp Prithviraja asked his men to prepare for war The disloyal cavalry chief presented him a dancing horse named Natyarambha As soon as the king mounted this horse the disloyal musicians started playing music 19 The horse started dancing to the music and this performance diverted the king s attention Meanwhile the Muslim soldiers managed to kill a number of Rajputs Prithviraja finally came to his senses dismounted from the horse and killed a number of attackers But then he fell to the ground after an enemy soldier attacked him from behind He was taken captive just as Udayaraja arrived with a larger army Fearing Udayaraja s army Shahab ud Din retreated to Delhi but took the captive Prithviraja with him Udayaraja besieged Yoginipura Delhi for a month in a bid to rescue Prithviraja 20 After being captured Prithviraja refused to eat any food One of Shahab ud Din s advisors remarked that he should release Prithviraja who had released the Muslim king with honour in past Shahab ud Din became angry at this suggestion and ordered Prithviraja to be imprisoned in the fortress Prithviraja died after a few days When Udayaraja heard about this he led his entire army to a decisive battle in which he was defeated and killed 21 Prithviraja was succeeded by Hariraja The new king spent most of his time in company of female dancers who had been presented to him by the king of Gujarat Hariraja squandered the state s revenues on dancers and musicians even as the state s employees were not paid their salaries 21 Shahab ud Din took advantage of these circumstances and invaded Hariraja s kingdom Hariraja who was not prepared for a fight chose to die by self immolation sak along with his family members 22 Legend of the Ranthambore branch edit nbsp Ranthambore FortGovindaraja had established a new kingdom with its capital at Ranathambore after being banished by his father Following Hariraja s defeat several of Ajmer s officials sought his asylum Govindaraja treated them well and appointed them to suitable offices 22 After Govindaraja s death Balhana ascended the throne Before his death Balhana appointed his elder son Prahlada as the new king and his younger son Vagabhata as the prime minister Prahlada once killed a lion during a hunting expedition As his party celebrated the killing another lion severely injured him On his deathbed Vagabhata promised to serve his son Viranarayana faithfully 23 When Viranarayana became an adult his marriage was arranged to the Kachhavaha princess of Jayapura He set out for the Kachhavaha capital Amarapur for the marriage ceremony but was forced to retreat because of a surprise attack by the Delhi Sultan Jalal ud din Unable to defeat Viranarayana in the battle Jalal ud Din made a plan to subdue him using deceitful means He sent a flattering message to Viranarayana stating that he was greatly impressed by his bravery and wanted to be friends 23 Viranarayana believed that a friendship with the Delhi Sultan would help him against his rival Vigraha of Vakshasthalapura He therefore accepted the Jalal ud Din s invitation to Delhi Vagabhata advised him against this move but the king insultingly rejected his advice A dejected Vagabhata left for Malwa Other courtiers also advised Viranarayana against accepting Jalal ud din s friendship but the king didn t heed their advice He went to Delhi where he was received warmly but ended up being poisoned after a few days 24 Jalal ud Din then captured Ranthambore and sent a message to the king of Malwa ordering him to kill Vagabhata But Vagabhata discovered this and killed the king of Malwa He then gathered an army of Rajputs and formed an alliance with the Kharpuras Mongols who had rebelled against the Delhi Sultanate With this army he recaptured Ranthambore He safeguarded the kingdom by placing large forces at the various frontier posts and died after a reign of 12 years 25 Vagabhata was succeeded by Jaitrasingh He fulfilled the desire of his pregnant queen Hira Devi to bathe herself in the blood of the Sakas Muslims 25 26 When her son Hammira was born the astrologers predicted that he would drench the earth with the blood of his Muslim enemies Hammira grew up to be a handsome man and his father arranged his marriage to 7 beautiful women In 1283 CE Jaitrasingh appointed Hammira as his successor and retired to forest 27 Hammira s early reign edit nbsp Hammira s palace at the Ranthambore FortSoon after becoming the king Hammira waged wars to expand his kingdom First he subdued Arjuna the king of Saraspura Next he forced the ruler of Gadhamandala to pay him a tribute After this he marched to Malwa where he defeated Bhoja II 27 His army marched in a victory procession at Ujjain where he prayed to Mahakala On the way back to Ranthambore he marched to Chitrakuta Chittor and sacked Medapata modern Mewar 28 Subsequently Hammira stayed for some days at the ashram of sage Vasishtha Although he followed the religion of the Vedas he also prayed at the temple of the Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva 28 Hammira then marched to Abu The king of Abu was a great warrior but chose to accept Hammira s suzerainty After leaving Abu Hammira plundered Varddhanapura and Changa He then proceeded to Pushkar via Ajmer At Pushkar he worshipped Adivaraha and then marched to Shakambhari During this journey he plundered multiple towns including Marhata Khandilla Chamda and Kankroli He then returned to his capital Ranthmabore 28 Some days later Hammira s spiritual guide Vishvarupa informed him that one could gain entry into heaven by performing the Koti yajna sacrifice Hammira performed this sacrifice in accordance with the shastras He invited Brahmins from all over the country and made generous donations to them He also engaged in the month long Munivrata observance 29 Hammira s conflict with Ala ud Din Khalji edit Meanwhile Ala ud Din Khalji had ascended the throne of Delhi In third year of Ala ud Din s reign his Mongol also called Mughal or Mudgal 30 noblemen rebelled against him and were given asylum by Hammira in the Ranthambore Fort 11 These included Mahima Sahi or Mahimashahi Indianized version of Muhammad Shah 31 He sent his younger brother Ullu Khan 32 Ulugh Khan to sack Ranthambore because unlike Jaitrasingh Hammira did not pay any tribute to the Delhi Sultanate Ullu Khan s army entered Hammira s territory but could not march to Ranthambore because his cavalry could not cross the Varnanasha river Ullu Khan encamped on the banks of the river burning and destroying several nearby villages Hammira was still engaged in the Munivrata observance and therefore could not personally lead an army against Ullu Khan He sent his generals Bhimasingh and Dharmasingh to counter the Delhi army In the ensuing battle Ullu Khan suffered a defeat and lost several of his soldiers When Bhimasingh started marching back to Ranthambore Ullu Khan secretly followed him with a large army Bhimasingh s soldiers had captured a large amount of wealth in the battle and had marched ahead to carry it safely to Ranthambore Bhimasingh was left with a small number of men Ullu Khan attacked this small detachment killed Bhimasingh and then returned to Delhi 33 In Ranthambore Hammira had finished his sacrifice by the time he learned about Bhimasingh s death He ordered Dharmasingh to be blinded and castrated for deserting Bhimasingh 34 Dharmasingh decided to avenge his humiliation and befriended a courtesan named Radha Devi who told him about all the happenings at the royal court One day Radha Devi told him that many of Hammira s horses had died of a disease He communicated to the king through Radha Devi that he would present the king with many horses if restored to his former post The king agreed and Dharmasingh gradually gained his confidence by filling the royal treasury with wealth confiscated from the citizens This made the citizens detest Hammira 35 The king s brother Bhoja tried to warn him against Dharmasingh s activities but the king was very pleased with Dharmasingh s revenue generation and entrusted full powers to Dharmasingh 36 Dejected Bhoja and his younger brother Pitama decided to leave the kingdom They told Hammira that they were leaving for Varanasi 36 But after departing from Hammira s court they went to Yoginipura Delhi and started serving Ala ud Din At his instigation Ala ud Din ordered Ullu Khan to invade Hammira s kingdom with a 100 000 horse cavalry 37 Hammira ordered his eight generals to attack the invading army from eight directions The Delhi army was defeated and forced to flee the battlefield 38 After Hammira s victory celebrations were over his Mongol chiefs sought his permission to punish Bhoja The request was granted and the Mongol chief Mahima Sahi raided Jagara where he captured Pitama 39 Ullu Khan and Bhoja implored Ala ud Din Khalji to punish Hammira The Delhi Sultan then raised an army by seeking forces from other rulers These included the kings of Anga Telanga Magadha Maisur Kalinga Banga Bhot Medapata Panchal Bangal Thamim Bhilla Nepal Dahal and the Himalayan foothills These kings agreed to contribute to Ala ud Din s campaign for different reasons including their love for war the prospect of plunder or simply the desire to watch a battle 40 Ala ud Din dispatched a massive army to Ranthambore led by his brother Ullu Khan and Nusrat Khan The army was so large that its horses drank up all the waters of rivers on the way Ala ud Din himself stayed behind with a reserve force After reaching a difficult mountain pass on the borders of the enemy territory Ullu Khan advised Nusrat not to rely solely on a more powerful army He made a plan to cross this mountain pass without being attacked In accordance with this plan Ullu and Nusrat sent Molhana Deva to negotiate a peace treaty with Hammira While the negotiations were pending Hammira s forces allowed the invading army to cross the mountain pass without being attacked Hammira s camp believed that they had trapped their rivals into their territory while the Delhi forces believed that they had managed to secure an advantageous position in the enemy territory 41 Meanwhile in Hammira s court Molhana Deva told Hammira that he will to have accept one of the following conditions in order to conclude a peace treaty with Ala ud Din Khalji 42 Pay a tribute of 100 000 gold coins 4 elephants and 300 horses Marry Hammira s daughter to Ala ud Din Surrender the four rebel Mongol chiefs to Ala ud Din A battle comparable to the Mahabharata went on for two days such that it seemed that the sun had travelled to the far mountain behind which the sun sets in the west in order to speak to the horizon In this battle 85 000 great radiant Yavana warriors arrived in Yama Loka Hammira Mahakavya 43 Hammira rejected the conditions leading to a battle Nusrat Khan was killed in this battle Ullu Khan had to abandon the attack at the onset of the monsoon rains He retreated to some distance from Ranthambore and sent a message to Ala ud Din asking for help along with Nusrat s dead body Ala ud Din then himself led a force to Ranthambore and besieged the fort After two days of unsuccessfully trying to capture the fort he sent a message to Hammira praising the Chahamana king s bravery and promising to grant his any wish Hammira replied that he wished to fight with Ala ud Din for two days In the ensuing battle the invading army lost around 85 000 men Subsequently both the parties agreed to a temporary ceasefire 44 She Dhara devi was paying attention to her breasts and bottom that seemed to be competing with each other in largeness Her body which seemed to be made for pleasure like a slender vine was intoxicating With endearing sideways glances which seemed to revive the lord of love she penetrated the minds of the courtiers and made them exultant The courtiers kept eyeing her up and down like a monkey climbing up and down a vine Hammira Mahakavya 43 During the truce Hammira s courtesan Radha Devi or Dhara devi 43 performed a dance on a wall of the fort She purposely turned her back towards Ala ud Din Khalji who was encamped near the fort 45 Angry at her conduct Ala ud Din asked for someone who could kill the dancer with an arrow One of his subordinate chiefs told him that only a captive named Uddanasingh was capable of this Ala ud Din ordered the release of Uddanasingh who killed Radha Devi with an arrow In response Hammira s Mongol chief Mahima Sahi killed Uddanasingh with same arrow 46 Hammira s defeat and death edit Mahima Sahi s feat of archery greatly intimidated Ala ud Din who moved his camp from the eastern side of the fort to the safer western side When this happened the Chahamanas realized that Ala ud Din s soldiers had been constructing a tunnel to the fort They used cannon fire to kill these underground workers and destroy their work Ala ud Din faced further trouble when a group of rams ransacked his camp Frustrated Ala ud Din asked Hammira to send the Chahamana general Ratipala to conclude a peace treaty Hammira sent Ratipala to hear Ala ud Din s offer but this irked another Chahamana general Ranamalla who was unhappy about not being chosen to visit Ala ud Din 46 When Ratipala came to Ala ud Din s camp he was received with great honour The Delhi Sultan presented him gifts took him to his harem and let him eat and drink in private with the Sultan s sister Ala ud Din then promised to make Ratipala the governor of Ranthambore in return for his help in conquering the fort 47 Ratnapala agreed to Ala ud Din s proposal to betray Hammira Upon returning to the fort he greatly exaggerated the strength of Ala ud Din s army He then told Hammira that Ranamalla was angry with the king and recommended that Hammira talk to him in the private to ensure his support against Ala ud Din Next Ratipala approached Ranamalla and told him that Hammira was angry with him and planned to imprison him that night Ratipala advised Ranamalla to escape the fort and seek shelter with Ala ud Din 48 Ratipala also spread a rumor among the queens that Ala ud Din s only condition for peace was marrying Hammira s daughter Devall devi Hammira s queens convinced his daughter to agree to the marriage but Hammira rejected this proposal 49 50 Hammira s brother Virama warned the king that Ratipala seemed drunk and therefore should not be believed Virama recommended that the king order Ratipala s killing but Hammira dismissed his concerns Hammira argued that the fort was strong enough to resist the enemy attack and expressed concern that if Ratipala was innocent his killing would demoralize others 49 Hammira then decided to visit Ranamalla to seek his support as advised by Ratipala When Ranamalla heard about the king s visit he thought that the king was coming to imprison him He and his men left immediately and sought shelter with Ala ud Din Soon after Ratipala also joined him 51 Hammira now decided to prepare for a battle He asked his Kothari store keeper about the status of the fort s granary The granary had run out of foodgrains But the Kothari fearing for his job told the king that there were enough foodgrains for a prolonged siege Nevertheless the king soon learned the truth and ordered the killing of the Kothari 51 Disturbed by the events of the day especially the betrayals by his own men Hammira could not sleep at night 51 The next day Hammira s men prepared for a final war determined to fight to death Hammira offered his loyal Mongol chief Mahima Sahi the option to leave as he did not want a foreigner dying for him But Mahima Sahi readied for the battle and killed all the female members of his family Hammira s queens including Ranga Devi or Arangi devi and daughters including Devall devi also killed themselves by self immolation to avoid being captured by the enemy soldiers 52 53 After performing a funeral ceremony for the deceased Hammira and his loyal men attacked Ala ud Din s camp A deadly battle ensued in which Hammira s loyal generals died one by one Virama Mahima Sahi Jaja Gangadhar Tak and Kshetrasingh Paramara Finally Hammira also fell pierced by a hundred arrows 54 He then slit his own throat to avoid capture 31 This event happened during the 18th year of his reign in the Shravana month 54 Historical reliability editHammira Mahakavya does not provide a satisfactorily correct genealogy of the Chahamana kings Nilkanth Janardan Kirtane who translated the text into English in 1899 dismisses the text s description of the early Chahamana kings as filled with fanciful conceptions aimed at providing the author an opportunity to showcase his power for poetical conceits According to him the text is fairly historic in its description of the kings from Prithviraja III to Hammira but even in this portion the author sometimes relapses into rhapsody which amounts to a confession of his ignorance of the historical facts 8 Historian Asoke Kumar Majumdar agrees with Kirtane s assessment and describes certain parts of the text as very unreliable specifically the portion which claims that Vigraharaja II killed Mularaja and conquered Gujarat 55 Historian R B Singh of Gorakhpur University notes that as a source for the history of the Chahamanas Hammira Mahakavya is less reliable than Prithviraja Vijaya as the former was composed two centuries later 56 Historian Kalika Ranjan Kanungo describes Hammira Mahakavya as well as the later text Hammira Raso as pseudo historical poems 57 Aziz Ahmed 1963 describes it an unhistorical text that contains fantastical details 58 Muni Jinavijaya 1968 presents the text as a national poem portraying Hammira as an Indian hero who fought against a foreign Muslim ruler 59 See also editAlauddin Khalji s conquest of RanthamboreReferences edit a b c Aditya Malik 2021 p 7 a b c d Cynthia Talbot 2015 p 54 a b Aditya Malik 2021 p 15 Cynthia Talbot 2015 p 51 Phyllis Granoff 2006 p 42 Aditya Malik 2021 p 313 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 6 a b c d e N J Kirtane 1899 p 10 N J Kirtane 1899 p 8 Aditya Malik 2021 p 45 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 9 N J Kirtane 1899 p 11 Romila Thapar 2005 pp 120 121 N J Kirtane 1899 pp 14 15 N J Kirtane 1899 pp 11 12 N J Kirtane 1899 p 13 N J Kirtane 1899 p 17 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 18 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 19 N J Kirtane 1899 p 20 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 21 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 22 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 24 N J Kirtane 1899 pp 25 26 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 26 Aditya Malik 2021 p 50 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 27 a b c N J Kirtane 1899 p 28 N J Kirtane 1899 p 29 Romila Thapar 2005 p 121 a b Aditya Malik 2021 p 13 Aditya Malik 2021 p 138 N J Kirtane 1899 pp 29 30 N J Kirtane 1899 p 30 N J Kirtane 1899 p 31 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 32 N J Kirtane 1899 p 33 N J Kirtane 1899 p 34 N J Kirtane 1899 p 35 N J Kirtane 1899 p 36 N J Kirtane 1899 pp 37 38 N J Kirtane 1899 p 38 a b c Aditya Malik 2021 p 145 N J Kirtane 1899 p 39 N J Kirtane 1899 p 40 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 41 N J Kirtane 1899 p 42 N J Kirtane 1899 p 43 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 44 Aditya Malik 2021 p 148 a b c N J Kirtane 1899 p 45 N J Kirtane 1899 p 46 Aditya Malik 2021 p 2 a b N J Kirtane 1899 p 47 Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956 p 427 R B Singh 1964 p vi Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo 1987 p 121 Aditya Malik 2021 pp 48 49 Aditya Malik 2021 p 22 Bibliography edit Aditya Malik 2021 Hammira Chapters in Imagination Time History Religion and Society Vol 83 De Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 065959 7 Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956 Chaulukyas of Gujarat Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan OCLC 4413150 Cynthia Talbot 2015 The Last Hindu Emperor Prithviraj Cauhan and the Indian Past 1200 2000 Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107118560 Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo 1987 Archaeology of Orissa with special reference to Nuapada and Kalahandi R N Bhattacharya ISBN 9788121200950 N J Kirtane ed 1899 The Hammira Mahakavya Of Nayachandra Suri Education Society s Press OCLC 903939082 R B Singh 1964 History of the Chahamanas N Kishore OCLC 11038728 Romila Thapar 2005 Somanatha The Many Voices of a History Verso ISBN 9781844670208 Phyllis Granoff 2006 Mountains of Eternity Raidhu and the Colossal Jinas of Gwalior Rivista di Studi Sudasiatici 1 Firenze University Press 31 50 doi 10 13128 RISS 2455 External links editHammira Mahakavyam हम म रमह क व यम in Sanskrit Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hammira Mahakavya amp oldid 1218105589, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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