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Kalachuris of Tripuri

August 02, 2023

For other Kalachuris dynasties, see Kalachuri dynasty (disambiguation).

The Kalachuris of Tripuri (IAST: Kalacuri), also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes, especially the Kalachuris of Mahishmati.[2] Their core territory included the historical Chedi region (also known as Dahala-mandala), and their capital was located at Tripuri (present-day Tewar near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh).

Kalachuris of Tripuri
possibly 7th century–c. 1212 CE
Coinage of king Gangeyadeva (c. 1015-1041) of the Kalachuris of Tripuri. Obverse: Lakshmi seated. Reverse: “Śrimad Gangeya Devah” in three lines.
Territory of the Later Kalacuris during the reign of Lakshmikarna, circa 1050 CE.[1]
CapitalTripuri
Religion
Hinduism
Jainism
GovernmentMonarchy
History 
• Established
possibly 7th century
• Disestablished
c. 1212 CE
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Today part ofIndia

The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, although one theory connects them to the Kalachuris of Mahishmati. By the 10th century, the Kalachuris of Tripuri had consolidated their power by raiding neighbouring territories and by fighting wars with the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Chandelas and the Paramaras. They also had matrimonial relations with the Rashtrakutas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.

In the 1030s, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva assumed imperial titles after achieving military successes at his eastern and northern frontiers. The kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of his son Lakshmikarna (1041-1073 CE), who assumed the title Chakravartin after military campaigns against several neighbouring kingdoms. He also controlled a part of the Paramara and Chandela kingdoms for a brief period.

The dynasty gradually declined after Lakshmikarna, whose successors lost control of their northern territories to the Gahadavalas. Trailokyamalla, the last known ruler of the dynasty, ruled at least until 1212 CE, but it is not certain how and when his reign ended. In the later half of the 13th century, the former Kalachuri territories came under the control of the Paramaras and the Chandelas, and ultimately under the Delhi Sultanate. A branch of the dynasty, the Kalachuris of Ratnapura, ruled at Ratnapura (now Ratanpur) in present-day Chhattisgarh.

Origins

The Kalachuri inscriptions, such as the Gyaraspur inscription of prince Valleka (a son of Kokalla I), trace the dynasty's ancestry to Kartavirya Arjuna, a legendary Heheya king who ruled from Mahishmati.[3] According to the 12th century poem Prithviraja Vijaya, the dynasty descended from Kartavirya Arjuna through one Sahasika ("courageous"), who was a maternal ancestor of the poem's hero Prithviraja III. The poem traces Kartavirya Arjuna's mythical ancestry to the deity Chandra (the moon) and his son Budha (the mercury).[4]

Historian V. V. Mirashi connected the Kalachuris of Tripuri to the early Kalachuris of Mahishmati, who ruled in the west-central India. Mirashi theorized that the early Kalachuris moved their capital from Mahishmati to Kalanjara at the end of the 7th century, and finally moved to Tripuri.[5] However, there is no concrete evidence that conclusively proves that the two dynasties were related.[6]

History

 
The Karna temple at Amarkantak, built by Lakshmikarna

Little is known about the earliest rulers of the dynasty, who find mentions in the inscriptional genealogies. The earliest extant inscriptions of the dynasty have been discovered at Chhoti Deori and Sagar. These inscriptions are from the reign of Shankaragana I, and have been dated to the 8th century CE.[7]

As Rashtrakuta and Pratihara feudatories

The Karitalai inscription of Lakshmanaraja I (825-850 CE) eulogizes a Rashtrakuta king (whose name is lost), and mentions the defeat of one Nagabhata (presumably the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II). This suggests that during this time, the Kalachuris were subordinate to their southern neighbours - the Rashtrakuta emperors, and fought against their northern neighbours - the Pratihara emperors. They had multiple marital connections to the Rashtrakutas. However, by the time of Lakshmanaraja's son or grandson Kokalla I (r. c. 850-890 CE), they had shifted their allegiance to the Pratiharas.[8]

Kokalla I appears to have been the first powerful ruler of the dynasty, as he finds regular mentions in the genealogies of the later Kalachuri rulers. According to the Ratnapura Kalachuri inscriptions, he had 18 sons, the eldest of whom succeeded him on the throne, while the others became provincial governors. The number 18 probably should not be taken literally in this context, as it was considered an auspicious number, and in this context, may have been used to indicate that Kokalla had many sons. The eldest son was presumably Shankaragana II, whom modern scholars identify with the person mentioned by the names "Prasiddha-dhavala", "Mugdha-tunga", and "Rana-vigraha" in various sources. Of the other sons, an unnamed prince became the progenitor of the Ratnapura branch. Other sons of Kokalla I included Arjuna, who is mentioned in Rashtrakuta inscriptions; and Valleka or Vallavati, who is known by his Gyaraspur inscription.[9]

 
Amarkantak Temple.

Valleka's inscription states that he was a son of queen Nata, who can be identified with the Chandela princess "Natta" mentioned as a wife of Kokalla in the Varanasi inscription of the later ruler Karna.[10] Valleka appears to have been the last (or one of the last) Kalachuri governor of the area around Gyaraspur, which subsequently became a part of the Chandela territory.[11] The inscription states that Valleka served king Bhoja, who is described as the ruler of the earth, and mentions that Valleka defeated several other kings in Bhoja's service.[12] King Bhoja can be identified with the Gurjara-Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja, who is also mentioned in other Kalachuri inscriptions. These other inscriptions include the Bilhari inscription, which describes Bhoja as one of the "pillars of glory" erected by Kokalla I; and the Varanasi inscription, which describes Bhoja as a recipient of Kokalla's protection. The descriptions in these two inscriptions had led earlier scholars to believe that Kokalla subjugated Bhoja, but Valleka's inscription suggests that the Kalachuris were subordinate to the Pratihara emperor Bhoja.[13]

Based on Valleka's inscription, epigraphist Richard G. Salomon theorizes that Kokalla I was a subordinate of Bhoja, and played an important role in expanding the south-eastern borders of the Pratihara empire.[14] His submission to Bhoja may have been nominal, and he appears to have laid the foundation of Kalachuri empire by expanding his own sphere of influence in the southern part of the Pratihara empire.[8] The later Kalachuri inscriptions greatly exaggerate Kokalla's glory, and use wording that plays down the subordinate position of the Kalachuris.[15]

Early sovereigns

After the decline of the Rashtrakuta and Pratihara empires, the Kalachuris assumed independence, probably during the reign of Yuvaraja-deva I (915-945 CE).[8]

Shankaragana III, who ascended the Kalachuri throne around 970 CE, adopted an aggressive expansion policy. He defeated the contemporary Gurjara-Pratihara king, who was probably Vijayapala. He probably died in a battle against the Chandelas.[16] Shankaragana was succeeded by his younger brother Yuvarajadeva II, who established matrimonial relations with the Kalyani Chalukya ruler Tailapa II.[17] The Paramara king Munja, who was an enemy of Tailapa, invaded the Kalachuri kingdom and raided their capital Tripuri.[18] After the death of Yuvarajadeva II, the ministers placed his son Kokalla II on the throne.[19]

According to the Gurgi inscription of Kokalla, three neighbouring kings were afraid of him: the Gurjara king (possibly the weak Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Rajyapala), the Gauda king (the Pala ruler Mahipala), and the Kuntala king (the Kalayani Chalukya king Vikramaditya V). These claims suggest that Kokalla raided the territories of these kings.[19]

Gangeyadeva, the son and successor of Kokalla II, ascended the throne around 1015 CE.[20] During the early part of his reign, he served as a vassal to another king, possibly the Paramara king Bhoja.[21] He fought a war against the Chalukyas of Kalyani, possibly as a vassal of Bhoja. The triple alliance of Bhoja, Gangeyadeva and Rajendra Chola engaged the Chalukya king Jayasimha II at multiple frontiers.[22] Both Kalachuri and Chalukya inscriptions claim success in this war: it appears that Gangeyadeva and his allies were repulsed after achieving some initial successes.[20]

Bhoja defeated Gangeyadeva in a war, but there is some uncertainty regarding the exact chronology. According to one theory, Bhoja defeated Gangeyadeva before the anti-Chalukya campaign, in which Gangeyadeva fought as a Paramara vassal.[21] Another theory is that the two turned enemies after their campaign against the Chalukyas.[23]

Imperial expansion

 
Dancing Ganesha, Madhya Pradesh, Kalacuri, 10th century CE.[24]

In the 1030s, Gangeyadeva achieved military successes at his eastern and northern frontiers, and assumed the titles of a sovereign emperor.[25] In the east, he raided Utkala, assisted by his Ratnapura vassals. The Kalachuris probably defeated the Bhauma-Kara king Shubhakara II in this war.[20] Gangeyadeva also seems to have fought an inconclusive war against Yayati, the Somavanshi ruler of Dakshina Kosala.[20]

In the north, Gangeyadeva expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Chandelas, who had been weakened by Ghaznavid invasions.[26] He suffered a defeat against the Chandela king Vijayapala,[27] but ultimately extended his control over the sacred cities of Varanasi and Prayaga.[25] During his reign, the Ghaznavid general Ahmad Niyaltigin raided Varanasi in 1033 CE.[28]

Gangeyadeva's successor Lakshmikarna (r. c. 1041-1073 CE), was the most noted military commander of the dynasty. He assumed the title Chakravartin after several successful campaigns against his neighbours. In the east, he invaded Anga and Vanga (modern Bengal).[29] In Vanga, he defeated a Chandra king, possibly Govindachandra.[29] Later, Lakshmikarna also invaded the Pala-ruled Gauda region.[30] His invasion was repulsed by Nayapala. The Tibetan accounts suggest that the Buddhist monk Atisha negotiated a peace treaty between the two kings.[31] Lakshmikarna also seems to have raided Gauda during the reign of Nayapala's successor Vigrahapala III. The two kings ultimately concluded a peace treaty, with Lakshmikarna's daughter Yuvanashri marrying the Pala king.[30]

In the south-west, Lakshmikarna fought an inconclusive war with the Kalyani Chalukya king Someshvara I.[29] He also seems to have fought with his south-eastern neighbour, the Chola king Rajadhiraja.[29] In the east, he defeated a Gurjara king, who can be identified with the Chaulukya king Bhima I.[29]

In the mid-1050s, Lakshmikarna and Bhima allied against the Paramara king Bhoja. The two attacked the Paramara kingdom of Malwa simultaneously from opposite directions.[30] According to the 14th century chronicler Merutunga, Bhoja died just as the two kings attacked Malwa. Lakshmikarna seized the Paramara kingdom, prompting Bhima to launch an expedition to recover his share of the war spoils.[30] Within a short time, Lakshmikarna lost the control of Malwa to Bhoja's successor Jayasimha, who received help from the Kalyani Chalukya prince Vikramaditya VI[30] Subsequently, Karna allied with Vikramaditya's rival and brother Someshvara II, and again invaded Malwa. However, the two were forced to retreat by Bhoja's brother Udayaditya.[32]

Lakshmikarna also subjugated the Chandela king Devavarman (r. c. 1050-1060 CE), who seems to have died in a battle against him.[30] He seems to have retained control of a large part of the Chandela territory for over a decade, before being ousted by Devavarman's successor Kirttivarman in the 1070s CE.[30]

Decline

class=notpageimage|
Main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent.[33][34]

Lakshmikarna's son Yashahkarna (r. c. 1073-1123 CE) raided some neighbouring territories, but lost the northern parts of his kingdom, including Varanasi, to the Gahadavalas.[35] He also suffered defeats against the Paramara king Lakshmadeva and the Chandela king Sallakshanavarman.[36]

Yashahkarna's son Gayakarna married a granddaughter of the Paramara king Udayaditya, which led to peace between the two kingdoms.[36] However, he seems to have suffered reverses against the Chandela king Madanavarman.[37] The Kalachuris of Ratnapura, who had earlier served as vassals of the Tripuri Kalachuris, declared their independence during Gayakarna's reign. Gayakarna unsuccessfully tried to reduce them to submission.[36]

Gayakarna's son Narasimha recovered the territories lost to Madanavarman. Narasimha seems to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha.[36] Jayasimha suffered a defeat against the Chandela king Paramardi. He also sent an unsuccessful expedition against the Ratnapura Kalachuris to reduce them to submission.[38]

During the reign of Jayasimha's successor Vijayasimha, a northern feudatory named Sallakshana unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Kalachuri suzerainty.[39] Vijayasimha's successor Trailokyamalla is known to have ruled at least until 1212 CE. He claimed the title "Lord of Kanyakubja", but in absence of any corroborative evidence, it cannot be said with certainty if he actually captured Kanyakubja.[39]

Trailokyamalla is the last known king of his dynasty. It is not known when and how his rule ended. It is known that in the later half of the 13th century, the former Kalachuri territories came under the control of the Paramaras, Chandelas, the Delhi Sultanate and the Seunas (Yadavas of Devagiri).[40]

Religion

 
Virateshwar temple at Sohagpur, built during the Kalachuri reign

Shaivism is the predominant faith referred to in the Tripuri Kalachuri inscriptions.[41] Several Shaiva leaders (acharya) served as royal preceptors (rajaguru) to Kalachuri kings; these included Purusha-shiva (to Yashahkarna), Shakti-shiva (to Gayakarna), Kirti-shiva (to Narasimha), and Vimala-shiva (to Jayasimha).[42] Gangeyadeva installed a Shivalinga at Piawan,[29] and his son Lakshmikarna built the Karna-meru temple at Varanasi, which was probably dedicated to Shiva. Yashahkarna is said to have worshipped at the Shiva temple in Draksharama during an invasion of the Andhra region.[35] The patronage of Gayakarna's queen Alhanadevi led to the rise of Pashupata Shaivite religious leaders in the Kalachuri kingdom.[36]

The Gyaraspur inscription of Kokalla I's son Valleka, which records the foundation of a Jain temple by the prince, prominently features Shaivite imagery and wording, with Vaishnavite overtones.[41] Since this inscription is the only Jain-affiliated record of the dynasty, it is not clear if such syncretistic tendency was a feature of Jainism practised in the Kalachuri territory, or if the inscription is a one-off case.[43] The temple mentioned in the inscription may be the present-day Maladevi temple, which features a mixture of Jain and Brahmanical iconography.[44]

List of rulers

The following is a list of the Tripuri Kalachuri rulers, with estimates of their reigns:[45]

 
Find spots of the inscriptions issued during the Tripuri Kalachuri reign (blue)[46][47] and their Ratnapura vassals (gray)[48][49]

References

  1. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical Atlas of South Asia. Oxford University Press, Digital South Asia Library. p. 147, Map "k".
  2. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 146, map XIV.2 (b). ISBN 0226742210.
  3. ^ a b Richard Salomon 1996, p. 151.
  4. ^ D. C. Sircar 1971, p. 153.
  5. ^ V. V. Mirashi 1974, p. 376.
  6. ^ R. K. Sharma 1980, p. 8.
  7. ^ Om Prakash Misra 2003, p. 13.
  8. ^ a b c Richard Salomon 1996, p. 154.
  9. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, pp. 149–150.
  10. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, p. 133.
  11. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, p. 150.
  12. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, pp. 146–147.
  13. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, pp. 151–152.
  14. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, p. 152.
  15. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, pp. 152–153.
  16. ^ V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 486.
  17. ^ V. V. Mirashi 1957, pp. 486–487.
  18. ^ V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 487.
  19. ^ a b V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 488.
  20. ^ a b c d V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 489.
  21. ^ a b Krishna Narain Seth 1978, p. 170.
  22. ^ Krishna Narain Seth 1978, pp. 144–145.
  23. ^ Mahesh Singh 1984, p. 65.
  24. ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
  25. ^ a b V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 490.
  26. ^ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 98.
  27. ^ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 88.
  28. ^ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 100.
  29. ^ a b c d e f V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 491.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 492.
  31. ^ Alaka Chattopadhyaya 1999, p. 98.
  32. ^ V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 493.
  33. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 37, 147. ISBN 0226742210.
  34. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (25 July 2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765. Penguin UK. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-14-196655-7.
  35. ^ a b V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 494.
  36. ^ a b c d e V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 495.
  37. ^ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 112–113.
  38. ^ V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 496.
  39. ^ a b c V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 497.
  40. ^ V. V. Mirashi 1957, p. 498.
  41. ^ a b Richard Salomon 1996, p. 155.
  42. ^ R. K. Sharma 1980, p. 84.
  43. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, pp. 155–156.
  44. ^ Richard Salomon 1996, p. 156.
  45. ^ Rajiv Kumar Verma 2015.
  46. ^ Om Prakash Misra 2003, pp. 13–14.
  47. ^ Vibhuti Bhushan Mishra 1973, p. 157.
  48. ^ Rajiv Kumar Verma 2015, p. 59.
  49. ^ Om Prakash Misra 2003, p. 14.

Bibliography

  • Alaka Chattopadhyaya (1999). Atisa and Tibet. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0928-4.
  • R. K. Dikshit (1976). The Candellas of Jejākabhukti. Abhinav. ISBN 9788170170464.
  • V. V. Mirashi (1957). "The Kalacuris". In R. S. Sharma (ed.). A Comprehensive history of India: A.D. 985-1206. Vol. 4 (Part 1). Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-7007-121-1.
  • V. V. Mirashi (1974). Bhavabhuti. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1180-5.
  • Vibhuti Bhushan Mishra (1973). Religious Beliefs and Practices of North India During the Early Mediaeval Period. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-03610-5.
  • Om Prakash Misra (2003). Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-7099-874-7.
  • Sisirkumar Mitra (1977). The Early Rulers of Khajurāho. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120819979.
  • Richard Salomon (1996). "British Museum stone inscription of the Tripurī Kalacuri prince Valleka". Indo-Iranian Journal. 39 (2): 133–161. doi:10.1163/000000096790084999. JSTOR 24662062.
  • Krishna Narain Seth (1978). The Growth of the Paramara Power in Malwa. Progress. OCLC 8931757.
  • R. K. Sharma (1980). The Kalachuris and their times. Sundeep. OCLC 7816720.
  • Singh, Mahesh (1984). Bhoja Paramāra and His Times. Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  • D. C. Sircar (1971). Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-2790-5.
  • Rajiv Kumar Verma (2015). "Kalachuri Inscriptions : A Reflection of Dwindling Political Power" (PDF). Veethika. 1 (3).

Further reading

  • Rakhal Das Banerji (1931). The Haihayas of Tripuri and Their Monuments. Government of India.
  • Ramnika Jalali; Rajni Mankotia (2003). A Glimpse of Kalachuris of Tripurari. Vinod. ISBN 978-81-85599-59-5.
  • Inscriptions Of The Kalachuri Chedi Era, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume 4 (Part 1 and Part 2)

August 02, 2023
kalachuris, tripuri, other, kalachuris, dynasties, kalachuri, dynasty, disambiguation, iast, kalacuri, also, known, kalachuris, chedi, ruled, parts, central, india, during, 13th, centuries, they, also, known, later, kalachuris, distinguish, them, from, their, . For other Kalachuris dynasties see Kalachuri dynasty disambiguation The Kalachuris of Tripuri IAST Kalacuri also known the Kalachuris of Chedi ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes especially the Kalachuris of Mahishmati 2 Their core territory included the historical Chedi region also known as Dahala mandala and their capital was located at Tripuri present day Tewar near Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh Kalachuris of Tripuripossibly 7th century c 1212 CECoinage of king Gangeyadeva c 1015 1041 of the Kalachuris of Tripuri Obverse Lakshmi seated Reverse Srimad Gangeya Devah in three lines Territory of the Later Kalacuris during the reign of Lakshmikarna circa 1050 CE 1 CapitalTripuriReligionHinduismJainismGovernmentMonarchyHistory Establishedpossibly 7th century Disestablishedc 1212 CEPreceded by Succeeded byGurjara PratiharasKalachuri dynasty GahadavalaChandelaParamaraSeuna Yadava dynastyKalachuris of RatnapuriToday part ofIndiaThe origin of the dynasty is uncertain although one theory connects them to the Kalachuris of Mahishmati By the 10th century the Kalachuris of Tripuri had consolidated their power by raiding neighbouring territories and by fighting wars with the Gurjara Pratiharas the Chandelas and the Paramaras They also had matrimonial relations with the Rashtrakutas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani In the 1030s the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva assumed imperial titles after achieving military successes at his eastern and northern frontiers The kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of his son Lakshmikarna 1041 1073 CE who assumed the title Chakravartin after military campaigns against several neighbouring kingdoms He also controlled a part of the Paramara and Chandela kingdoms for a brief period The dynasty gradually declined after Lakshmikarna whose successors lost control of their northern territories to the Gahadavalas Trailokyamalla the last known ruler of the dynasty ruled at least until 1212 CE but it is not certain how and when his reign ended In the later half of the 13th century the former Kalachuri territories came under the control of the Paramaras and the Chandelas and ultimately under the Delhi Sultanate A branch of the dynasty the Kalachuris of Ratnapura ruled at Ratnapura now Ratanpur in present day Chhattisgarh Contents 1 Origins 2 History 2 1 As Rashtrakuta and Pratihara feudatories 2 2 Early sovereigns 2 3 Imperial expansion 2 4 Decline 3 Religion 4 List of rulers 5 References 5 1 Bibliography 6 Further readingOrigins EditThe Kalachuri inscriptions such as the Gyaraspur inscription of prince Valleka a son of Kokalla I trace the dynasty s ancestry to Kartavirya Arjuna a legendary Heheya king who ruled from Mahishmati 3 According to the 12th century poem Prithviraja Vijaya the dynasty descended from Kartavirya Arjuna through one Sahasika courageous who was a maternal ancestor of the poem s hero Prithviraja III The poem traces Kartavirya Arjuna s mythical ancestry to the deity Chandra the moon and his son Budha the mercury 4 Historian V V Mirashi connected the Kalachuris of Tripuri to the early Kalachuris of Mahishmati who ruled in the west central India Mirashi theorized that the early Kalachuris moved their capital from Mahishmati to Kalanjara at the end of the 7th century and finally moved to Tripuri 5 However there is no concrete evidence that conclusively proves that the two dynasties were related 6 History Edit The Karna temple at Amarkantak built by LakshmikarnaLittle is known about the earliest rulers of the dynasty who find mentions in the inscriptional genealogies The earliest extant inscriptions of the dynasty have been discovered at Chhoti Deori and Sagar These inscriptions are from the reign of Shankaragana I and have been dated to the 8th century CE 7 As Rashtrakuta and Pratihara feudatories Edit The Karitalai inscription of Lakshmanaraja I 825 850 CE eulogizes a Rashtrakuta king whose name is lost and mentions the defeat of one Nagabhata presumably the Gurjara Pratihara king Nagabhata II This suggests that during this time the Kalachuris were subordinate to their southern neighbours the Rashtrakuta emperors and fought against their northern neighbours the Pratihara emperors They had multiple marital connections to the Rashtrakutas However by the time of Lakshmanaraja s son or grandson Kokalla I r c 850 890 CE they had shifted their allegiance to the Pratiharas 8 Kokalla I appears to have been the first powerful ruler of the dynasty as he finds regular mentions in the genealogies of the later Kalachuri rulers According to the Ratnapura Kalachuri inscriptions he had 18 sons the eldest of whom succeeded him on the throne while the others became provincial governors The number 18 probably should not be taken literally in this context as it was considered an auspicious number and in this context may have been used to indicate that Kokalla had many sons The eldest son was presumably Shankaragana II whom modern scholars identify with the person mentioned by the names Prasiddha dhavala Mugdha tunga and Rana vigraha in various sources Of the other sons an unnamed prince became the progenitor of the Ratnapura branch Other sons of Kokalla I included Arjuna who is mentioned in Rashtrakuta inscriptions and Valleka or Vallavati who is known by his Gyaraspur inscription 9 Amarkantak Temple Valleka s inscription states that he was a son of queen Nata who can be identified with the Chandela princess Natta mentioned as a wife of Kokalla in the Varanasi inscription of the later ruler Karna 10 Valleka appears to have been the last or one of the last Kalachuri governor of the area around Gyaraspur which subsequently became a part of the Chandela territory 11 The inscription states that Valleka served king Bhoja who is described as the ruler of the earth and mentions that Valleka defeated several other kings in Bhoja s service 12 King Bhoja can be identified with the Gurjara Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja who is also mentioned in other Kalachuri inscriptions These other inscriptions include the Bilhari inscription which describes Bhoja as one of the pillars of glory erected by Kokalla I and the Varanasi inscription which describes Bhoja as a recipient of Kokalla s protection The descriptions in these two inscriptions had led earlier scholars to believe that Kokalla subjugated Bhoja but Valleka s inscription suggests that the Kalachuris were subordinate to the Pratihara emperor Bhoja 13 Based on Valleka s inscription epigraphist Richard G Salomon theorizes that Kokalla I was a subordinate of Bhoja and played an important role in expanding the south eastern borders of the Pratihara empire 14 His submission to Bhoja may have been nominal and he appears to have laid the foundation of Kalachuri empire by expanding his own sphere of influence in the southern part of the Pratihara empire 8 The later Kalachuri inscriptions greatly exaggerate Kokalla s glory and use wording that plays down the subordinate position of the Kalachuris 15 Early sovereigns Edit After the decline of the Rashtrakuta and Pratihara empires the Kalachuris assumed independence probably during the reign of Yuvaraja deva I 915 945 CE 8 Shankaragana III who ascended the Kalachuri throne around 970 CE adopted an aggressive expansion policy He defeated the contemporary Gurjara Pratihara king who was probably Vijayapala He probably died in a battle against the Chandelas 16 Shankaragana was succeeded by his younger brother Yuvarajadeva II who established matrimonial relations with the Kalyani Chalukya ruler Tailapa II 17 The Paramara king Munja who was an enemy of Tailapa invaded the Kalachuri kingdom and raided their capital Tripuri 18 After the death of Yuvarajadeva II the ministers placed his son Kokalla II on the throne 19 According to the Gurgi inscription of Kokalla three neighbouring kings were afraid of him the Gurjara king possibly the weak Gurjara Pratihara ruler Rajyapala the Gauda king the Pala ruler Mahipala and the Kuntala king the Kalayani Chalukya king Vikramaditya V These claims suggest that Kokalla raided the territories of these kings 19 Gangeyadeva the son and successor of Kokalla II ascended the throne around 1015 CE 20 During the early part of his reign he served as a vassal to another king possibly the Paramara king Bhoja 21 He fought a war against the Chalukyas of Kalyani possibly as a vassal of Bhoja The triple alliance of Bhoja Gangeyadeva and Rajendra Chola engaged the Chalukya king Jayasimha II at multiple frontiers 22 Both Kalachuri and Chalukya inscriptions claim success in this war it appears that Gangeyadeva and his allies were repulsed after achieving some initial successes 20 Bhoja defeated Gangeyadeva in a war but there is some uncertainty regarding the exact chronology According to one theory Bhoja defeated Gangeyadeva before the anti Chalukya campaign in which Gangeyadeva fought as a Paramara vassal 21 Another theory is that the two turned enemies after their campaign against the Chalukyas 23 Imperial expansion Edit Dancing Ganesha Madhya Pradesh Kalacuri 10th century CE 24 In the 1030s Gangeyadeva achieved military successes at his eastern and northern frontiers and assumed the titles of a sovereign emperor 25 In the east he raided Utkala assisted by his Ratnapura vassals The Kalachuris probably defeated the Bhauma Kara king Shubhakara II in this war 20 Gangeyadeva also seems to have fought an inconclusive war against Yayati the Somavanshi ruler of Dakshina Kosala 20 In the north Gangeyadeva expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Chandelas who had been weakened by Ghaznavid invasions 26 He suffered a defeat against the Chandela king Vijayapala 27 but ultimately extended his control over the sacred cities of Varanasi and Prayaga 25 During his reign the Ghaznavid general Ahmad Niyaltigin raided Varanasi in 1033 CE 28 Gangeyadeva s successor Lakshmikarna r c 1041 1073 CE was the most noted military commander of the dynasty He assumed the title Chakravartin after several successful campaigns against his neighbours In the east he invaded Anga and Vanga modern Bengal 29 In Vanga he defeated a Chandra king possibly Govindachandra 29 Later Lakshmikarna also invaded the Pala ruled Gauda region 30 His invasion was repulsed by Nayapala The Tibetan accounts suggest that the Buddhist monk Atisha negotiated a peace treaty between the two kings 31 Lakshmikarna also seems to have raided Gauda during the reign of Nayapala s successor Vigrahapala III The two kings ultimately concluded a peace treaty with Lakshmikarna s daughter Yuvanashri marrying the Pala king 30 In the south west Lakshmikarna fought an inconclusive war with the Kalyani Chalukya king Someshvara I 29 He also seems to have fought with his south eastern neighbour the Chola king Rajadhiraja 29 In the east he defeated a Gurjara king who can be identified with the Chaulukya king Bhima I 29 In the mid 1050s Lakshmikarna and Bhima allied against the Paramara king Bhoja The two attacked the Paramara kingdom of Malwa simultaneously from opposite directions 30 According to the 14th century chronicler Merutunga Bhoja died just as the two kings attacked Malwa Lakshmikarna seized the Paramara kingdom prompting Bhima to launch an expedition to recover his share of the war spoils 30 Within a short time Lakshmikarna lost the control of Malwa to Bhoja s successor Jayasimha who received help from the Kalyani Chalukya prince Vikramaditya VI 30 Subsequently Karna allied with Vikramaditya s rival and brother Someshvara II and again invaded Malwa However the two were forced to retreat by Bhoja s brother Udayaditya 32 Lakshmikarna also subjugated the Chandela king Devavarman r c 1050 1060 CE who seems to have died in a battle against him 30 He seems to have retained control of a large part of the Chandela territory for over a decade before being ousted by Devavarman s successor Kirttivarman in the 1070s CE 30 Decline Edit South Asia1175 CEKARAKHANIDKHANATEQARA KHITAIGHURIDEMPIREKUMAONCHAULUKYASCHAHAMANASLATEGHAZNAVIDSPARAMARASWESTERNCHALUKYASKAKATIYASSHILA HARASCHOLASCHERASPANDYASKADAMBASHOYSALASGAHADAVALASGUHILASKACHCHAPA GHATASCHANDELASKALACHURIS TRIPURI KALACHURIS RATNAPURA SENASCHEROSNAGVANSISKAMARUPASEASTERNGANGASGUGEMARYULLOHA RASSOOMRAEMIRATEMAKRANSULTANATE class notpageimage Main South Asian polities in 1175 on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent 33 34 Lakshmikarna s son Yashahkarna r c 1073 1123 CE raided some neighbouring territories but lost the northern parts of his kingdom including Varanasi to the Gahadavalas 35 He also suffered defeats against the Paramara king Lakshmadeva and the Chandela king Sallakshanavarman 36 Yashahkarna s son Gayakarna married a granddaughter of the Paramara king Udayaditya which led to peace between the two kingdoms 36 However he seems to have suffered reverses against the Chandela king Madanavarman 37 The Kalachuris of Ratnapura who had earlier served as vassals of the Tripuri Kalachuris declared their independence during Gayakarna s reign Gayakarna unsuccessfully tried to reduce them to submission 36 Gayakarna s son Narasimha recovered the territories lost to Madanavarman Narasimha seems to have died heirless as he was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha 36 Jayasimha suffered a defeat against the Chandela king Paramardi He also sent an unsuccessful expedition against the Ratnapura Kalachuris to reduce them to submission 38 During the reign of Jayasimha s successor Vijayasimha a northern feudatory named Sallakshana unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Kalachuri suzerainty 39 Vijayasimha s successor Trailokyamalla is known to have ruled at least until 1212 CE He claimed the title Lord of Kanyakubja but in absence of any corroborative evidence it cannot be said with certainty if he actually captured Kanyakubja 39 Trailokyamalla is the last known king of his dynasty It is not known when and how his rule ended It is known that in the later half of the 13th century the former Kalachuri territories came under the control of the Paramaras Chandelas the Delhi Sultanate and the Seunas Yadavas of Devagiri 40 Religion Edit Virateshwar temple at Sohagpur built during the Kalachuri reignShaivism is the predominant faith referred to in the Tripuri Kalachuri inscriptions 41 Several Shaiva leaders acharya served as royal preceptors rajaguru to Kalachuri kings these included Purusha shiva to Yashahkarna Shakti shiva to Gayakarna Kirti shiva to Narasimha and Vimala shiva to Jayasimha 42 Gangeyadeva installed a Shivalinga at Piawan 29 and his son Lakshmikarna built the Karna meru temple at Varanasi which was probably dedicated to Shiva Yashahkarna is said to have worshipped at the Shiva temple in Draksharama during an invasion of the Andhra region 35 The patronage of Gayakarna s queen Alhanadevi led to the rise of Pashupata Shaivite religious leaders in the Kalachuri kingdom 36 The Gyaraspur inscription of Kokalla I s son Valleka which records the foundation of a Jain temple by the prince prominently features Shaivite imagery and wording with Vaishnavite overtones 41 Since this inscription is the only Jain affiliated record of the dynasty it is not clear if such syncretistic tendency was a feature of Jainism practised in the Kalachuri territory or if the inscription is a one off case 43 The temple mentioned in the inscription may be the present day Maladevi temple which features a mixture of Jain and Brahmanical iconography 44 List of rulers EditThe following is a list of the Tripuri Kalachuri rulers with estimates of their reigns 45 Find spots of the inscriptions issued during the Tripuri Kalachuri reign blue 46 47 and their Ratnapura vassals gray 48 49 Vamaraja deva 675 700 CE Shankaragana I 750 775 CE Lakshmana raja I 825 850 CE Voppa raja described as Kokalla s predecessor in the Gyaraspur inscription was either a son of Lakshmana raja I or another name for that king 3 Kokalla I 850 890 CE his younger son established the Ratnapura Kalachuri branch Shankaragana II 890 910 CE alias Mugdhatunga Balaharsha 910 915 CE Yuvaraja deva I 915 945 CE alias Keyuravarsha Lakshmana raja II 945 970 CE Shankaragana III 970 80 CE Yuvaraja deva II 980 990 CE Kokalla II 990 1015 CE Gangeya deva 1015 1041 CE Lakshmi karna 1041 1073 CE alias Karna Yashah karna 1073 1123 CE Gaya karna 1123 1153 CE Nara simha 1153 1163 CE Jaya simha 1163 1188 CE Vijaya simha 1188 1210 CE Trailokya malla c 1210 at least 1212 CE 39 References Edit Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical Atlas of South Asia Oxford University Press Digital South Asia Library p 147 Map k Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 146 map XIV 2 b ISBN 0226742210 a b Richard Salomon 1996 p 151 D C Sircar 1971 p 153 V V Mirashi 1974 p 376 R K Sharma 1980 p 8 Om Prakash Misra 2003 p 13 a b c Richard Salomon 1996 p 154 Richard Salomon 1996 pp 149 150 Richard Salomon 1996 p 133 Richard Salomon 1996 p 150 Richard Salomon 1996 pp 146 147 Richard Salomon 1996 pp 151 152 Richard Salomon 1996 p 152 Richard Salomon 1996 pp 152 153 V V Mirashi 1957 p 486 V V Mirashi 1957 pp 486 487 V V Mirashi 1957 p 487 a b V V Mirashi 1957 p 488 a b c d V V Mirashi 1957 p 489 a b Krishna Narain Seth 1978 p 170 Krishna Narain Seth 1978 pp 144 145 Mahesh Singh 1984 p 65 Metropolitan Museum of Art www metmuseum org a b V V Mirashi 1957 p 490 R K Dikshit 1976 p 98 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977 p 88 R K Dikshit 1976 p 100 a b c d e f V V Mirashi 1957 p 491 a b c d e f g V V Mirashi 1957 p 492 Alaka Chattopadhyaya 1999 p 98 V V Mirashi 1957 p 493 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 37 147 ISBN 0226742210 Eaton Richard M 25 July 2019 India in the Persianate Age 1000 1765 Penguin UK p 38 ISBN 978 0 14 196655 7 a b V V Mirashi 1957 p 494 a b c d e V V Mirashi 1957 p 495 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977 pp 112 113 V V Mirashi 1957 p 496 a b c V V Mirashi 1957 p 497 V V Mirashi 1957 p 498 a b Richard Salomon 1996 p 155 R K Sharma 1980 p 84 Richard Salomon 1996 pp 155 156 Richard Salomon 1996 p 156 Rajiv Kumar Verma 2015 Om Prakash Misra 2003 pp 13 14 Vibhuti Bhushan Mishra 1973 p 157 Rajiv Kumar Verma 2015 p 59 Om Prakash Misra 2003 p 14 Bibliography Edit Alaka Chattopadhyaya 1999 Atisa and Tibet Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0928 4 R K Dikshit 1976 The Candellas of Jejakabhukti Abhinav ISBN 9788170170464 V V Mirashi 1957 The Kalacuris In R S Sharma ed A Comprehensive history of India A D 985 1206 Vol 4 Part 1 Indian History Congress People s Publishing House ISBN 978 81 7007 121 1 V V Mirashi 1974 Bhavabhuti Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1180 5 Vibhuti Bhushan Mishra 1973 Religious Beliefs and Practices of North India During the Early Mediaeval Period BRILL ISBN 90 04 03610 5 Om Prakash Misra 2003 Archaeological Excavations in Central India Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh Mittal Publications ISBN 978 81 7099 874 7 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977 The Early Rulers of Khajuraho Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 9788120819979 Richard Salomon 1996 British Museum stone inscription of the Tripuri Kalacuri prince Valleka Indo Iranian Journal 39 2 133 161 doi 10 1163 000000096790084999 JSTOR 24662062 Krishna Narain Seth 1978 The Growth of the Paramara Power in Malwa Progress OCLC 8931757 R K Sharma 1980 The Kalachuris and their times Sundeep OCLC 7816720 Singh Mahesh 1984 Bhoja Paramara and His Times Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan Retrieved 25 March 2021 D C Sircar 1971 Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 2790 5 Rajiv Kumar Verma 2015 Kalachuri Inscriptions A Reflection of Dwindling Political Power PDF Veethika 1 3 Further reading EditRakhal Das Banerji 1931 The Haihayas of Tripuri and Their Monuments Government of India Ramnika Jalali Rajni Mankotia 2003 A Glimpse of Kalachuris of Tripurari Vinod ISBN 978 81 85599 59 5 Inscriptions Of The Kalachuri Chedi Era Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume 4 Part 1 and Part 2 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Kalachuris of Tripuri amp oldid 1150727235, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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