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Godred Crovan

November 10, 2023

Godred Crovan (died 1095), known in Gaelic as Gofraid Crobán, Gofraid Meránach, and Gofraid Méránach,[note 1] was a Norse-Gaelic ruler of the kingdoms of Dublin and the Isles. Although his precise parentage has not completely been proven, he was certainly an Uí Ímair dynast, and a descendant of Amlaíb Cúarán, King of Northumbria and Dublin.

Godred Crovan
King of Dublin and the Isles
Godred's name as it appears on folio 50v of British Library Cotton Julius A VII (the Chronicle of Mann): "Godredus Crouan"[1]
Died1095
Islay
Burial
possibly Iona
IssueLagmann, Aralt, Amlaíb
HouseCrovan dynasty (Uí Ímair)
FatherHarald "The Black” of Islay (Harallt Ddu)[2][3]

Godred first appears on record in the context of supporting the Norwegian invasion of England in 1066. Following the collapse of this campaign, Godred is recorded to have arrived on Mann, at the court of Gofraid mac Sitriuc, King of the Isles, a likely kinsman of his. During the 1070s, the latter died and was succeeded by his son, Fingal. Within the decade, Godred violently seized the kingship for himself, although the exact circumstances surrounding this takeover are uncertain. By 1091, Godred attained the kingship of Dublin, and thereby secured complete control of the valuable trade routes through the Irish Sea region. Godred's expansion may be further perceptible in the Clyde estuary and Galloway, and may well have forced the English to consolidate control of Cumberland in an effort to secure their western maritime flank. Godred appears to have drawn his power from the Hebrides; and archaeological evidence from Mann reveals that, in comparison to the decades previous to his takeover, the island seems to have enjoyed a period of relative peace.

During his reign, Godred appears to have lent military assistance to Gruffudd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd, a probable kinsman, who was then locked in continuous conflicts with Welsh rivals and encroaching English magnates. The earliest known Bishops of the Isles date from about the time of Godred's reign, although it is almost certain that earlier ecclesiastes held this position. It may have been just prior to Godred's accession in the Isles, whilst Dublin was under the ultimate control of Toirdelbach Ua Briain, King of Munster, that Dublin and the Isles were ecclesiastically separated once and for all. Godred's rule in Dublin came to an abrupt end in 1094 with his expulsion at the hands of Muirchertach Ua Briain, King of Munster, a man who may have even driven Godred from Mann as well. Documentary evidence reveals that the last decade of the eleventh century saw an upsurge in plague and famine. According to Irish sources, one quarter of Ireland perished from pestilence in 1095 alone. One of the fatalities was Godred himself, who died on Islay, an apparent power centre in the Isles.

Godred's greatest impact on history may have been his founding of the Crovan dynasty, his patrilineal descendants who ruled in the Isles for almost two centuries. Godred was an important maternal ancestor of Clann Somairle, a family that held power in the Isles centuries after the final extinction of the Crovan dynasty. As such, he may be identical to Gofraid mac Fergusa, an apparent genealogical construct claimed as a Clann Somairle ancestor. Godred may well be identical to the celebrated King Orry of Manx legend, a figure traditionally credited with instituting the Manx legal system. Godred and King Orry are associated with numerous historic and prehistoric sites on Mann and Islay.

Familial origins edit

 
Locations relating to Godred's life and times

While the familial origins of Godred Crovan aren't completely proven, it appears certain that he was a direct descendant of Amlaíb Cúarán, King of Northumbria and Dublin.[33] Although the thirteenth- to fourteenth-century Chronicle of Mann calls him in Latin "... filius Haraldi nigri de Ysland",[34] implying that his father was named Aralt,[35] the fourteenth-century Annals of Tigernach instead calls him in Gaelic "... mac Maic Arailt",[36] contrarily implying that it was Godred's grandfather who was named Aralt.[35] Godred, therefore, may have been either a son,[37] nephew,[38] or brother of Ímar mac Arailt, King of Dublin.[39][note 2] However, the early-thirteenth-century pedigree Achau Brenhinoedd a Thywysogion Cymru in the Welsh collection of genealogical tracts records "Gwrthryt Mearch" (Godred Crovan) as the son of "Harallt Ddu" (Harald "The Black" of Islay), who in turn was the son of "Ifor Gamle" (Ímar mac Arailt). As such, it appears that Godred was not the son, nephew or brother, but, in fact, the grandson of Ímar mac Arailt, King of Dublin, patrilineal descendant of Amlaíb Cúarán, King of Northumbria and Dublin, and member of the Uí Ímair.[42] The chronicle's passage may further cast light on Godred's familial origins. Although "Ysland" may represent Iceland,[43] there is no other evidence linking Godred to this island.[35] Alternately, the word may instead represent the Hebridean island of Islay,[44] where he is otherwise known to have ended his life.[45] Another possibility is that "Ysland" represents Ireland,[46] which, if correct, would evidence Godred's close familial links with that particular island.[47][note 3] Whatever the case, according to the same source, he had been brought up on Mann.[49][note 4]

 
Godred's name as it appears on folio 19v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488 (the Annals of Tigernach): "Goffraidh mac Maic Arailt"[56]

When Godred is first noted by the Latin Chronicle of Mann, he is accorded the epithet "Crouan" or "Crovan".[57] The origin and meaning of this name are uncertain. It may well be derived from the Gaelic crob bhán ("white-handed").[58] Another Gaelic origin may be cró bán ("white-blooded"), in reference to being very pale.[59] Alternately, it could originate from the Gaelic crúbach ("claw"). If the epithet is instead Old Norse in origin, it could be derived from kruppin ("cripple").[60] In several Irish annals, Godred is accorded the epithet meranach. This word could represent either the Gaelic meránach ("mad", "confused", "giddy");[61] or else méránach (which can also be rendered mérach), a word derived from mér ("finger" or "toe"). If meranach indeed corresponds to the latter meaning, the epithet would appear to mirror Crouan/Crovan, and imply something remarkable about Godred's hands.[62][note 5] Godred and his patrilineal royal descendants, who reigned in the Isles for about two centuries, are known to modern scholars as the Crovan dynasty, a name coined after Godred himself.[66] The combination of Old Norse personal names and Gaelic epithets accorded to Godred, and his dynastic descendants, partly evidence the hybrid nature of the Norse-Gaelic Kingdom of the Isles.[67]

Background edit

 
Proposed mid-nineteenth-century monument to King Orry, a legendary figure who may be identical to Godred

One of the foremost leaders of the eleventh-century Norse world was Þórfinnr Sigurðarson, Earl of Orkney, a man whose maritime empire, like that of his father before him, stretched from Orkney to the Isles, and perhaps even into Ireland as well.[68] Þórfinnr died in about 1065, and was succeeded by his two sons, Páll and Erlendr. Unfortunately for the brothers, the expansive island empire that their father had forged appears to have quickly disintegrated under their joint rule.[69] Although there is no record of the brothers conducting military operations in the Isles and Ireland, the thirteenth-century Orkneyinga saga states that the peripheral regions of their father's lordship reverted to the control of local leaders.[70] It was into this power vacuum that Godred first emerges into recorded history.[71]

The ruler of the Isles who appears to have suffered from Þórfinnr's southward expansion was Echmarcach mac Ragnaill, King of Dublin and the Isles.[72] The turn of the mid-eleventh century saw the gradual decline of Echmarcach's authority.[73] In 1052, he was driven from Dublin by Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó, King of Leinster.[74] Although there is evidence to suggest that Diarmait reinstated Ímar as King of Dublin, the latter was dead within two years,[75] and at some point Diarmait appears to have placed his own son, Murchad, upon the throne.[76] About a decade after Diarmait's conquest of Dublin, an invasion of Mann by Murchad appears to have resulted in the submission or expulsion of Echmarcach altogether,[77] effectively giving Diarmait control over the Irish Sea region.[78] When Murchad died in 1070, Diarmait assumed control of Dublin and perhaps Mann as well.[79]

The ruler of Mann in about 1066 was Gofraid mac Sitriuc, King of the Isles, a man who appears to have reigned under Diarmait's overlordship. Like Godred himself, Gofraid mac Sitriuc may have been a descendant of Amlaíb Cúarán.[80][note 6] On Diarmait's unexpected death in 1072, Toirdelbach Ua Briain, King of Munster invaded Leinster, and acquired control of Dublin.[81] Within a year of gaining lordship over the Dubliners, Toirdelbach appears to have installed, or at least recognised a certain Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill as their king.[82] In fact, this man appears to have been a close kinsman of Echmarcach, possibly his nephew.[83] As such, Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill seems to have been a member of a Norse-Gaelic kindred possessing close marital links with the Uí Briain.[84][note 7] Such links may well explain the remarkable rapidity with which the Uí Briain struck out at Dublin and the Isles after Diarmait's demise.[84] In 1073, for instance, Mann was raided by a certain Sitriuc mac Amlaíb and two grandsons of the Uí Briain founder, Brian Bóruma, High King of Ireland.[87] Whilst there is reason to suspect that Sitriuc was a brother of Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill,[88] the attack itself was almost certainly a continuation of the Uí Briain's conquest of Dublin the year before.[87]

Emergence in the Isles edit

 
 
Romanticised nineteenth-century depictions of Godred Crovan. Vikings were first associated with unhistorical horned helmets early that century.[89]

Godred seems to have spent his early career as a mercenary of sorts.[90] Certainly the Chronicle of Mann states that he took part in the ill-fated Norwegian invasion of England in 1066.[91] This Norwegian campaign culminated in the Battle of Stamford Bridge, a bloody autumn encounter in which Harold Godwinson, King of England utterly destroyed the forces of Haraldr Sigurðarson, King of Norway in north-eastern England. The slaughter at Stamford resulted in the total destruction of Norwegian military power, and it took almost a generation before a king of this realm could reassert authority in the Norse colonies of the British Isles.[92] If the eleventh-century chronicler Adam of Bremen is to be believed, an Irish king was slain during the battle,[93] which could indicate that Godred formed part of the Irish Sea contingent,[94] a host perhaps led by the slain king.[95] At any rate, it was in the aftermath of this defeat that the chronicle first notes Godred: stating that, following his flight from the battle, Godred sought sanctuary from Gofraid mac Sitriuc, and was honourably received by him.[96] Godred's participation in the Norwegian enterprise, which was also supported by the sons of Þórfinnr, partly evidences the far-flung connections and interactions of the contemporary Norse elite.[97]

 
A depiction of English infantry and Norman cavalry on the eleventh-century Bayeux Tapestry. In the course of his career, Godred appears to have battled both Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman forces. The depicted infantry are shown formed in a shield wall, a tactic employed by the Norwegian-backed forces at Stamford Bridge.

Godred's arrival on Mann, rather than Dublin, may well be explained by the varying political alignments in the Irish Sea region. Whilst he had allied himself to the cause of the invading Haraldr,[98] the cause of the defending Harold was clearly adhered to by Diarmait, the contemporary overlord of Dublin. In fact, the latter seems to have lent Harold's family—the Godwinsons—assistance in the decade before the Norwegian invasion.[99] He later sheltered Harold's sons following the eventual English defeat at the hands of the Normans,[100] and further gave the Godwinsons military assistance in their insurrections against the new Norman regime in 1068 and 1069.[101]

Regardless of Godred's possible ancestral links with Ireland, his political leanings could have meant that Dublin was unsafe for him in 1066.[98] Another factor influencing Godred's arrival on Mann may have been the absence of Echmarcach—Gofraid mac Sitriuc's predecessor and Ímar's bitter adversary—at some point earlier in the decade.[98] As for Gofraid mac Sitriuc himself, the generosity that he showed Godred could well be explained if the two were indeed kinsmen.[102] Whatever the case, the former's death is recorded in 1070, after which his son, Fingal, apparently succeeded to the kingship.[103] Possibly in about 1075,[104] or 1079,[105] the chronicle reveals that Godred succeeded in conquering Mann following three sea-borne invasions.[106] On one hand, it is possible that Godred overthrew Fingal,[107] who may have been weakened by the Uí Briain assault on the island in 1073.[108] On the other hand, the amiable relations between Godred and Fingal's father could suggest that, as long as Fingal lived his kingship was secure, and that it was only after his death that Godred attempted to seize control.[109]

 
Sky Hill, where Godred is said to have vanquished the Manx once and for all. According to the chronicle, some of his troops hid in the wood surrounding the hill, and his victory was achieved when they ambushed the unsuspecting Manx from the rear.[110]

Godred's power base may have been located in the Hebrides, the northern reaches of the realm.[111] After his takeover of Mann, a conquest that culminated in the Battle of Sky Hill, the chronicle claims that Godred offered his followers the choice of either plundering the island or of settling upon it. Only a few of his Islesmen are stated to have remained with him on Mann. According to the chronicle, Godred granted the incomers lands in the south of the island, and allowed the natives lands in the north, on the condition that they give up all heritable rights to this territory. It was through this act, alleges the chronicle, that Godred's later successors owned the entirety of the island.[112] This portrayal of Godred's takeover—in which a conqueror establishes his dynasty's dominance over the traditional rights of a native landholding populace—parallels the traditional mediaeval accounts of Haraldr hárfagri,[113] a king traditionally said to have deprived Norwegian landholders their heritable óðal rights.[114]

Although several place names on Mann appear to date to the tenth- and eleventh-centuries, stemming from direct settlement from Norway or Norwegian colonies in Scotland and the Isles, many Manx place names that contain the Old Norse element -bý appear to have been coined by later settlers from Denmark or the Danelaw. Some of these settlers would have arrived on the island from the Danelaw in the tenth century, whilst others could have arrived in the course of Godred's conquest.[115] In fact, as late as the sixteenth century some of the island's most considerable lands contained this word element.[116][note 8] Further after-effects of Godred's conquest may perceptible by numismatic evidence. Almost twenty mediaeval silver hoards have been uncovered on Mann. Almost a dozen date between the 1030s and the 1070s. The finds seem to suggest that the island suffered from power struggles until the establishment of Godred and his descendants.[120]

Domination of Dublin and the Irish Sea edit

 
Image a
 
Image b
Maughold IV (image a; detail, image b),[121] a Manx runestone displaying a contemporary sailing vessel.[122] The power of the kings of the Isles laid in their armed galley-fleets[123][note 9]

The Annals of Tigernach and the Chronicle of Mann evidence Godred's conquest of the Kingdom of Dublin in about 1091.[125] Specifically, the former source accords him the title "King of Dublin" that year,[126] whilst the latter source claims that he subjugated all of Dublin and much of Leinster.[127] Although the chronicle's statement regarding Leinster is almost certainly an exaggeration, it may well refer to the seizure of the full extent of Fine Gall, and the extension of royal authority over adjoining regions.[128][note 10] Dublin's political affiliation at about this period in time is uncertain. In 1088, Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair, King of Leinster seems to have utilised troops from Dublin in his attack on Waterford.[133] Whilst within the same year, troops from Dublin, Waterford, and Wexford were repulsed in an attack on Cork by the Uí Echach Mumain.[134] The following year, Donnchad is further accorded the title rí Gall, which suggests that he ruled Dublin by this point.[135] Muirchertach Ua Briain, King of Munster certainly gained authority over Dublin within the year,[136] although the fact that the annal-entry evidencing Godred's kingship there in 1091 contains no verb could suggest that he too reigned in Dublin as early as 1089.[137] Whatever the case, Godred's acquisition of this coastal settlement may well have been a strike of sheer opportunism in which he took advantage of the ongoing conflict between the kingdoms of Munster and Leinster.[138] His probable familial links with Dublin could have contributed to his remarkable success as well, and it is possible that the Dubliners considered this conquest as a restoration of the kingdom's royal family.[139] Certainly his conquests in the Irish Sea region amounted to the reunification of the Uí Ímair imperium,[63] and appear to be evidence that contemporaries regarded Dublin and Mann to be components of a single political entity, with the ruler of one part entitled to that of the other.[140]

 
Viking Age trade routes in north-west Europe.[141] As the ruler of Dublin and the Isles, Godred dominated the routes through the Irish Sea region.

Despite Godred's apparent ancestral connections to the kingdoms of Dublin and the Isles, his rise to power could well have been driven by economic realities as much as royal aspirations.[142] Dublin was one of the wealthiest ports in western Europe. By the end of the eleventh century, it was the most important population centre in Ireland.[143] There appear to have been three main routes in the region: one running from southern Wales to south-eastern Ireland (connecting the settlements of Waterford and Wexford in Ireland, with Bristol and St Davids in Wales); another route running from the river Dee in northern Wales to Mann itself, and to the rivers Liffey and Boyne in Ireland (thereby connecting the ports of Chester and Holyhead in Wales, with those of Dublin and Drogheda in Ireland); the third trade route running perpendicular to the aforementioned, extending south to the Continent and north through the Hebrides to Iceland, Orkney, Shetland, Scandinavia, and the Baltic region.[144] Godred's conquest of Dublin, therefore, could have been undertaken in the context of an Islesman securing possession of the region's southernmost routes, thereby giving him total control of the Irish Sea trade nexus.[142] According to the Chronicle of Mann, Godred "held the Scots in such subjection that no one who built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts",[145] a statement implying his maritime dominance over contemporaries.[146][note 11] The naval power of the Islesmen is perhaps evidenced in known military cooperation between the Islesmen—perhaps including Godred himself—and Gruffudd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd, in the last decade of the eleventh century.[152]

 
Godred's name and title as it appears on folio 19v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488: "Goffraidh rex Normannorum"[153]

Further expansion of Godred's authority may be perceptible in the Clyde estuary and Galloway, where place names and church dedications suggest Isles-based Norse-Gaelic influence and rule from the ninth- to eleventh centuries.[154] There is also evidence suggesting that, following Fingal's disappearance from the historical record, Fingal's descendants ruled in parts of Galloway.[109] Specifically, in 1094, the eleventh- to fourteenth-century Annals of Inisfallen record the death of a certain King of the Rhinns named "Macc Congail",[155] whose recorded patronym may represent confusion between the names Fingal and Congal. Whatever the case, it is unknown if Macc Congail was independent from, or dependent upon, Godred's authority.[109] Godred's interference in this part of the Irish Sea region could explain an unsuccessful invasion on Mann in 1087.[156] That year, the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster record that an unnamed Ulaid dynast, and two "sons of the son of Ragnall"[157]—perhaps sons of Echmarcach, Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill, or the latter's father[158]—lost their lives in the assault.[157] On one hand, the apparent involvement of Echmarcach's family in this attack appears to evince an attempt to restore themselves on Mann.[159] Additionally, the Ulaid's actions appear to mirror their own response to Dublin-based intrusion into the North Channel earlier in the century,[156] and the fact that the attack took place in the year after Toirdelbach's death could indicate that the Ulaid seized upon the resulting confusion amongst the Uí Briain.[160] On the other hand, it is possible that raid was actually an Uí Briain initiative, conducted in the context of an ongoing internal power struggle within the kindred. If so, the attack could have been undertaken by Echmarcach's family at the connivance of the Meic Taidc—a branch of the Uí Briain matrilineally descended from Echmarcach—who may have used the operation as a means of preventing Mann from falling into the hands of their rival uncle, Muirchertach. Although the latter was certainly in the midst of securing control of Dublin,[161] it is questionable whether he was in any position to contemplate operations in the Irish Sea at this point. In fact, Godred was nearing the height of his own power, and it is unclear if the Meic Taidc enjoyed more amiable relations with the Ulaid than Muirchertach himself.[162][note 12] At any rate, Godred's expansion into Dublin could have been undertaken in the aftermath of his successful defence of the island.[167]

 
Image a
 
Image b
Skuldelev II (image a), a contemporary Viking longboat uncovered in Denmark, was originally built of oak from Ireland[168] or specifically Dublin,[169] and dates to about Godred's floruit.[170] It may have been commissioned during the reign of Ímar mac Arailt.[4] Havhingsten fra Glendalough (image b), a modern Danish reconstruction of Skuldelev II.[171]

Godred's expansion in the Irish Sea may well have had serious repercussions on mainland politics. Certainly, in the eyes of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, King of Alba, the prospect of Godred's expansion into the Solway region would have been a threatening development.[172] Furthermore, in the last decades of the eleventh century there was a breakdown in relations between Máel Coluim and William II, King of England. In 1091, Máel Coluim led the Scots across their southern border. Although peace was subsequently restored without bloodshed, the temporary truce fell apart the following year when William seized Cumberland, and established an English colony at Carlisle. Although this northern advance is sometimes regarded as an attempt to keep the Scots in check, the operation also established English control over Norse-Gaelic coastal populations, and further secured England's vulnerable north-western maritime flank.[173] Godred's conquest of Dublin the year before, therefore, may well have influenced William's strategy in the north-west.[174]

The early dioceses of Dublin and the Isles edit

 
One of several ruinous keeills in the churchyard of Kirk Maughold. According to the chronicle, Roolwer was buried at the "church of St Maughold".[175] Whether this was the site of his cathedral is unknown.[176][note 13]

The ecclesiastical jurisdiction within the Isles during the reigns of Godred's mid-twelfth-century successors was the Diocese of the Isles. Little is known of the early history of the diocese, although its origins may well lie with the Uí Ímair imperium.[17] Unfortunately, the Chronicle of Mann's coverage of the episcopal succession only starts at about the time of Godred's reign. The bishop first mentioned by this source is a certain "Roolwer",[183] whose recorded name appears to be a garbled form of the Old Norse Hrólfr.[184] The chronicle records that Roolwer was the bishop before Godred's reign,[185] which could either mean that he died before the beginning of Godred's rule, or that Roolwer merely occupied the position at the time of Godred's accession.[186] Roolwer's recorded name may be evidence that he is identical to one of the earliest bishops of Orkney. Specifically, either Thorulf[187] or Radulf.[188] Considering the evidence of early-eleventh-century Orcadian influence in the Isles, it is not inconceivable that the near contemporaneous Church in the region was then under the authority of an Orcadian appointee.[187]

 
The name and title of Dúnán as it appears on folio 43v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 489 (the Annals of Ulster)[189]

A noted contemporary of Roolwer was Dúnán, an ecclesiast generally assumed to have been the first Bishop of Dublin.[190] In fact, the Annals of Ulster instead accords him the title "ardespoc Gall" ("high-bishop of the Foreigners"),[191] and the first Bishop of Dublin solely associated with Dublin is Gilla Pátraic,[192] a man elected to the position by the Dubliners during the regime of Toirdelbach and Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill.[193][note 14]

 
Roolwer's name as it appears on folio 50v of British Library Cotton Julius A VII (the Chronicle of Mann).[1] The name appears to be a form of Hrólfr, which could be evidence that he is identical to one of the earliest-known bishops of Orkney.

Dúnán's title could indicate that he held episcopal authority in the Irish Sea region outwith the bounds of Dublin.[195] As such, there is reason to suspect that he was Roolwer's antecessor in the Isles. When Dúnán died in 1074, only a few years after Toirdelbach's takeover of Dublin, it is possible that the latter seized this opportunity and oversaw the ecclesiastical separation of Dublin from the Isles through the creation of a new episcopal see in Dublin. If so, Roolwer's episcopacy in the Isles may well have begun in 1074 after Dúnán's death—just like Gilla Pátraic's episcopacy in Dublin—and perhaps ended at some point during Godred's reign.[192] The chronicle reveals that Roolwer's successor was a certain William,[196] whose Anglo-Norman or French name may cast light on his origins, and may in turn evince Godred's links with the wider Anglo-Norman world.[197] Indeed, such connections would seem to parallel those between Dublin and the Archbishop of Canterbury, forged by Godred's contemporaries in Dublin, Toirdelbach and Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill.[198] William appears to have died in or before 1095, as the chronicle states that he was succeeded, during Godred's lifetime, by a Manxman named Hamond, son of "Iole".[199]

Involvement in Wales edit

 
The name of Gruffudd ap Cynan as it appears on folio 254r of Oxford Jesus College 111 (the Red Book of Hergest): "gruffud vab kynan"[200]

One of the most significant eleventh- and twelfth-century Welsh figures was Gruffudd, a man who fended off fellow dynasts and Anglo-Normans alike to establish himself in northern Wales.[201] Throughout much of the last two decades of the eleventh century Gwynedd was occupied by ever encroaching Anglo-Normans;[202] and it is apparent that Gruffudd enjoyed close connections with the Norse-Gaelic world.[203] Specifically, the thirteenth-century Historia Gruffud vab Kenan reveals that, not only was Gruffudd born and raised in Dublin,[204] he was yet another distinguished descendant of Amlaíb Cúarán,[205] and that on several occasions Gruffudd availed himself of Norse-Gaelic military assistance.[206] After an apparent lull of about two decades, there was a remarkable increase in Norse-Gaelic predatory raids upon Wales throughout the 1070s and 1080s.[207] In fact, this resurgence coincides with Gruffudd's struggle for power, and may not be an unrelated coincidence.[208]

 
Godred could well have assisted Gruffudd in attacking the Anglo-Norman castle of Aberlleiniog on Anglesey.[209]

At one point in his career, after briefly gaining power in 1081, Gruffudd was captured by Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester, and appears to have been held captive for over a decade, perhaps twelve years.[210] According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan, Gruffudd managed to escape his captors and sought military aid in the Isles from certain king named "Gothrei", and endured numerous perils together.[211][note 15] In fact, Godred's reign in Dublin and the Isles at about this time suggests that he is identical to the Gothrei whom Gruffudd fled to.[214] If Godred was indeed a descendant of Amlaíb Cúarán like Gruffudd, this shared ancestry could well explain the cooperation between the two.[215] On the other hand, although Gothrei is described as Gruffudd's "friend" or "ally",[216] no specific kinship is acclaimed by the source, which may indicate that Gruffudd's appeal was one of mere expediency.[217] Whatever the case, having gained support from the Isles—in the form of an armed naval force of sixty ships—Historia Gruffud vab Kenan records that Gruffudd invaded Anglesey and defeated a force of Anglo-Normans, before the Islesmen returned home.[218] Gruffudd and Gothrei appear to have directed their efforts against the Anglo-Norman castle of Aberlleiniog, before the former tackled other installations.[219] A significant feature of the encroachment of English power into Gwynedd was the erection of a line of mottes along the northern Welsh coast. The strategic placement of these military sites suggests that they were constructed with the command of the sea in mind.[220] As such, this fortified coastal network could have been perceived as a potential threat to Norse-Gaelic mercenarial operations and raiding expeditions in the region, and may partly explain Gothrei's cooperation with Gruffudd.[221][note 16]

 
Great Orme, where Grithfridus is said to have made landfall before battling and killing Robert de Tilleul

In 1093, at about the time of this cooperation between Gruffudd and Gothrei, the twelfth-century Historia ecclesiastica records the death of Robert de Tilleul, an eminent Anglo-Norman based in Rhuddlan. According to this source, Robert was slain by a certain king named "Grithfridus".[224] Although there is reason to suspect that the latter is identical to Gruffudd,[225] this identification is by no means certain, as the less than impartial Historia Gruffud vab Kenan makes no mention of this episode at all.[226] In fact, another possibility is that the sea-roving Grithfridus is identical to Gothrei, and thus Godred himself.[227] Whatever the case, Historia ecclesiastica states that Robert was slain during a sea-borne predatory raid in which Grithfridus' three-ship force made landfall under the cliffs of Great Orme. The invaders are further said to have ravished the surrounding countryside, loading their ships with livestock and captives. Having crushed Robert's forces, Grithfridus is stated to have had the former's severed head bound as a trophy to the top of his mast.[224][note 17]

Just as Godred's rise in the Irish Sea region appears to have provoked William II to protect the north-western reaches of his realm,[174] the participation of the Islesmen in war-wracked northern Wales may have provoked a similar response. The activity of the Islesmen in the region, and the prospect of their consolidation on Anglesey, may well have posed a potential threat to English interests in the area.[230][note 18] Certainly, Historia Gruffud vab Kenan records that William II launched an utterly unsuccessfully campaign into the region, directed at Gruffudd himself, and that the English were forced to turn back without having gained any plunder.[233] Nevertheless, an alternate possibility is that William II had been lured into the region by the native resurgence throughout the Welsh Marches[234]—an event in which Gruffudd's participation is uncertain.[235] Whatever the reason, the English counter-operation appears to have been undertaken with mainly defensive objectives in mind.[236]

Downfall and death edit

 
Late-eleventh-century cross-slab uncovered on Islay

Godred's rule in Dublin lasted until 1094. That year the Annals of Inisfallen reveal that warfare broke out between Muirchertach and a northern Irish alliance that included Godred. This source and the seventeenth-century Annals of Clonmacnoise, the Annals of the Four Masters, and the Annals of Ulster, reveal that Muirchertach marched upon Dublin where he was confronted by the alliance. Godred's maritime force in this campaign is numbered at ninety ships by the seventeenth-century Annals of the Four Masters. Although all these sources indicate that Muirchertach's forces were at first forced to flee, Muirchertach soon returned after the alliance had dispersed, and succeeded in driving Godred from Dublin.[237] The Annals of Inisfallen appears to indicate that warfare between Muirchertach and Godred was wrought throughout the year. The source also reveals that, during Dublin's fall, Muirchertach captured Conchobar Ua Conchobair Failge, King of Uí Failge.[238] Although the Kingdom of Uí Failge had previously enjoyed the patronage of the Uí Briain, it is possible that Godred had forged an alliance with Conchobar.[230] Following the Uí Briain conquest of Dublin, the Ua Conchobair kings of Uí Failge may have been the only Leinster lords who refused to acknowledge Muirchertach's overlordship.[239]

 
The name of Domnall Mac Lochlainn—Muirchertach's arch-rival and Godred's possible ally—as it appears on folio 19r of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488: "Domnall mac Lochlainn"[240]

From a late-eleventh-century Irish perspective, dominance of Dublin appears to have been a virtual prerequisite of gaining the Irish high-kingship,[241] and Muirchertach's quest for control of this coastal kingdom appears to have been undertaken in such a context. In fact, it is evidence that Godred had allied himself with Muirchertach's fiercest rival for the high-kingship, Domnall Mac Lochlainn, King of Cenél nEógain.[242] It possible that this compact contributed to Godred's successes in Dublin.[243] Just as Godred's seizure of Dublin appears to have taken place at a point when two superior powers were occupied elsewhere,[138] his expulsion from the kingdom appears to have taken place at a time when Muirchertach's hands were free, having temporarily settled matters with his rival half-brother, Diarmait Ua Briain,[230] and having earned some success in extending Uí Briain authority into Connacht.[244]

Contemporary numismatic material concerning Dublin indicates that, starting in 1095, immediately following Godred's demise, the kingdom's coinage became drastically debased in terms of weight and stylistic quality. For about a generation previous, Dublin's coinage had imitated the near contemporary styles of the English and Anglo-Normans, albeit with varying consistency, but immediately after 1095 Dublin's coins dramatically degenerated into poor imitations of nearly century-old designs.[245] This could be evidence that, in comparison to Muirchertach's immediate Norse-Gaelic predecessors in Dublin, his own regime lacked the expertise to ensure the vitality of the kingdom's commerce and currency.[246][note 19]

 
The name of Muirchertach Ua Briain as it appears on folio 33v of British Library Cotton Julius A VII: "Murecardum"[248]

Annalistic evidence from throughout Europe indicates that the continent suffered from a resurgence of plague and famine during the first years of the 1090s.[249] In fact, if the Annals of the Four Masters is to be believed, about a quarter of Ireland's population succumbed to pestilence in 1095. This source,[250] and a host of others—such as the Annals of Clonmacnoise, the Annals of Inisfallen, the Annals of Tigernach, and the Annals of Ulster—all single out Godred as one of the many mortalities.[251] The Chronicle of Mann, which also records Godred's death, reveals that he died on Islay.[252] The fact that he met his end on that island could be evidence that Muirchertach not only drove him from Dublin, but from Mann as well.[253][note 20] On the other hand, the possibility that Islay was an important locus of royal power in the Isles, combined with the evidence of his father's links with the island could instead be evidence against such an overthrow.[255] Furthermore, the chronicle itself states that Godred was succeeded by his eldest son, Lagmann.[256]

 
Godred's name and title as it appears on folio 30v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 503 (the Annals of Inisfallen): "Gobraith, ríg Atha Cliath & Inse Gall".[257] This title, describing him as king of both Dublin and the Isles, is quite rare and may further evidence Godred's Irish connections.[258]

On Godred's death, the Annals of Inisfallen accord him the title "ríg Atha Cliath & Inse Gall" (translated variously as "King of Dublin and of the Isles" and "king of Dublin and the Hebrides",[259] a remarkable designation in the fact that it is quite rare,[260] and perhaps only elsewhere accorded to Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó. In the case of the latter, the title may emphasise Diarmait's achievement of stretching his influence from Ireland into the Isles. In Godred's case, the title may instead underscore Godred's expansion into Ireland from the Isles.[258][note 21] The chronicle's record of Godred's death on Islay could indicate that the island formed a secondary power centre in the Isles.[262] The fact that Historia Gruffud vab Kenan notes that Gruffudd travelled into the Isles to obtain military assistance from Gothrei could also be evidence that Godred's headquarters was located there.[263] The record of Godred's death on Islay further suggests that he may well have been buried on the nearby holy island of Iona, the burial place of his like-named grandson, Gofraid mac Amlaíb, King of Dublin and the Isles.[264]

Legacy edit

Síol nGofraidh and the Crovan dynasty edit

 
"The Landing of King Orry", an early-twentieth-century railway poster depicting the legendary King Orry[265]

Godred's greatest impact on history may have been his foundation of the Crovan dynasty,[266] a vigorous family of sea-kings that ruled in the Isles for almost two centuries, until its extinction in the mid-thirteenth century, when the remaining kingdom was annexed by Alexander III, King of Scotland.[267] There is uncertainty concerning the political situation in the Isles in the last decade of the eleventh century.[268] It is apparent, however, that the dynasty descended from him soon turned upon itself. Although Godred's eldest son, Lagmann, appears to have succeeded him during the decade, the latter was soon forced to fend off rivals' factions supporting Godred's younger sons, Aralt in particular.[269] Irish power appears to have encroached into the Isles at about this time as well,[270] and it is evident that the political upheaval and dynastic instability in the wake of Godred's demise eventually provoked Magnús Óláfsson, King of Norway to forcibly take control of the Isles before the century's end.[271][note 22] It wasn't until the about the second decade of the twelfth century that the Crovan dynasty re-established firm control, in the person of Amlaíb, Godred's youngest son.[275]

In the mid-twelfth century, the Isles were partitioned between two rival power blocks. One faction, controlling Mann and the northern Hebrides, was led by the representative of the Crovan dynasty, Gofraid mac Amlaíb, Godred's grandson; the other faction, controlling the southern Hebrides, was ruled by Somairle mac Gilla Brigte, Lord of Argyll, husband of Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb, Godred's granddaughter. Somairle eventually forced his brother-in-law from power, and ruled the entire kingdom for almost a decade before the Crovan dynasty regained control of their permanently partitioned domain.[276][note 23] Although the dynasty expired in the mid-thirteenth century, Somairle's descendants—Clann Somairle—held power in the Hebrides for centuries to come.[277] In fact, the later mediaeval Clann Somairle Lordship of the Isles, which survived into the late fifteenth century, was a direct successor of Godred's maritime imperium.[278]

 
Image a
 
Image b
Forms of Gofraid mac Fergusa's name as they appear on folios 13r (image a) and 320v (image b) of the seventeenth-century Dublin Royal Irish Academy C iii 3 (the Annals of the Four Masters)

The Chronicle of Mann, Orkneyinga saga,[279] and later tradition preserved in the eighteenth-century Book of Clanranald, reveal that it was through Ragnailt's descent that Clann Somairle, and Somairle himself, claimed kingship in the Isles.[280] Godred's place at the royal apex of the two dynasties who contested the kingship of the Isles in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries suggests that he is identical to the like-named man proclaimed as an eminent ancestral figure in two thirteenth-century poems concerning Clann Somairle dynasts.[281] The professed descendants of this Gofraid were poetically conceptualised as Síol nGofraidh ("the seed of Gofraid"), a Gaelic term that, conceivably, originally applied to both the Crovan dynasty and Clann Somairle.[279] Later unease with a matrilineal descendant from Godred may have led to the invention of a patrilineal descent of Clann Somairle from a like-named man with enviable, albeit concocted, Scottish connections. Godred, therefore, may be identical to the anachronistic Gofraid mac Fergusa,[279] an alleged ninth-century figure dubiously noted in the Annals of the Four Masters,[282] and otherwise only specifically attested in later genealogical accounts concerning Clann Somairle.[279][note 24]

Memory in Manx and Hebridean tradition edit

 
Image a
 
Image b
Prehistoric Manx sites linked to Godred in modern times: King Orry's Grave (image a) and Cashtel yn Ard (image b)

Godred's arrival on Mann is commonly taken as a starting point of Manx history. This elevated place in the island's historiography is partly due to his position as an apical ancestral figure of later kings, and by his preeminent position in the historical account of the Isles preserved by the Chronicle of Mann. In fact, this source appears to have been commissioned by Godred's later descendants as a means to legitimize their claims to the kingship, and the later historiographical emphasis that separates Godred from his predecessors may well be unwarranted.[283] That being said, Godred is possibly the historical prototype of the celebrated King Orry[284] (Manx Gaelic Ree Gorree and Ree Orree) of Manx folklore.[285][note 25] This legendary figure appears in the earliest example of Manx literature, the so-called Manannan Ballad,[288] an eighteenth-century text that appears to contain content of sixteenth-century provenance.[289] This traditional account of Mann asserts that, following King Orry's arrival, and his subsequent introduction of the island's legal system, thirteen of his descendants ruled in turn as king before Alexander III's takeover.[290] In fact, this tally appears to conform to the number of historical Manx rulers during the Crovan dynasty's floruit.[291] King Orry, and thus Godred himself, is seemingly referred to in Manx legislation dating to the early fifteenth century, as the term "in King Orryes Days" was recorded at the 1422 sitting of Tynwald.[292] This phrase likely equates to "time immemorial", a time beyond memory, once defined under English law as the time before the reign of the celebrated Richard I, King of England.[286]

 
Carragh Bhàn, a prehistoric standing stone on Islay

According to local tradition on Islay, Godred's grave is marked by Carragh Bhàn (grid reference NR32834781), a standing stone situated near the settlement of Kintra, on the island's Oa peninsula.[293] The site itself is likely prehistoric,[294] although there is a legitimate late-eleventh-century cross-slab found on the island, near Port Ellen (grid reference NR357458), that appears to contain motifs from contemporary Scandinavian and Irish art.[295] As with Godred on Islay, supposed burial places of King Orry are traditionally marked by prehistoric burial sites on Mann.[296] One such site is the now-mutilated tomb, known as King Orry's Grave (grid reference SC440844), located near Laxey; another is Cashtal yn Ard (grid reference SC463893), also known as Cashtal Ree Gorree, located near Maughold.[297] The so-called Godred Crovan Stone, a massive granite rock, once located in the Manx parish of Malew but destroyed in the nineteenth century, may have owed its name to eighteenth- or nineteenth-century romanticism.[298]

 
The area surrounding Dùn Ghùaidhre, a ruinous mediaeval fortress traditionally associated with Godred[299]

The area surrounding Dùn Ghùaidhre (grid reference NR38926483),[300] a ruinous mediaeval fortress on Islay, is traditionally associated with Godred,[299] and overlooks some of the island's most fertile lands.[300] The south-east ridge along Dùn Ghùaidhre is named in Gaelic Clac an Righ ("Ridge of the King").[301] According to local tradition, Godred slew a dragon at Emaraconart, a site only about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the fortress and ridge.[299] Although the present form of the fort's name appears to refer to Godred himself, it is unknown if there is any historical connection between him and the site.[302] A nearby site is Àiridh Ghutharaidh. The etymology of this place name is uncertain. It could be derived from the Gaelic àirigh ("shieling") and *Gutharaidh (a hypothesised Gaelic form of the Old Norse personal name Guðrøðr). The fact that this site is only about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from Dùn Ghùaidhre could suggest that the names of both locations refer to Godred.[303] On the other hand, it is possible that the names of the fort, ridge, and shieling are merely the result of folk etymology.[304] Another Islay site associated with Godred is Conisby (grid reference NR262618). This place name is derived from the Old Norse *Konungsbýr ("king's farm"), a prestigious designation that appears to echo the district's not insignificant size and quality of lands. Whether the site was ever owned by a king is unknown, although local tradition certainly associates it with Godred himself.[305]

 
Detail of a proposed mid-nineteenth-century Manx monument to King Orry

The eighteenth-century poet Thomas Chatterton composed Godred Crovan, a poem that appeared in print in 1769, under the full title Godred Crovan. A poem. Composed by Dopnal Syrric, Scheld of Godred Crovan, King of the Isle of Man, published in the Town and Country Magazine.[306] The poem appears to have influenced the work of the contemporaneous poet William Blake, particularly Blake's first piece of revolutionary poetry, Gwin, King of Norway.[307] Whilst Chatterton's composition tells the tale of an invasion of Mann by a tyrannous Norseman named Godred Crovan,[308] Blake's ballad is about a tyrannous Norse king who is slain by a native giant named Gordred.[309] Chatterton's compositions in Town and Country Magazine were strongly influenced by, and imitative of, the so-called Ossianic poetry of the contemporaneous poet James Macpherson. In fact, it was likely through Chatterton's work that Blake was most influenced by Macpherson.[310] Unlike Macpherson, who deceptively insisted that his epic Ossianic corpus was translated from the work of an ancient Celtic bard,[311] Chatterton did not claim his Ossianic inspired compositions were the remnants of ancient literature.[312][note 26]

In the wake of Macpherson's publications, several examples of Manx folksongs appear to have first come to light. One particular piece, a Manx Gaelic song called Fin as Oshin, is the only example of fíanaigecht existing in Manx musical tradition.[313][note 27] Surviving in several eighteenth-century manuscripts,[315] Fin as Oshin tells a tale similar to other poems recounting the story of the burning of Finn's house.[316] A central character in the song is a certain Gorree/Orree/Orree Beg, a hero who corresponds to Garadh/Garaidh in cognate tales. The spelling of this hero's name in Fin as Oshin suggests that he represents Godred himself, thereby giving the story a native slant.[317] Godred's place in this song probably accounts for its survival in local memory.[318][note 28] In Vindication of the Celtic Character, the nineteenth-century Gaelic poet William Livingstone offered imaginative accounts of Viking incursions on Islay. One such tale, alleged by Livingstone to have been "handed down from the Danish mythologists of those days", concerns exploits of Godred in the island's Loch Indaal vicinity. Livingstone's versions of such local traditions appear to be the inspiration behind his epic Gaelic battle-poem Na Lochlannaich an Ile ("The Norsemen in Islay").[320] The Gaelic folk song Birlinn Ghoraidh Chróbhain, sometimes called Birlinn Ghoraidh Chrobhain and Godred Crovan's Galley, was composed by Duncan Johnston, and released in part one of his 1938 book Cronan nan Tonn. Johnston's song describes the journey of Godred's royal birlinn from Mann to Islay, and commemorates the sea-power of the Crovan dynasty.[321]

Due to Godred's place in Manx history, he is given a role in the fictional history of The Island of Sodor in The Railway Series by Wilbert Awdry (the name Sodor itself being a reference to the title of Bishop of Sodor and Man).[322] The station of Crovan's Gate as depicted in the books and the TV adaption Thomas & Friends is the junction of the North Western Railway and the narrow gauge Skarloey Railway, and in Awdry's writing was the site of a battle between Godred Crovan and the Norman army.

Notes edit

  1. ^ Since the 1980s, academics have accorded Godred various personal names in English secondary sources: Godfred,[4] Godfrey,[5] Godred,[6] Goffraid,[7] Goffraigh,[8] Gofhraidh,[9] Gofraid,[10] Gofraidh,[11] Goraidh,[8] Guðrøð,[12] Guðrøðr,[13] and Guðröðr.[14] Likewise, with various epithets, Godred's name has been rendered: Godfrey Crovan,[15] Godfrey Croven,[16] Godred Cró bán,[17] Godred cróvan,[18] Godred Crovan,[19] Godred Crovan Haraldsson,[20] Godred Crowan,[21] Godred Méránach,[22] Goffraid Méranach,[7] Goffraigh Meranach,[8] Gofhraidh Meranach,[9] Gofraid Crobán,[23] Gofraid Crobhan,[24] Gofraid Meránach,[25] Gofraid Méránach,[26] Gofraidh Crobh-bhán,[27] Gofraidh Mérach,[27] Goraidh Crobhan,[28] Guðrøð Crovan,[12] Guðrøðr Crobán,[29] Guðrøðr Crovan,[30] and Guðrøðr cróvan.[31] Since the 2010s, Godred has also been accorded the following patronyms: Gofraid mac Arailt, and Guðrøðr Haraldsson.[32]
  2. ^ In 1044, Ímar launched a devastating raid into Armagh. The Annals of Tigernach, which notes this enterprise, doesn't call him by his personal name but merely identifies him as a son of Aralt.[40] This could be evidence that Ímar's contemporaries sometimes knew him by his patronym alone. If this was indeed the case, and if Godred was, in fact, Ímar's son, it could also explain how later chroniclers garbled the name of Godred's father.[41]
  3. ^ The Old Norse form of Iceland is Ísland, and the usual Latin form is Islandia.[35] The chronicle elsewhere refers to Islay as "Yle".[48]
  4. ^ The late-mediaeval Welsh genealogical tract Achau Brenhinoedd a Thywysogion Cymru preserves a pedigree concerning an early thirteenth-century descendant of Godred, Ragnall mac Gofraid, King of the Isles. The pedigree runs: "Rhanallt m. Gwythryg ap Afloyd m. Gwrthryt Mearch m. Harallt Ddu m. Ifor Gamle m. Afloyd m. Swtrig".[50] The "Gwrthryt Mearch" refers to Godred, whilst "Harallt Ddu" conforms to the chronicle's "Haraldi nigri de Ysland"[51] (the Welsh du and Latin niger both mean "black").[52] The pedigree's "Ifor Gamle" appears to represent the Old Norse Ívarr gamli (the Old Norse gamli is a weak declension of gamall, meaning "old").[53] An historical candidate for the pedigree's "Afloyd m. Swtrig" may be Amlaíb Cúarán, whose father was Sitriuc Cáech, King of Northumbria and Dublin.[54] It is possible that the pedigree's "Ifor Gamle" represents Ímar.[51] The fact that the latter's father is known to have been named Aralt, however, could be evidence that the compiler of the pedigree either erroneously reversed the order of "Harallt Ddu" and "Ifor Gamle", or else missed an additional Aralt in the lineage.[55]
  5. ^ The Gaelic epithet Crobán, taken to mean "white-claw", has sometimes been accorded to Godred in recent scholarly secondary sources.[63] Godred's epithet is apparently not unlike that of the later Cathal Crobderg Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht,[64] whose epithet, from the Gaelic crob dhearg, means "red-handed".[65]
  6. ^ There is uncertainty in regard to Gofraid mac Sitriuc's ancestry.
  7. ^ Toirdelbach's son, Tadc, was certainly married to a daughter of Echmarcach.[85] Furthermore, it is possible that Donnchad mac Briain, King of Munster had previously married, Cacht ingen Ragnaill, a sister or niece of Echmarcach.[86]
  8. ^ English settlement in the early fifteenth century could also have introduced some of these place names.[117] There is uncertainty as to when the Norse first settled on Mann. It is conceivable, however, that colonisation began at some point in the early ninth century, at about the same time that other regions in Scotland and the Isles were being settled.[118] Such a date is supported by archaeological evidence in the form of several grave sites.[119]
  9. ^ The inscription of the boat may date to about the time of the Crovan dynasty, possibly from about the eleventh- to the thirteenth century.[122] The boat itself appears to be similar to those that appear on seals borne by later members of the dynasty.[124]
  10. ^ Fine Gall formed a distinct part of Dublin's valuable agricultural hinterland, which in turn supplied the town with essential raw materials.[129] As such, Fine Gall was frequently preyed upon by powers wishing to gain dominance over Dublin. The geographical extent of Fine Gall appears to roughly correspond to the boundary of modern Fingal.[130] The place name Fine Gall literally means "kindred of the foreigners",[131] or "territory of the foreigners".[132]
  11. ^ The so-called "Scots" in this passage could refer to subjects of either Godred[4] or the Scottish Crown.[147] On the other hand, the passage may concern Irishmen,[148] or possibly to maritime magnates from Galloway and Argyll who potentially could have threatened the Islesmen's communication lines.[149] The specific meaning of the passage is somewhat uncertain.[150] Conceivably, the bolts may have been instrumental in constructing keels that were too large to be made of a single timber. Another possibility is that the bolts fixed stern and stem-pieces to the keel. Either way, the passage appears to refer to the Islesmen restricting the size of the boats built by contemporaries.[151] As such, the record may be evidence that typical naval vessels of the era, such as snekkar and skeiðar, were under royal regulation.[4]
  12. ^ The Meic Taidc were descended from Muirchertach's brother, Tadc.[163] According to the twelfth-century Banshenchas, Tadc was married to Echmarcach's daughter, Mór, and the two had three sons and a daughter.[164] Toirdelbach's death in 1086 sent the Uí Briain into a succession crisis, and his three sons—Muirchertach, Diarmait Ua Briain, and Tadc himself—divided Munster between themselves. When Tadc died almost immediately afterwards, Muirchertach seized complete control of the kingdom, and drove Diarmait into exile.[165] As for the Ulaid, they certainly possessed familial links with the Uí Briain, albeit through the marriage of Donn Sléibe mac Eochada, King of Ulaid to a daughter of Toirdelbach's bitter rival, Cennétig mac Lorcáin, a great-grandson of Brian Bóruma.[166]
  13. ^ Maughold was also the site of a pre-Viking Age monastery.[177] The Manx Gaelic keeill refers to early Christian dry-stone-walled churches or oratories.[178] Once regarded as pre-Viking Age structures, scholars now date the keeill phenomena between the late ninth to the late thirteenth centuries.[179] Another candidate for the site of Roolwer's cathedral is St Patrick's Isle.[180] The surviving stone tower on this island appears to date to the mid eleventh century,[181] and made have been erected by Roolwer himself.[182]
  14. ^ The fact that, after Gilla Pátraic was consecrated by Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, the latter sent correspondence to both Gofraid (called "glorioso Hiberniae regi") and Toirdelbach (called "magnifico Hibernie regi"), suggests that Gofraid had little independence from his Irish overlord, Toirdelbach.[194]
  15. ^ Historia Gruffud vab Kenan calls the Isles the "islands of Denmark", and describes the location of them and Ireland as "in the sea side by side with the island of Britain".[212] This source's account of Gruffudd receiving aid from Gothrei may be corroborated by the Life of St Gwynllyw, a twelfth-century source which states that, at some point in his career, Gruffudd received refuge and military aid in Orkney,[213]
  16. ^ It is also possible that the castles were seated along the coast in order to be easily supplied by sea.[222] However, there is no evidence of any seaborne reinforcements when the Welsh successfully campaigned against them, and the record of prolific Norse-Gaelic military activity in the area suggests that the English were not dominating the waves.[223]
  17. ^ During the tenth-, eleventh- and twelfth centuries, Dublin was the heart of the slave trade between Britain and Ireland.[228] According to the account of the sack of Aberlleiniog given by Historia Gruffud vab Kenan,[229] a conflict in which Godred may have assisted Gruffudd,[209] Gruffudd's plunder included French and English captives.[229]
  18. ^ According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan, the Norse-Gaelic father of Gruffudd's mother built and commanded a Welsh fortress called Castell Avloed.[231] The site of this fortress is unknown for certain,[232] although it may have been located at Moel-y-don.[231]
  19. ^ There appears to have been no Manx coinage between the late eleventh and early fourteenth centuries.[247]
  20. ^ The chronicle's notice of Godred's death on Islay is the first documentary source to make mention of the island after the record of an earthquake there in 740.[254]
  21. ^ The title rí Atha Cliath ("king of Dublin") is uncommon in primary sources, and the men regarded by historians as kings of Dublin are more usually styled rí Gall ("king of the foreigners"). The earliest attestation of a king styled rí Atha Cliath occurs in the record of Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill's death in 1075.[261]
  22. ^ In its account of the reign of Domnall mac Donnchada, King of Alba, the twelfth-century Prophecy of Berchán claims that Domnall left "Scotland to the gentiles" (or "Scotland to Vikings").[272] Although the meaning of this passage is uncertain, it is possible that it refers to Godred's consolidation of power in the Isles,[273] or perhaps to Magnús' invasion after his death.[274]
  23. ^ This Ragnailt was a daughter of Godred's son Amlaíb, and should not be confused with the like-named mother of Gruffudd.
  24. ^ The annal-entries concerning Gofraid mac Fergusa are derived from entries concerning the historical Gofraid ua Ímair, King of Dublin and Northumbria. The former, unlike the latter, is portrayed as a Gaelic noble who aided the Scottish Crown.[279]
  25. ^ The Manx Gaelic Gorree is a Gaelicisation of the Old Norse Guðrøðr.[286] Another historical candidate for King Orry is Gofraid mac Arailt, King of the Isles.[287]
  26. ^ That being said, Chatterton famously forged a corpus of so-called Rowleian poetry that he claimed was the work of a mediaeval monk named Thomas Rowley.[312]
  27. ^ The Gaelic term fíanaigecht refers to literature concerning the legendary Finn mac Cumaill, his fian, and family).[314]
  28. ^ In this case, the epithet Beg appears to be a diminutive of affection, rather than a reference to a physical trait.[319]

Citations edit

  1. ^ a b Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 112–113; Cotton MS Julius A VII (n.d.).
  2. ^ The Chronicle of Man and the Sundreys, (1874), p. 51.
  3. ^ Thornton, DE (1996). "The Genealogy of Gruffudd ap Cynan". In Maund, KL (ed.). Gruffudd ap Cynan: A Collaborative Biography. Studies in Celtic History. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. pp. 79–108.
  4. ^ a b c d Holm (2015).
  5. ^ Sellar (2000); Wyatt (1999); Sellar (1997–1998); Cowan (1991).
  6. ^ McDonald (2019); Downham (2017); Ó Cróinín (2017); Crawford, DKE (2016); Ó Muircheartaigh (2016); Davies, S (2014); Macniven (2013b); Flanagan (2008); Abrams (2007); Davey, PJ (2006); Hudson, B (2006); Hudson, BT (2005); Moody; Martin; Byrne (2005); Moore, D (2005); Power (2005); Duffy (2004a); Woolf (2003); Davey, P (2002); Duffy (2002a); Duffy (2002b); Muhr (2002); Fellows-Jensen (2001); Wilson (2001); Duffy (1999); Jones, NA (1999); Sellar (1997–1998); McDonald (1997); Thornton (1996); Duffy (1993a); Andersen (1991); Candon (1988); Swift (1987); Power (1986).
  7. ^ a b Candon (1988).
  8. ^ a b c Jennings; Kruse (2009).
  9. ^ a b McLeod (2002).
  10. ^ Ní Mhaonaigh (2018); Downham (2017); Ó Muircheartaigh (2016); Oram (2011); Flanagan (2008); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005); Moody; Martin; Byrne (2005); Woolf (2005); Duffy (2004a); Woolf (2004); Duffy (2002a); Duffy (2002b); Holland (2000); Oram (2000); Duffy (1999); Jones, NA (1999); Ní Mhaonaigh (1995); Jennings, A (1994); Duffy (1993a); Flanagan (1989); Ó Corráin (n.d.).
  11. ^ MacQuarrie (2006); Sellar (1997–1998).
  12. ^ a b Williams, DGE (1997).
  13. ^ Downham (2017); McDonald (2016); Ó Muircheartaigh (2016); McDonald (2012); Oram (2011); Jennings; Kruse (2009); McDonald (2008); McDonald (2007a); Hudson, B (2006); Macniven (2006); Power (2005); Duffy (2004a); Hudson, B (2002); Hudson, BT (1996); Gade (1994); Hudson, B (1994b).
  14. ^ Power (1986).
  15. ^ Jennings, A (2015); Sellar (2000); Sellar (1997–1998); Jennings, A (1994); Cowan (1991).
  16. ^ Wyatt (1999).
  17. ^ a b Woolf (2003).
  18. ^ Hudson, B (2006).
  19. ^ McDonald (2019); Broderick (2018); Downham (2017); Ó Cróinín (2017); Crawford, DKE (2016); Ó Muircheartaigh (2016); Davies, S (2014); Flanagan (2008); Davey, PJ (2006); Hudson, BT (2005); Moody; Martin; Byrne (2005); Moore, D (2005); Duffy (2004a); Davey, P (2002); Duffy (2002a); Duffy (2002b); Muhr (2002); Fellows-Jensen (2001); Wilson (2001); Duffy (1999); Jones, NA (1999); Sellar (1997–1998); Duffy (1997); McDonald (1997); Thornton (1996); Duffy (1993a); Candon (1988); Swift (1987).
  20. ^ Macniven (2013b).
  21. ^ Andersen (1991).
  22. ^ Thornton (1996).
  23. ^ Oram (2011); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005); Woolf (2005); Woolf (2004); Oram (2000).
  24. ^ Jennings, A (1994).
  25. ^ Duffy (2002b); Holland (2000); Flanagan (1989); Ó Corráin (n.d.).
  26. ^ Ní Mhaonaigh (2018); Ó Muircheartaigh (2016); Flanagan (2008); Moody; Martin; Byrne (2005); Duffy (2004a); Woolf (2004); Duffy (2002a); Duffy (1999); Jones, NA (1999); Duffy (1997); Ní Mhaonaigh (1995); Jennings, A (1994); Duffy (1993a).
  27. ^ a b MacQuarrie (2006).
  28. ^ Broderick (2018); Jennings; Kruse (2009).
  29. ^ Oram (2011).
  30. ^ McDonald (2016); McDonald (2012); McDonald (2008); McDonald (2007a); Macniven (2006); Hudson, B (2002); Gade (1994).
  31. ^ Hudson, B (2006); Hudson, B (1994b).
  32. ^ Downham (2017).
  33. ^ Duffy (2004a).
  34. ^ McDonald (2012) p. 164; McDonald (2007b) p. 62; Duffy (2006) p. 60; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Duffy (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 55 n. 8; Sellar (2000) p. 190 n. 16; Sellar (1997–1998); McDonald (1997) p. 33; Thornton (1996) p. 95; Duffy (1993a) p. 35 n. 18; Duffy (1992) p. 106; Broderick; Stowell (1973) p. 61; Anderson (1922) pp. 43–44 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 50–51, 144.
  35. ^ a b c d Duffy (2006) p. 60.
  36. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1091.5; McDonald (2007b) pp. 61–62; Duffy (2006) p. 60; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1091.5; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Duffy (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 55; McDonald (1997) p. 33; Thornton (1996) p. 95; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) pp. 106–107.
  37. ^ McDonald (2019) pp. 22, 27 n. 4; McDonald (2008) pp. 133, 133–134 n. 12; McDonald (2007b) p. 62, 62 n. 18; Duffy (2006) pp. 53, 60; Hudson, BT (2005) pp. 54, 83 fig. 3, 171; Duffy (2004a); Woolf (2004) p. 100; Duffy (2002a) pp. 55–56; McDonald (1997) p. 33; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 106.
  38. ^ McDonald (2019) p. 27 n. 4; McDonald (2008) pp. 133–134 n. 12; McDonald (2007b) p. 62 n. 18; Duffy (2004a); Duffy (2002a) pp. 55–56; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 106; McDonald (1997) p. 33.
  39. ^ Woolf (2004) p. 100.
  40. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1044.4; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1044.4; Hudson, BT (2005) pp. 136, 171.
  41. ^ Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171.
  42. ^ McDonald (2019) p. 22; Oram (2011) p. 31; Duffy (2006) p. 53; Hudson, B (2006) pp. 77, 110, 170; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 232–233; Hudson, BT (2005) pp. 9, 53–54, 83 fig. 3, 170–171; Duffy (2004a); Woolf (2004) p. 100; Hudson, B (2002) p. 262; Woolf (2001); Oram (2000) p. 19; Sellar (2000) p. 190; Hudson, B (1994b) p. 146; Duffy (1992) p. 106.
  43. ^ McDonald (2012) p. 164; Duffy (2006) p. 60; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Duffy (2002a) p. 55 n. 8; Sellar (2000) p. 190 n. 16; Sellar (1997–1998); Thornton (1996) p. 95; Duffy (1993a) p. 35 n. 18; Duffy (1992) p. 106; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 43–44 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) p. 144.
  44. ^ McDonald (2012) pp. 164, 180–181 n. 145; Duffy (2006) p. 60; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Sellar (2000) p. 190 n. 16; Sellar (1997–1998); McDonald (1997) p. 33 n. 24; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 43–44 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 54–55, 144.
  45. ^ McDonald (2012) pp. 180–181 n. 145; Duffy (2006) pp. 60–61; Duffy (2004a); Sellar (2000) p. 190; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 43–44 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) p. 144.
  46. ^ McDonald (2012) p. 164; Duffy (2006) pp. 60–61; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Duffy (2002a) p. 55 n. 8; Munch; Goss (1874a) p. 144.
  47. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 62; Duffy (2006) pp. 60–61.
  48. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 60; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Sellar (1997–1998); Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 54–55.
  49. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 61; Duffy (2004a); Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 50–51.
  50. ^ Sellar (1997–1998); Thornton (1996) pp. 94–96.
  51. ^ a b Sellar (1997–1998); Thornton (1996) pp. 95–96.
  52. ^ Thornton (1996) p. 95.
  53. ^ Thornton (1996) p. 95 n. 74.
  54. ^ Sellar (1997–1998); Thornton (1996) p. 95.
  55. ^ Thornton (1996) pp. 95–96.
  56. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1091.5; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1091.5; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.).
  57. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 59; Duffy (2002a) p. 56 n. 9; Duffy (1993a) p. 35 n. 20; Broderick; Stowell (1973) p. 61; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 18 n. 1; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 50–51.
  58. ^ Ó Cróinín (2017) p. 258; McDonald (2016) p. 339; Jennings; Kruse (2009) p. 128; Duffy (2006) p. 59; Fellows-Jensen (1998) p. 30; McDonald (1997) p. 33 n. 23; Duffy (1993a) p. 35 n. 20; Duffy (1992) p. 106 n. 66; Candon (1988) p. 402; Megaw (1976) p. 16.
  59. ^ McDonald (2012) p. 174 n. 44; McDonald (2007a) p. 46 n. 5; McDonald (2007b) p. 64 n. 34; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 43 n. 6.
  60. ^ McDonald (2016) p. 339; McDonald (2012) p. 174 n. 44; McDonald (2007b) p. 64.
  61. ^ Jennings; Kruse (2009) p. 128; Duffy (2006) p. 59; eDIL s.v. 1 Mer (n.d.); eDIL s.v. Meranach (n.d.).
  62. ^ McDonald (2016) p. 339; Duffy (2006) p. 59; Duffy (2002a) p. 56 n. 9; Duffy (1993a) p. 35 n. 20; Candon (1988) p. 402; eDIL s.v. Merach (n.d.); eDIL s.v. 1 Mér (n.d.).
  63. ^ a b Woolf (2004) p. 101.
  64. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 59; Megaw (1976) p. 16.
  65. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 59.
  66. ^ McDonald (2016) p. 336; McDonald (2012) p. 150; McDonald (2007a) p. 50.
  67. ^ Ó Cróinín (2017) p. 258; Heald (2007) pp. 23–24; Davey, PJ (2006); Fellows-Jensen (1998) p. 30; Sawyer (1982) p. 111.
  68. ^ Crawford, BE (2004).
  69. ^ Crawford, BE (2006); Crawford, BE (2004).
  70. ^ Crawford, BE (2006); Vigfusson (1887) pp. 58–59 § 38; Anderson; Hjaltalin; Goudie (1873) pp. 44–45 § 22.
  71. ^ Oram (2011) pp. 31–32.
  72. ^ Hudson, BT (2005) p. 135.
  73. ^ Duffy (1992) p. 100.
  74. ^ Hudson, B (2005a); Hudson, BT (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 53; Oram (2000) p. 18; Duffy (1992) pp. 94, 96, 98, 100.
  75. ^ Duffy (1992) pp. 96–97.
  76. ^ Duffy (2006) pp. 55–56; Hudson, B (2005a); Hudson, BT (2004c) p. 47; Duffy (2002a) p. 54; Duffy (1993a) p. 32; Duffy (1992) pp. 99–100.
  77. ^ Duffy (2006) pp. 55–56; Hudson, B (2005a); Hudson, BT (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 54; Oram (2000) p. 18; Duffy (1993a) pp. 32–33; Duffy (1992) p. 100.
  78. ^ Hudson, BT (2004c) p. 51.
  79. ^ Duffy (2002a) p. 54; Oram (2000) p. 18; Duffy (1993a) p. 33; Duffy (1992) pp. 100–101.
  80. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 52; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 231; Hudson, BT (2005) pp. 83 fig. 3, 171–172; Oram (2000) p. 18.
  81. ^ Downham (2017) p. 100; Candon (2006) p. 116; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Oram (2000) p. 18; Hudson, B (1994b) p. 149; Duffy (1992) p. 101.
  82. ^ Flanagan (2008) p. 900; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Oram (2000) p. 18; Duffy (1992) p. 102; Ó Corráin (n.d.) p. 34.
  83. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 57; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Oram (2000) p. 18.
  84. ^ a b Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Oram (2000) p. 18.
  85. ^ Candon (2006) p. 116; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 130 fig. 4; Oram (2000) p. 18; Duffy (1993a) p. 34, 34 n. 16; Duffy (1992) p. 105, 105 n. 59; Candon (1988) p. 403.
  86. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 56; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 130 fig. 4; Oram (2000) p. 18; Duffy (1992) p. 97.
  87. ^ a b Downham (2017) p. 100; Candon (2006) p. 116; Duffy (2006) pp. 57–58; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Hudson, B (2005b); Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; Oram (2000) pp. 18–19; Ní Mhaonaigh (1995) p. 375; Duffy (1993a) p. 33; Duffy (1992) p. 102; Candon (1988) p. 403.
  88. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Hudson, B (2005b); Oram (2000) pp. 18–19.
  89. ^ Richards, J (2005) p. 120.
  90. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Oram (2000) p. 19; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 106.
  91. ^ Duffy (2006) pp. 51, 61; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Woolf (2004) p. 100; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Sellar (2000) p. 190; Sellar (1997–1998); McDonald (1997) p. 33; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 146; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 106; Anderson (1922) pp. 18 n. 1, 43–44 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 50–51.
  92. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 210–211.
  93. ^ Hudson, B (2006) p. 77 n. 31; Downham (2004) p. 68; Duffy (2002a) p. 56 n. 10; Duffy (1993a) p. 35 n. 20; Duffy (1992) p. 106 n. 67; Anderson (1922) p. 16 n. 4; Schmeidler (1917) p. 196 § 51.
  94. ^ Duffy (1992) p. 106 n. 67.
  95. ^ Hudson, B (2006) p. 77 n. 31.
  96. ^ Byrne (2008a) p. 864; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Woolf (2004) p. 100; Anderson (1922) pp. 18 n. 1, 43–44 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 50–51.
  97. ^ Abrams (2012) p. 28.
  98. ^ a b c Duffy (2006) p. 61.
  99. ^ Downham (2018) p. 112; Ní Mhaonaigh (2018) p. 139; Wyatt (2018) p. 791 n. 196; Barlow (2013) pp. 59, 168–169; Wyatt (2009) p. 385, 385 n. 196; Hudson, B (2005a); Downham (2004) pp. 67–68; Hudson, BT (2004a); Hudson, BT (2004c) p. 52; Etchingham (2001) p. 154; Duffy (1995) p. 387; Hudson, B (1994b) p. 146; Duffy (1993a) p. 6; Maund (1993) pp. 164–165; Richter (1985) p. 336; Hudson, B (1979); Freeman (1876) pp. 158, 224–225.
  100. ^ Downham (2018) p. 112; Ní Mhaonaigh (2018) p. 139; Wyatt (2018) p. 791 n. 196; Barlow (2013) pp. 168–169; Duffy (2009) p. 295; Wyatt (2009) p. 385, 385 n. 196; Hudson, B (2005a); Downham (2004) p. 68; Hudson, BT (2004a); Duffy (1995) p. 387; Hudson, B (1994b) p. 146, 146 n. 9; Duffy (1993a) p. 6 n. 25; Richter (1985) p. 336; Hudson, B (1979); Freeman (1876) pp. 224–227.
  101. ^ Barlow (2013) pp. 168–169; Hudson, B (2005a); Downham (2004) p. 68; Hudson, BT (2004a); Hudson, BT (2004c) p. 51; Duffy (1995) p. 387; Hudson, B (1994b) pp. 146–147, 147 n. 13; Duffy (1993a) p. 6 n. 25; Hudson, B (1979); Freeman (1876) pp. 224–227, 791–793.
  102. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 61; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 171; Woolf (2004) p. 100.
  103. ^ McDonald (2007b) pp. 61–62; Duffy (2006) p. 51; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; Woolf (2004) p. 100; McDonald (1997) p. 34.
  104. ^ Flanagan (2008) p. 907; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Oram (2000) p. 19.
  105. ^ McDonald (2019) pp. 11, 48; Flanagan (2008) p. 907; Duffy (2006) pp. 61–62; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; Woolf (2004) pp. 100–101; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Duffy (1993a) p. 35.
  106. ^ McDonald (2019) pp. 46, 48; McDonald (2007b) p. 61; Duffy (2006) pp. 61–62; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; McDonald (1997) pp. 33–34; Anderson (1922) pp. 43–45; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 50–53.
  107. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; Woolf (2004) pp. 100–101; Oram (2000) p. 19; McDonald (1997) p. 34.
  108. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 232; Oram (2000) p. 19.
  109. ^ a b c Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172.
  110. ^ Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; McDonald (1997) pp. 33–34; Anderson (1922) pp. 43–45; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 50–53.
  111. ^ Oram (2011) p. 31; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 232–233; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; Woolf (2001); Oram (2000) p. 19.
  112. ^ McDonald (2019) p. 47; McDonald (2016) p. 341; McDonald (2007b) pp. 61, 218; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; Davey, P (2002) p. 95; McDonald (1997) pp. 33–34; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 52; Andersen (1991) p. 79; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 52–53.
  113. ^ Crawford, BE (1997) pp. 199–200; Williams, DGE (1997) pp. 146–147; Andersen (1996).
  114. ^ Crawford, BE (1997) pp. 199–200; Williams, DGE (1997) pp. 146–147; Andersen (1996); Gurevic (1993); Karras (1993).
  115. ^ Fellows-Jensen (2008) pp. 395, 397; Fellows-Jensen (2001); Fellows-Jensen (1985) pp. 66–67; Fellows-Jensen (1983) pp. 46–48.
  116. ^ Fellows-Jensen (1983) pp. 46–48.
  117. ^ Fellows-Jensen (2008) p. 395; Fellows-Jensen (2001).
  118. ^ Freke (1990) p. 111; Fellows-Jensen (1983) p. 37.
  119. ^ Wilson (2008) pp. 385–388; Wilson (2001).
  120. ^ Wilson (2008) p. 390; Wilson (2001).
  121. ^ McDonald (2007a) p. 59; McDonald (2007b) pp. 128–129 pl. 1; Rixson (1982) pp. 114–115 pl. 1; Cubbon (1952) p. 70 fig. 24; Kermode (1915–1916) p. 57 fig. 9.
  122. ^ a b McDonald (2012) p. 151; McDonald (2007a) pp. 58–59; McDonald (2007b) pp. 54–55, 128–129 pl. 1; Wilson (1973) p. 15.
  123. ^ McDonald (2016) p. 337; McDonald (2012) p. 151; McDonald (2007b) pp. 120, 128–129 pl. 1.
  124. ^ McDonald (2007a) pp. 58–60; McDonald (2007b) pp. 54–55; Wilson (1973) p. 15, 15 n. 43.
  125. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1091.5; Flanagan (2008) p. 907; McDonald (2007b) pp. 61–62; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1091.5; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 147; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 107; Candon (1988) p. 400; Anderson (1922) p. 45; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 52–53.
  126. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1091.5; McDonald (2007b) p. 62; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1091.5; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 147; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 107; Candon (1988) p. 400, 401 n. 8.
  127. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 62; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Duffy (2002b) p. 54; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 107; Candon (1988) pp. 402–403; Anderson (1922) p. 45; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 52–53.
  128. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 62; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Duffy (2002b) p. 54; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) p. 107.
  129. ^ Downham (2014) p. 19; Downham (2013a) p. 158; Downham (2005); Holm (2000) pp. 254–255; Valante (1998–1999) p. 246, 246 n. 16.
  130. ^ Downham (2005).
  131. ^ Woolf (2018) p. 126; Downham (2014) p. 19; Downham (2013a) p. 158; Downham (2005).
  132. ^ Duffy (2017); Duffy (2009) p. 291; Downham (2005) p. 158.
  133. ^ Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1088.3; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1088.3; Candon (1988) p. 401.
  134. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 1088.4; Annals of Loch Cé (2008) § 1088.2; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 1088.4; Annals of Loch Cé (2005) § 1088.2; Candon (1988) p. 401.
  135. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1089.3; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1089.3; Candon (1988) p. 401.
  136. ^ Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1089.2; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1089.2; Candon (1988) p. 401, 401 n. 7.
  137. ^ Candon (1988) p. 401 n. 8.
  138. ^ a b Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 234; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 183; Oram (2000) p. 20.
  139. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 62.
  140. ^ Duffy (1997) p. 42.
  141. ^ Richards, JD (2013) ch. 8 fig. 12.
  142. ^ a b Oram (2011) p. 32; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 233; Oram (2000) p. 19.
  143. ^ French (2015) p. 22.
  144. ^ Hudson, BT (2004c) p. 40.
  145. ^ McDonald (2019) pp. viii, 20; Holm (2015); McDonald (2007a) pp. 46, 52; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 233–234; Oram (2000) p. 20; Duffy (1999) p. 355; Duffy (1993a) pp. 29–30; Cowan (1991) p. 66; Rixson (1982) pp. 122–123, 242 n. 7; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 52–53.
  146. ^ McDonald (2007a) p. 52; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 233–234; Oram (2000) p. 20; Rixson (1982) pp. 122–123, 242 n. 7.
  147. ^ Duffy (1999) p. 355; Duffy (1993a) pp. 29–30.
  148. ^ McDonald (2007a) pp. 46, 52.
  149. ^ Cowan (1991) p. 66; Rixson (1982) p. 122.
  150. ^ McDonald (2007a) p. 52.
  151. ^ Holm (2015); Rixson (1982) pp. 122–123, 242 n. 7.
  152. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 233–234; Oram (2000) p. 20.
  153. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1095.5; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1095.5; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.).
  154. ^ Oram (2011) p. 32; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 233; Oram (2000) p. 16.
  155. ^ Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1094.5; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1094.5; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 172; Duffy (1992) p. 99 n. 32; Candon (1988) p. 402.
  156. ^ a b Oram (2011) p. 32; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 233; Oram (2000) pp. 19–20.
  157. ^ a b The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 1087.7; Oram (2011) p. 32; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 1087.7; Duffy (2006) p. 62; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 233; Duffy (2002a) p. 55; Oram (2000) p. 20; Duffy (1992) p. 105; Candon (1988) pp. 403–403.
  158. ^ Oram (2011) p. 32; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 233; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 130 fig. 4; Oram (2000) pp. 19–20.
  159. ^ Oram (2011) p. 32; Duffy (2006) p. 62; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 233; Oram (2000) pp. 19–20.
  160. ^ Candon (1988) pp. 403–403.
  161. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 234; Duffy (2002a) p. 55; Oram (2000) p. 20; Duffy (1992) p. 105 n. 61.
  162. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 234; Oram (2000) p. 20.
  163. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 445; Oram (2000) p. 20; Duffy (1992) p. 105.
  164. ^ Downham (2017) p. 100 n. 62; Downham (2013b) p. 147; Duffy (2002a) p. 55, 55 n. 7; Duffy (1993a) p. 34, 34 n. 16; Duffy (1992) p. 105, 105 n. 59; Candon (1988) p. 403; Dobbs (1931) pp. 196, 229.
  165. ^ Duffy (2005); Bracken (2004); Duffy (1992) p. 105.
  166. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 234; Oram (2000) p. 20; Duffy (1992) p. 105 n. 60.
  167. ^ Duffy (2006) p. 62.
  168. ^ Downham (2018) pp. 44, 90; McDonald (2007b) p. 56.
  169. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 56; Downham (2004) pp. 68–69.
  170. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 56.
  171. ^ Ravn; Bischoff; Englert; Nielsen (2011) pp. 244, 245 fig. 10.6.
  172. ^ Oram (2011) p. 32.
  173. ^ Oram (2011) pp. 34–35.
  174. ^ a b Oram (2011) pp. 34–35; McDonald (2007b) p. 62.
  175. ^ Freke (2002) p. 441; Watt (1994) pp. 108, 110; Anderson (1922) pp. 95–96 n. 1; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 112–115.
  176. ^ Freke (2002) p. 441.
  177. ^ Wilson (2001); Freke (1990) p. 108.
  178. ^ Johnson (2006).
  179. ^ Moore, RH (2012).
  180. ^ Watt (1994) pp. 108, 110.
  181. ^ Crawford, DKE (2016) p. 134; Watt (1994) p. 108.
  182. ^ Watt (1994) p. 108.
  183. ^ McDonald (2019) pp. 11, 52; Abrams (2007) pp. 184–185; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 181; Woolf (2003) p. 171; Watt (1994) pp. 108–109; Swift (1987) p. 36; Anderson (1922) p. 95 n. 1; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 112–113.
  184. ^ Wilson (2008) p. 390; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 181; Woolf (2003) p. 171; Anderson (1922) pp. 95–96 n. 1.
  185. ^ Abrams (2007) pp. 184–185; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 181; Woolf (2003) p. 171; Watt (1994) p. 109; Swift (1987) p. 36; Anderson (1922) p. 95 n. 1; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 112–113.
  186. ^ Woolf (2003) p. 172.
  187. ^ a b Crawford, BE (1997) p. 82; Watt (1994) p. 110.
  188. ^ Hudson, BT (2005) p. 181; Crawford, BE (1997) p. 82; Crawford, BE (1996) p. 8, 8 n. 40; Watt (1994) p. 110; Anderson (1922) pp. 95–96 n. 1.
  189. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 1074.1; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 1074.1; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.).
  190. ^ Woolf (2018) p. 129; Hudson, BT (2004b); Woolf (2003) pp. 172–173.
  191. ^ Woolf (2018) p. 129 n. 52; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 1074.1; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 1074.1; Woolf (2003) pp. 172–173; Duffy (1992) p. 102 n. 45.
  192. ^ a b Woolf (2003) pp. 172–173.
  193. ^ Holland (2005); Flanagan (2004); Woolf (2003) pp. 172–173; Hudson, B (1994b) pp. 149–150; Duffy (1992) p. 102 n. 45.
  194. ^ Ní Mhaonaigh (2018) p. 147; Flanagan (2008) pp. 904–905; Hudson, B (1994b) pp. 149–150, 150 n. 26; Duffy (1992) p. 102 n. 45; Clover; Gibson (1979) pp. 66–69 § 9, 70–73 § 10; Munch; Goss (1874b) pp. 266–268; Erlington; Todd (n.d.) pp. 490–491 § 26, 492–494 § 27.
  195. ^ Woolf (2018) p. 129 n. 52.
  196. ^ Woolf (2003) pp. 171–172; Anderson (1922) pp. 95–96 n. 1; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 114–115.
  197. ^ Abrams (2007) p. 185; Woolf (2003) pp. 171–172; Watt (1994) p. 110.
  198. ^ Watt (1994) p. 110.
  199. ^ Woolf (2003) p. 172; Watt (1994) p. 110; Anderson (1922) pp. 95–96 n. 1; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 114–115.
  200. ^ Jesus College MS. 111 (n.d.); Oxford Jesus College MS. 111 (n.d.).
  201. ^ Wyatt (1999) p. 595.
  202. ^ Moore, D (1996) p. 18.
  203. ^ Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Duffy (2004b) p. 104; Pryce (2004); Carr (2002) pp. 68–69; Wyatt (1999); Moore, D (1996) pp. 23–25; Longley (1991) p. 79; Candon (1988) p. 409.
  204. ^ Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Duffy (2004b) p. 104; Carr (2002) pp. 68–69; Duffy (1993a) p. 229; Jones, A (1910) pp. 102–103.
  205. ^ Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Duffy (2004b) p. 104; Wyatt (1999) p. 597; Moore, D (1996) p. 23; Duffy (1993a) pp. 3–4, 232; Flanagan (1989) p. 62; Jones, A (1910) pp. 102–105.
  206. ^ Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Duffy (2004b) p. 104; Carr (2002) pp. 68–69; Wyatt (1999); Moore, D (1996) pp. 23–25; Duffy (1993a) pp. 14–15; Longley (1991) p. 79; Candon (1988) pp. 409–410.
  207. ^ Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Davies, JR (1997) p. 401; Moore, D (1996) p. 25, 25 n. 181.
  208. ^ Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Moore, D (1996) p. 25, 25 n. 181.
  209. ^ a b Pryce (2004); Lloyd (1912) p. 404, 404 n. 22; Jones, A (1910) pp. 136–139.
  210. ^ Pryce (2004); Wyatt (1999) p. 606; Lewis (1996) p. 69; Moore, D (1996) pp. 18–19; Duffy (1993a) p. 237; Maund (1993) p. 181.
  211. ^ Davies, S (2014) p. 60; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 182; Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Pryce (2004); Carr (2002) pp. 68–69; Jones, NA (1999) p. 79 n. 26; Wyatt (1999) pp. 606–607; Moore, D (1996) pp. 23–24, 24 n. 176; Duffy (1993a) pp. 237–238; Maund (1993) p. 181; Duffy (1992) p. 107 n. 70; Evans (1990) pp. 40, 72; Candon (1988) p. 410; Jones, A (1910) pp. 136–137.
  212. ^ Hudson, BT (2005) p. 182; Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Jones, NA (1999) p. 79 n. 26; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 147; Duffy (1992) p. 107 n. 70; Evans (1990) p. 56; Candon (1988) p. 410; Jones, A (1910) pp. 106–107, 173–174 n. 1.
  213. ^ Jones, NA (1999) p. 79 n. 26.
  214. ^ Wyatt (1999) p. 607 n. 70; Duffy (1993a) pp. 237–238; Maund (1993) p. 181.
  215. ^ Wyatt (1999) p. 607 n. 70.
  216. ^ Moore, D (1996) p. 24; Evans (1990) pp. 40, 72; Jones, A (1910) pp. 136–137.
  217. ^ Maund (1993) p. 181.
  218. ^ Davies, S (2014) p. 60; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 182; Carr (2002) pp. 68–69; Moore, D (1996) p. 20; Longley (1991) p. 79; Evans (1990) pp. 40, 72; Jones, A (1910) pp. 136–137.
  219. ^ Pryce (2004); Wyatt (1999) pp. 606–607; Lewis (1996) p. 71; Longley (1991) p. 79.
  220. ^ Wyatt (1999) p. 607; Lewis (1996) pp. 69–70.
  221. ^ Wyatt (1999) p. 607; 607 n. 74.
  222. ^ Wyatt (1999) p. 607; 607 n. 74; Lewis (1996) p. 70.
  223. ^ Wyatt (1999) p. 607 n. 74.
  224. ^ a b Wyatt (2018) p. 762; Wyatt (2009) p. 357; Pryce (2004); Turvey (2002) p. 41; Lewis (1996) pp. 70–71; Moore, D (1996) pp. 24 n. 176, 36–38; Forester (1854) pp. 445–447; Le Prevost (1845) pp. 280–286.
  225. ^ Pryce (2004); Turvey (2002) p. 41; Lewis (1996) pp. 70–71; Moore, D (1996) pp. 24 n. 176, 36–38.
  226. ^ Pryce (2004); Lewis (1996) pp. 70–71.
  227. ^ Moore, D (2005) ch. 3; Moore, D (1996) pp. 24 n. 176, 36–38, 38 n. 276.
  228. ^ Wyatt (2018) p. 744; Wyatt (2009) p. 339.
  229. ^ a b Wyatt (2018) pp. 762–763, 763 n. 82; Wyatt (2009) p. 357, 357 n. 82; Jones, A (1910) pp. 138–139.
  230. ^ a b c Hudson, BT (2005) p. 183.
  231. ^ a b Hudson, BT (2005) pp. 120–121; Hudson, B (1994a) p. 328; Loyn (1976) pp. 15–16, 16 n. 1; An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments of Caernarvonshire (1976) pp. cxxxix–cxlii, cxxxix n. 2; Jones, A (1910) pp. 104–105, 160 n. 9.
  232. ^ An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments of Caernarvonshire (1976) pp. cxxxix–cxlii, cxxxix n. 2.
  233. ^ Hudson, BT (2005) p. 183; Lewis (1996) pp. 71–72; Moore, D (1996) p. 39; Jones, A (1910) pp. 140–143.
  234. ^ Mason (2012) ch. 7; Moore, D (1996) pp. 39–40.
  235. ^ Pryce (2004).
  236. ^ Moore, D (1996) pp. 39–40.
  237. ^ Ní Mhaonaigh (2018) p. 146; Annals of the Four Masters (2013a) § 1094.2; Annals of the Four Masters (2013c) § 1094.2; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 1094.2; Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1094.2; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1094.2; Flanagan (2008) pp. 907–909; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 1094.2; McDonald (2007a) p. 63; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 234–235; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 183; Bracken (2004); Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Oram (2000) p. 20; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 147; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1992) pp. 107–108; Anderson (1922) pp. 93–94; Murphy (1896) pp. 185–187 § 1094.
  238. ^ Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1094.2; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1094.2; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 183.
  239. ^ Flanagan (2008) p. 907.
  240. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1088.3; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1088.3; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.).
  241. ^ Byrne (2008b) p. 26; Duffy (1993b); Ó Corráin (n.d.) p. 33.
  242. ^ Flanagan (2008) pp. 907–909; Duffy (2005); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 234–235; Oram (2000) p. 20; Duffy (1993a) p. 35; Duffy (1993b) p. 16.
  243. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 234–235; Oram (2000) p. 20.
  244. ^ Byrne (2008a) p. 878; Duffy (2005); Hudson, BT (2005) p. 183; Bracken (2004).
  245. ^ Edwards (2013) p. 179; Kenny (2008) p. 848; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 187; Hudson, BT (2004c) p. 51 n. 64.
  246. ^ Hudson, BT (2005) p. 187.
  247. ^ McDonald (2016) p. 336.
  248. ^ Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 54–55; Cotton MS Julius A VII (n.d.).
  249. ^ Downham (2018) p. 25; Kostick (2008) pp. 100–103.
  250. ^ Annals of the Four Masters (2013a) § 1095.4; Annals of the Four Masters (2013c) § 1095.4; Oram (2011) p. 48; Kostick (2008) pp. 100–101; McDonald (2007b) p. 64; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 235; Duffy (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Thornton (1996) p. 95; Candon (1988) p. 402; Power (1986) p. 115; Anderson (1922) p. 95 n. 1.
  251. ^ Ní Mhaonaigh (2018) p. 146, 146 n. 82; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 1095.11; Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1095.13; The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 1095.5; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1095.13; McDonald (2008) p. 134; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 1095.11; McDonald (2007b) p. 64; Duffy (2006) p. 61; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 1095.5; Sellar (1997–1998); Thornton (1996) p. 95; Jennings, A (1994) pp. 173–174, 214–215; Candon (1988) p. 402; Power (1986) p. 115; Anderson (1922) p. 94, 95 n. 1; Murphy (1896) pp. 185–187 § 1094.
  252. ^ Macniven (2013b) pp. 4, 18 n. 6; McDonald (2012) pp. 180–181 n. 145; Oram (2011) p. 48; McDonald (2008) p. 134; Macniven (2006) 178 n. 172; Duffy (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Sellar (2000) p. 190; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 147; Duffy (1993a) pp. 35–36; Swift (1987) p. 249; Anderson (1922) p. 98.
  253. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 235; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Oram (2000) p. 20; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 147; Duffy (1993a) pp. 35–36; Duffy (1993b) p. 16.
  254. ^ Macniven (2013b) pp. 4, 18 n. 6; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 740.3; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 740.3; Macniven (2006) pp. 57, 263.
  255. ^ Williams, DGE (1997) p. 147.
  256. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 235; Oram (2000) pp. 20–21; Candon (1988) p. 404.
  257. ^ Ní Mhaonaigh (2018) p. 146 n. 81; Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1095.13; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1095.13; McDonald (2007b) p. 64; McLeod (2002) p. 27 n. 2; Duffy (1992) p. 108; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 503 (n.d.).
  258. ^ a b Duffy (2002a) p. 56; Duffy (1993a) p. 36; Duffy (1992) p. 108.
  259. ^ Ní Mhaonaigh (2018) p. 146, 146 n. 81; Annals of Inisfallen (2010) § 1095.13; Annals of Inisfallen (2008) § 1095.13; McDonald (2007b) p. 64; Duffy (2002a) p. 56; McLeod (2002) p. 27 n. 2; Jennings, A (1994) pp. 173–174, 214–215; Duffy (1993a) p. 36; Duffy (1992) p. 108.
  260. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 64; Duffy (1993a) p. 36; Duffy (1992) p. 108.
  261. ^ Woolf (2018) p. 118; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 1075.0; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 1075.0.
  262. ^ Power (2005) p. 11.
  263. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 233; Oram (2000) p. 19; Duffy (1992) p. 107 n. 70; Jones, A (1910) pp. 136–137.
  264. ^ Megaw (1976) pp. 18, 27.
  265. ^ Cole; Durack (1992) p. 107.
  266. ^ McDonald (2019) p. 23; McDonald (2008) p. 133; McDonald (2007b) p. 64; Jennings, AP (2001).
  267. ^ Jennings, A (2015); McDonald (2012) p. 144; Oram (2011) p. 31; Duffy (2004a); Broderick (2003); Jennings, AP (2001); Duffy (1997) p. 42.
  268. ^ Davey, PJ (2006); Williams, DGE (1997) pp. 148–149; Power (1986) p. 115.
  269. ^ Oram (2011) p. 48; Duffy (2004a).
  270. ^ Oram (2011) p. 48; Duffy (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 57; Holland (2000) p. 128; Duffy (1992) pp. 108–110.
  271. ^ Oram (2011) pp. 48–51; Duffy (2002a) p. 57; Holland (2000) pp. 128–129, 129 n. 82; Duffy (1992) pp. 110–113.
  272. ^ Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 92 § 205, 232; Duffy (1993a) p. 25; Anderson (1930) p. 56 § 56, 56 n. 204; Anderson (1922) p. 93; Skene (1867) p. 105;
  273. ^ Hudson, BT (1996) p. 232.
  274. ^ Hudson, BT (1996) p. 232; Duffy (1993a) p. 25; Anderson (1930) p. 56 n. 204.
  275. ^ Oram (2011) pp. 59, 88; Davey, PJ (2006); Duffy (2004a); Duffy (2002a) p. 60; Duffy (1992) p. 115.
  276. ^ Davey, PJ (2006); Duffy (2004a); Sellar (2004); Woolf (2001).
  277. ^ Davey, PJ (2006); Clancy (2006); Macdougall (2001); Woolf (2001).
  278. ^ Clancy (2006); Davey, PJ (2006).
  279. ^ a b c d e Woolf (2005).
  280. ^ Woolf (2005); Rixson (2001) p. 85.
  281. ^ McDonald (2019) p. 34; Ceannaigh Duain t'Athar, a Aonghas (2012); Beuermann (2010) p. 102 n. 9; Woolf (2005).
  282. ^ Annals of the Four Masters (2008a) §§ 835.15, 851.16; Annals of the Four Masters (2008b) §§ 835.15, 851.16; Byrne (2008c) p. 632; Woolf (2007) p. 299; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 11; Woolf (2005); Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 40–42.
  283. ^ Duffy (2006) pp. 58–59.
  284. ^ McDonald (2019) p. 3; Broderick (2018) pp. 74–75; McDonald (2016) p. 336; McDonald (2007b) pp. 61, 169; Duffy (2006) p. 59; Hudson, B (2006) pp. 77, 170; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 170; Woolf (2005); Duffy (2004a); Broderick (2003); Hudson, B (2002) p. 262; McDonald (1997) p. 34.
  285. ^ Ó Muircheartaigh (2016) p. 104.
  286. ^ a b Broderick (2003).
  287. ^ Broderick (2003); Sellar (2000) p. 190 n. 15.
  288. ^ Broderick (2018) pp. 74–75; Ó Muircheartaigh (2016) pp. 104–105; Broderick (1990) p. 53 n. 11.
  289. ^ Kewley Draskau (2006) p. 1251.
  290. ^ Broderick (2018) p. 75; Broderick (1990) p. 53 n. 11; Train (1845) pp. 50–55.
  291. ^ Ó Muircheartaigh (2016) pp. 104–105; Broderick (1990) p. 53 n. 11.
  292. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 169; Broderick (2003); Gill (1883) p. 11 § 28.
  293. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 64; Macniven (2006) pp. 493, 495 fig. 84; Hudson, BT (2005) p. 183; Graham-Campbell; Batey (1998) p. 89; Swift (1987) p. 249; Lamont (1959–1960) p. 173; Islay, Carragh Bhan (n.d.).
  294. ^ Lamont (1959–1960) p. 173.
  295. ^ Graham-Campbell; Batey (1998) pp. 89, 90 fig. 5.8; Jennings, A (1994) p. 74; Islay, Port Ellen, Doid Mhairi (n.d.).
  296. ^ Woolf (2005); Broderick (1990) p. 53, 53 n. 12.
  297. ^ Muhr (2002) p. 40, 40 n. 9; Malone (2001) p. 265; Broderick (1990) p. 53, 53 n. 12.
  298. ^ Broderick (2002) p. 122.
  299. ^ a b c Macniven (2013a) p. 89 n. 101; Macniven (2006) p. 437, 437 n. 250.
  300. ^ a b Macniven (2013a) p. 89; Dun Guaidhre, Islay (n.d.).
  301. ^ Macniven (2006) p. 437.
  302. ^ Macniven (2013a) p. 89 n. 101.
  303. ^ Macniven (2006) p. 413.
  304. ^ Macniven (2006) pp. 413, 437.
  305. ^ Macniven (2006) pp. 258–259, 315, 518.
  306. ^ Damon (2013) p. 78; Lowery (1940) p. 171; DB (1769) pp. 425–428.
  307. ^ Stevenson (2007) pp. 14–18; Lindsay (1978) p. 21.
  308. ^ Lindsay (1978) p. 24.
  309. ^ Damon (2013) pp. 78, 170; Lindsay (1978) p. 21.
  310. ^ Lowery (1940) p. 175.
  311. ^ Groom (2007) pp. 1625–1626.
  312. ^ a b Groom (2007) p. 1629.
  313. ^ Broderick (2018) pp. 63, 73, 76; Broderick (1990) pp. 51–53.
  314. ^ Ó Muircheartaigh (2016) p. 95; Murray (2005).
  315. ^ Broderick (2018) pp. 63–66; Ó Muircheartaigh (2016).
  316. ^ Broderick (2018) pp. 73–74, 80–81; Broderick (1990) pp. 53–54 n. 13, 54–58; Moore, AW (1891) pp. 10–12; Campbell (1872) pp. 175–180.
  317. ^ Broderick (2018) pp. 66–67, 74–75; Ó Muircheartaigh (2016) pp. 104–105, 121; Broderick (1990) pp. 53, 53–54 n. 13.
  318. ^ Broderick (2018) pp. 75–76.
  319. ^ Broderick (1990) p. 53 n. 10.
  320. ^ Kidd (2006); Whyte (1991) pp. 175–176; Livingston (1882) pp. 1–37; Livingston (1850) pp. 147–150.
  321. ^ McDonald (2007b) p. 53, 53 n. 62; Johnston (1997) p. 28.
  322. ^ Awdry, Wilbert; Awdry, George (1987). The Island of Sodor: Its People, History and Railways.

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November 10, 2023
godred, crovan, died, 1095, known, gaelic, gofraid, crobán, gofraid, meránach, gofraid, méránach, note, norse, gaelic, ruler, kingdoms, dublin, isles, although, precise, parentage, completely, been, proven, certainly, Ímair, dynast, descendant, amlaíb, cúarán,. Godred Crovan died 1095 known in Gaelic as Gofraid Croban Gofraid Meranach and Gofraid Meranach note 1 was a Norse Gaelic ruler of the kingdoms of Dublin and the Isles Although his precise parentage has not completely been proven he was certainly an Ui Imair dynast and a descendant of Amlaib Cuaran King of Northumbria and Dublin Godred CrovanKing of Dublin and the IslesGodred s name as it appears on folio 50v of British Library Cotton Julius A VII the Chronicle of Mann Godredus Crouan 1 Died1095IslayBurialpossibly IonaIssueLagmann Aralt AmlaibHouseCrovan dynasty Ui Imair FatherHarald The Black of Islay Harallt Ddu 2 3 Godred first appears on record in the context of supporting the Norwegian invasion of England in 1066 Following the collapse of this campaign Godred is recorded to have arrived on Mann at the court of Gofraid mac Sitriuc King of the Isles a likely kinsman of his During the 1070s the latter died and was succeeded by his son Fingal Within the decade Godred violently seized the kingship for himself although the exact circumstances surrounding this takeover are uncertain By 1091 Godred attained the kingship of Dublin and thereby secured complete control of the valuable trade routes through the Irish Sea region Godred s expansion may be further perceptible in the Clyde estuary and Galloway and may well have forced the English to consolidate control of Cumberland in an effort to secure their western maritime flank Godred appears to have drawn his power from the Hebrides and archaeological evidence from Mann reveals that in comparison to the decades previous to his takeover the island seems to have enjoyed a period of relative peace During his reign Godred appears to have lent military assistance to Gruffudd ap Cynan King of Gwynedd a probable kinsman who was then locked in continuous conflicts with Welsh rivals and encroaching English magnates The earliest known Bishops of the Isles date from about the time of Godred s reign although it is almost certain that earlier ecclesiastes held this position It may have been just prior to Godred s accession in the Isles whilst Dublin was under the ultimate control of Toirdelbach Ua Briain King of Munster that Dublin and the Isles were ecclesiastically separated once and for all Godred s rule in Dublin came to an abrupt end in 1094 with his expulsion at the hands of Muirchertach Ua Briain King of Munster a man who may have even driven Godred from Mann as well Documentary evidence reveals that the last decade of the eleventh century saw an upsurge in plague and famine According to Irish sources one quarter of Ireland perished from pestilence in 1095 alone One of the fatalities was Godred himself who died on Islay an apparent power centre in the Isles Godred s greatest impact on history may have been his founding of the Crovan dynasty his patrilineal descendants who ruled in the Isles for almost two centuries Godred was an important maternal ancestor of Clann Somairle a family that held power in the Isles centuries after the final extinction of the Crovan dynasty As such he may be identical to Gofraid mac Fergusa an apparent genealogical construct claimed as a Clann Somairle ancestor Godred may well be identical to the celebrated King Orry of Manx legend a figure traditionally credited with instituting the Manx legal system Godred and King Orry are associated with numerous historic and prehistoric sites on Mann and Islay Contents 1 Familial origins 2 Background 3 Emergence in the Isles 4 Domination of Dublin and the Irish Sea 5 The early dioceses of Dublin and the Isles 6 Involvement in Wales 7 Downfall and death 8 Legacy 8 1 Siol nGofraidh and the Crovan dynasty 8 2 Memory in Manx and Hebridean tradition 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References 11 1 Primary sources 11 2 Secondary sources 12 External linksFamilial origins edit nbsp Locations relating to Godred s life and timesWhile the familial origins of Godred Crovan aren t completely proven it appears certain that he was a direct descendant of Amlaib Cuaran King of Northumbria and Dublin 33 Although the thirteenth to fourteenth century Chronicle of Mann calls him in Latin filius Haraldi nigri de Ysland 34 implying that his father was named Aralt 35 the fourteenth century Annals of Tigernach instead calls him in Gaelic mac Maic Arailt 36 contrarily implying that it was Godred s grandfather who was named Aralt 35 Godred therefore may have been either a son 37 nephew 38 or brother of Imar mac Arailt King of Dublin 39 note 2 However the early thirteenth century pedigree Achau Brenhinoedd a Thywysogion Cymru in the Welsh collection of genealogical tracts records Gwrthryt Mearch Godred Crovan as the son of Harallt Ddu Harald The Black of Islay who in turn was the son of Ifor Gamle Imar mac Arailt As such it appears that Godred was not the son nephew or brother but in fact the grandson of Imar mac Arailt King of Dublin patrilineal descendant of Amlaib Cuaran King of Northumbria and Dublin and member of the Ui Imair 42 The chronicle s passage may further cast light on Godred s familial origins Although Ysland may represent Iceland 43 there is no other evidence linking Godred to this island 35 Alternately the word may instead represent the Hebridean island of Islay 44 where he is otherwise known to have ended his life 45 Another possibility is that Ysland represents Ireland 46 which if correct would evidence Godred s close familial links with that particular island 47 note 3 Whatever the case according to the same source he had been brought up on Mann 49 note 4 nbsp Godred s name as it appears on folio 19v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488 the Annals of Tigernach Goffraidh mac Maic Arailt 56 When Godred is first noted by the Latin Chronicle of Mann he is accorded the epithet Crouan or Crovan 57 The origin and meaning of this name are uncertain It may well be derived from the Gaelic crob bhan white handed 58 Another Gaelic origin may be cro ban white blooded in reference to being very pale 59 Alternately it could originate from the Gaelic crubach claw If the epithet is instead Old Norse in origin it could be derived from kruppin cripple 60 In several Irish annals Godred is accorded the epithet meranach This word could represent either the Gaelic meranach mad confused giddy 61 or else meranach which can also be rendered merach a word derived from mer finger or toe If meranach indeed corresponds to the latter meaning the epithet would appear to mirror Crouan Crovan and imply something remarkable about Godred s hands 62 note 5 Godred and his patrilineal royal descendants who reigned in the Isles for about two centuries are known to modern scholars as the Crovan dynasty a name coined after Godred himself 66 The combination of Old Norse personal names and Gaelic epithets accorded to Godred and his dynastic descendants partly evidence the hybrid nature of the Norse Gaelic Kingdom of the Isles 67 Background edit nbsp Proposed mid nineteenth century monument to King Orry a legendary figure who may be identical to GodredOne of the foremost leaders of the eleventh century Norse world was THorfinnr Sigurdarson Earl of Orkney a man whose maritime empire like that of his father before him stretched from Orkney to the Isles and perhaps even into Ireland as well 68 THorfinnr died in about 1065 and was succeeded by his two sons Pall and Erlendr Unfortunately for the brothers the expansive island empire that their father had forged appears to have quickly disintegrated under their joint rule 69 Although there is no record of the brothers conducting military operations in the Isles and Ireland the thirteenth century Orkneyinga saga states that the peripheral regions of their father s lordship reverted to the control of local leaders 70 It was into this power vacuum that Godred first emerges into recorded history 71 The ruler of the Isles who appears to have suffered from THorfinnr s southward expansion was Echmarcach mac Ragnaill King of Dublin and the Isles 72 The turn of the mid eleventh century saw the gradual decline of Echmarcach s authority 73 In 1052 he was driven from Dublin by Diarmait mac Mail na mBo King of Leinster 74 Although there is evidence to suggest that Diarmait reinstated Imar as King of Dublin the latter was dead within two years 75 and at some point Diarmait appears to have placed his own son Murchad upon the throne 76 About a decade after Diarmait s conquest of Dublin an invasion of Mann by Murchad appears to have resulted in the submission or expulsion of Echmarcach altogether 77 effectively giving Diarmait control over the Irish Sea region 78 When Murchad died in 1070 Diarmait assumed control of Dublin and perhaps Mann as well 79 The ruler of Mann in about 1066 was Gofraid mac Sitriuc King of the Isles a man who appears to have reigned under Diarmait s overlordship Like Godred himself Gofraid mac Sitriuc may have been a descendant of Amlaib Cuaran 80 note 6 On Diarmait s unexpected death in 1072 Toirdelbach Ua Briain King of Munster invaded Leinster and acquired control of Dublin 81 Within a year of gaining lordship over the Dubliners Toirdelbach appears to have installed or at least recognised a certain Gofraid mac Amlaib meic Ragnaill as their king 82 In fact this man appears to have been a close kinsman of Echmarcach possibly his nephew 83 As such Gofraid mac Amlaib meic Ragnaill seems to have been a member of a Norse Gaelic kindred possessing close marital links with the Ui Briain 84 note 7 Such links may well explain the remarkable rapidity with which the Ui Briain struck out at Dublin and the Isles after Diarmait s demise 84 In 1073 for instance Mann was raided by a certain Sitriuc mac Amlaib and two grandsons of the Ui Briain founder Brian Boruma High King of Ireland 87 Whilst there is reason to suspect that Sitriuc was a brother of Gofraid mac Amlaib meic Ragnaill 88 the attack itself was almost certainly a continuation of the Ui Briain s conquest of Dublin the year before 87 Emergence in the Isles edit nbsp nbsp Romanticised nineteenth century depictions of Godred Crovan Vikings were first associated with unhistorical horned helmets early that century 89 Godred seems to have spent his early career as a mercenary of sorts 90 Certainly the Chronicle of Mann states that he took part in the ill fated Norwegian invasion of England in 1066 91 This Norwegian campaign culminated in the Battle of Stamford Bridge a bloody autumn encounter in which Harold Godwinson King of England utterly destroyed the forces of Haraldr Sigurdarson King of Norway in north eastern England The slaughter at Stamford resulted in the total destruction of Norwegian military power and it took almost a generation before a king of this realm could reassert authority in the Norse colonies of the British Isles 92 If the eleventh century chronicler Adam of Bremen is to be believed an Irish king was slain during the battle 93 which could indicate that Godred formed part of the Irish Sea contingent 94 a host perhaps led by the slain king 95 At any rate it was in the aftermath of this defeat that the chronicle first notes Godred stating that following his flight from the battle Godred sought sanctuary from Gofraid mac Sitriuc and was honourably received by him 96 Godred s participation in the Norwegian enterprise which was also supported by the sons of THorfinnr partly evidences the far flung connections and interactions of the contemporary Norse elite 97 nbsp A depiction of English infantry and Norman cavalry on the eleventh century Bayeux Tapestry In the course of his career Godred appears to have battled both Anglo Saxon and Anglo Norman forces The depicted infantry are shown formed in a shield wall a tactic employed by the Norwegian backed forces at Stamford Bridge Godred s arrival on Mann rather than Dublin may well be explained by the varying political alignments in the Irish Sea region Whilst he had allied himself to the cause of the invading Haraldr 98 the cause of the defending Harold was clearly adhered to by Diarmait the contemporary overlord of Dublin In fact the latter seems to have lent Harold s family the Godwinsons assistance in the decade before the Norwegian invasion 99 He later sheltered Harold s sons following the eventual English defeat at the hands of the Normans 100 and further gave the Godwinsons military assistance in their insurrections against the new Norman regime in 1068 and 1069 101 Regardless of Godred s possible ancestral links with Ireland his political leanings could have meant that Dublin was unsafe for him in 1066 98 Another factor influencing Godred s arrival on Mann may have been the absence of Echmarcach Gofraid mac Sitriuc s predecessor and Imar s bitter adversary at some point earlier in the decade 98 As for Gofraid mac Sitriuc himself the generosity that he showed Godred could well be explained if the two were indeed kinsmen 102 Whatever the case the former s death is recorded in 1070 after which his son Fingal apparently succeeded to the kingship 103 Possibly in about 1075 104 or 1079 105 the chronicle reveals that Godred succeeded in conquering Mann following three sea borne invasions 106 On one hand it is possible that Godred overthrew Fingal 107 who may have been weakened by the Ui Briain assault on the island in 1073 108 On the other hand the amiable relations between Godred and Fingal s father could suggest that as long as Fingal lived his kingship was secure and that it was only after his death that Godred attempted to seize control 109 nbsp Sky Hill where Godred is said to have vanquished the Manx once and for all According to the chronicle some of his troops hid in the wood surrounding the hill and his victory was achieved when they ambushed the unsuspecting Manx from the rear 110 Godred s power base may have been located in the Hebrides the northern reaches of the realm 111 After his takeover of Mann a conquest that culminated in the Battle of Sky Hill the chronicle claims that Godred offered his followers the choice of either plundering the island or of settling upon it Only a few of his Islesmen are stated to have remained with him on Mann According to the chronicle Godred granted the incomers lands in the south of the island and allowed the natives lands in the north on the condition that they give up all heritable rights to this territory It was through this act alleges the chronicle that Godred s later successors owned the entirety of the island 112 This portrayal of Godred s takeover in which a conqueror establishes his dynasty s dominance over the traditional rights of a native landholding populace parallels the traditional mediaeval accounts of Haraldr harfagri 113 a king traditionally said to have deprived Norwegian landholders their heritable odal rights 114 Although several place names on Mann appear to date to the tenth and eleventh centuries stemming from direct settlement from Norway or Norwegian colonies in Scotland and the Isles many Manx place names that contain the Old Norse element by appear to have been coined by later settlers from Denmark or the Danelaw Some of these settlers would have arrived on the island from the Danelaw in the tenth century whilst others could have arrived in the course of Godred s conquest 115 In fact as late as the sixteenth century some of the island s most considerable lands contained this word element 116 note 8 Further after effects of Godred s conquest may perceptible by numismatic evidence Almost twenty mediaeval silver hoards have been uncovered on Mann Almost a dozen date between the 1030s and the 1070s The finds seem to suggest that the island suffered from power struggles until the establishment of Godred and his descendants 120 Domination of Dublin and the Irish Sea edit nbsp Image a nbsp Image bMaughold IV image a detail image b 121 a Manx runestone displaying a contemporary sailing vessel 122 The power of the kings of the Isles laid in their armed galley fleets 123 note 9 The Annals of Tigernach and the Chronicle of Mann evidence Godred s conquest of the Kingdom of Dublin in about 1091 125 Specifically the former source accords him the title King of Dublin that year 126 whilst the latter source claims that he subjugated all of Dublin and much of Leinster 127 Although the chronicle s statement regarding Leinster is almost certainly an exaggeration it may well refer to the seizure of the full extent of Fine Gall and the extension of royal authority over adjoining regions 128 note 10 Dublin s political affiliation at about this period in time is uncertain In 1088 Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair King of Leinster seems to have utilised troops from Dublin in his attack on Waterford 133 Whilst within the same year troops from Dublin Waterford and Wexford were repulsed in an attack on Cork by the Ui Echach Mumain 134 The following year Donnchad is further accorded the title ri Gall which suggests that he ruled Dublin by this point 135 Muirchertach Ua Briain King of Munster certainly gained authority over Dublin within the year 136 although the fact that the annal entry evidencing Godred s kingship there in 1091 contains no verb could suggest that he too reigned in Dublin as early as 1089 137 Whatever the case Godred s acquisition of this coastal settlement may well have been a strike of sheer opportunism in which he took advantage of the ongoing conflict between the kingdoms of Munster and Leinster 138 His probable familial links with Dublin could have contributed to his remarkable success as well and it is possible that the Dubliners considered this conquest as a restoration of the kingdom s royal family 139 Certainly his conquests in the Irish Sea region amounted to the reunification of the Ui Imair imperium 63 and appear to be evidence that contemporaries regarded Dublin and Mann to be components of a single political entity with the ruler of one part entitled to that of the other 140 nbsp Viking Age trade routes in north west Europe 141 As the ruler of Dublin and the Isles Godred dominated the routes through the Irish Sea region Despite Godred s apparent ancestral connections to the kingdoms of Dublin and the Isles his rise to power could well have been driven by economic realities as much as royal aspirations 142 Dublin was one of the wealthiest ports in western Europe By the end of the eleventh century it was the most important population centre in Ireland 143 There appear to have been three main routes in the region one running from southern Wales to south eastern Ireland connecting the settlements of Waterford and Wexford in Ireland with Bristol and St Davids in Wales another route running from the river Dee in northern Wales to Mann itself and to the rivers Liffey and Boyne in Ireland thereby connecting the ports of Chester and Holyhead in Wales with those of Dublin and Drogheda in Ireland the third trade route running perpendicular to the aforementioned extending south to the Continent and north through the Hebrides to Iceland Orkney Shetland Scandinavia and the Baltic region 144 Godred s conquest of Dublin therefore could have been undertaken in the context of an Islesman securing possession of the region s southernmost routes thereby giving him total control of the Irish Sea trade nexus 142 According to the Chronicle of Mann Godred held the Scots in such subjection that no one who built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts 145 a statement implying his maritime dominance over contemporaries 146 note 11 The naval power of the Islesmen is perhaps evidenced in known military cooperation between the Islesmen perhaps including Godred himself and Gruffudd ap Cynan King of Gwynedd in the last decade of the eleventh century 152 nbsp Godred s name and title as it appears on folio 19v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488 Goffraidh rex Normannorum 153 Further expansion of Godred s authority may be perceptible in the Clyde estuary and Galloway where place names and church dedications suggest Isles based Norse Gaelic influence and rule from the ninth to eleventh centuries 154 There is also evidence suggesting that following Fingal s disappearance from the historical record Fingal s descendants ruled in parts of Galloway 109 Specifically in 1094 the eleventh to fourteenth century Annals of Inisfallen record the death of a certain King of the Rhinns named Macc Congail 155 whose recorded patronym may represent confusion between the names Fingal and Congal Whatever the case it is unknown if Macc Congail was independent from or dependent upon Godred s authority 109 Godred s interference in this part of the Irish Sea region could explain an unsuccessful invasion on Mann in 1087 156 That year the fifteenth to sixteenth century Annals of Ulster record that an unnamed Ulaid dynast and two sons of the son of Ragnall 157 perhaps sons of Echmarcach Gofraid mac Amlaib meic Ragnaill or the latter s father 158 lost their lives in the assault 157 On one hand the apparent involvement of Echmarcach s family in this attack appears to evince an attempt to restore themselves on Mann 159 Additionally the Ulaid s actions appear to mirror their own response to Dublin based intrusion into the North Channel earlier in the century 156 and the fact that the attack took place in the year after Toirdelbach s death could indicate that the Ulaid seized upon the resulting confusion amongst the Ui Briain 160 On the other hand it is possible that raid was actually an Ui Briain initiative conducted in the context of an ongoing internal power struggle within the kindred If so the attack could have been undertaken by Echmarcach s family at the connivance of the Meic Taidc a branch of the Ui Briain matrilineally descended from Echmarcach who may have used the operation as a means of preventing Mann from falling into the hands of their rival uncle Muirchertach Although the latter was certainly in the midst of securing control of Dublin 161 it is questionable whether he was in any position to contemplate operations in the Irish Sea at this point In fact Godred was nearing the height of his own power and it is unclear if the Meic Taidc enjoyed more amiable relations with the Ulaid than Muirchertach himself 162 note 12 At any rate Godred s expansion into Dublin could have been undertaken in the aftermath of his successful defence of the island 167 nbsp Image a nbsp Image bSkuldelev II image a a contemporary Viking longboat uncovered in Denmark was originally built of oak from Ireland 168 or specifically Dublin 169 and dates to about Godred s floruit 170 It may have been commissioned during the reign of Imar mac Arailt 4 Havhingsten fra Glendalough image b a modern Danish reconstruction of Skuldelev II 171 Godred s expansion in the Irish Sea may well have had serious repercussions on mainland politics Certainly in the eyes of Mael Coluim mac Donnchada King of Alba the prospect of Godred s expansion into the Solway region would have been a threatening development 172 Furthermore in the last decades of the eleventh century there was a breakdown in relations between Mael Coluim and William II King of England In 1091 Mael Coluim led the Scots across their southern border Although peace was subsequently restored without bloodshed the temporary truce fell apart the following year when William seized Cumberland and established an English colony at Carlisle Although this northern advance is sometimes regarded as an attempt to keep the Scots in check the operation also established English control over Norse Gaelic coastal populations and further secured England s vulnerable north western maritime flank 173 Godred s conquest of Dublin the year before therefore may well have influenced William s strategy in the north west 174 The early dioceses of Dublin and the Isles edit nbsp One of several ruinous keeills in the churchyard of Kirk Maughold According to the chronicle Roolwer was buried at the church of St Maughold 175 Whether this was the site of his cathedral is unknown 176 note 13 The ecclesiastical jurisdiction within the Isles during the reigns of Godred s mid twelfth century successors was the Diocese of the Isles Little is known of the early history of the diocese although its origins may well lie with the Ui Imair imperium 17 Unfortunately the Chronicle of Mann s coverage of the episcopal succession only starts at about the time of Godred s reign The bishop first mentioned by this source is a certain Roolwer 183 whose recorded name appears to be a garbled form of the Old Norse Hrolfr 184 The chronicle records that Roolwer was the bishop before Godred s reign 185 which could either mean that he died before the beginning of Godred s rule or that Roolwer merely occupied the position at the time of Godred s accession 186 Roolwer s recorded name may be evidence that he is identical to one of the earliest bishops of Orkney Specifically either Thorulf 187 or Radulf 188 Considering the evidence of early eleventh century Orcadian influence in the Isles it is not inconceivable that the near contemporaneous Church in the region was then under the authority of an Orcadian appointee 187 nbsp The name and title of Dunan as it appears on folio 43v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 489 the Annals of Ulster 189 A noted contemporary of Roolwer was Dunan an ecclesiast generally assumed to have been the first Bishop of Dublin 190 In fact the Annals of Ulster instead accords him the title ardespoc Gall high bishop of the Foreigners 191 and the first Bishop of Dublin solely associated with Dublin is Gilla Patraic 192 a man elected to the position by the Dubliners during the regime of Toirdelbach and Gofraid mac Amlaib meic Ragnaill 193 note 14 nbsp Roolwer s name as it appears on folio 50v of British Library Cotton Julius A VII the Chronicle of Mann 1 The name appears to be a form of Hrolfr which could be evidence that he is identical to one of the earliest known bishops of Orkney Dunan s title could indicate that he held episcopal authority in the Irish Sea region outwith the bounds of Dublin 195 As such there is reason to suspect that he was Roolwer s antecessor in the Isles When Dunan died in 1074 only a few years after Toirdelbach s takeover of Dublin it is possible that the latter seized this opportunity and oversaw the ecclesiastical separation of Dublin from the Isles through the creation of a new episcopal see in Dublin If so Roolwer s episcopacy in the Isles may well have begun in 1074 after Dunan s death just like Gilla Patraic s episcopacy in Dublin and perhaps ended at some point during Godred s reign 192 The chronicle reveals that Roolwer s successor was a certain William 196 whose Anglo Norman or French name may cast light on his origins and may in turn evince Godred s links with the wider Anglo Norman world 197 Indeed such connections would seem to parallel those between Dublin and the Archbishop of Canterbury forged by Godred s contemporaries in Dublin Toirdelbach and Gofraid mac Amlaib meic Ragnaill 198 William appears to have died in or before 1095 as the chronicle states that he was succeeded during Godred s lifetime by a Manxman named Hamond son of Iole 199 Involvement in Wales edit nbsp The name of Gruffudd ap Cynan as it appears on folio 254r of Oxford Jesus College 111 the Red Book of Hergest gruffud vab kynan 200 One of the most significant eleventh and twelfth century Welsh figures was Gruffudd a man who fended off fellow dynasts and Anglo Normans alike to establish himself in northern Wales 201 Throughout much of the last two decades of the eleventh century Gwynedd was occupied by ever encroaching Anglo Normans 202 and it is apparent that Gruffudd enjoyed close connections with the Norse Gaelic world 203 Specifically the thirteenth century Historia Gruffud vab Kenan reveals that not only was Gruffudd born and raised in Dublin 204 he was yet another distinguished descendant of Amlaib Cuaran 205 and that on several occasions Gruffudd availed himself of Norse Gaelic military assistance 206 After an apparent lull of about two decades there was a remarkable increase in Norse Gaelic predatory raids upon Wales throughout the 1070s and 1080s 207 In fact this resurgence coincides with Gruffudd s struggle for power and may not be an unrelated coincidence 208 nbsp Godred could well have assisted Gruffudd in attacking the Anglo Norman castle of Aberlleiniog on Anglesey 209 At one point in his career after briefly gaining power in 1081 Gruffudd was captured by Hugh d Avranches Earl of Chester and appears to have been held captive for over a decade perhaps twelve years 210 According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan Gruffudd managed to escape his captors and sought military aid in the Isles from certain king named Gothrei and endured numerous perils together 211 note 15 In fact Godred s reign in Dublin and the Isles at about this time suggests that he is identical to the Gothrei whom Gruffudd fled to 214 If Godred was indeed a descendant of Amlaib Cuaran like Gruffudd this shared ancestry could well explain the cooperation between the two 215 On the other hand although Gothrei is described as Gruffudd s friend or ally 216 no specific kinship is acclaimed by the source which may indicate that Gruffudd s appeal was one of mere expediency 217 Whatever the case having gained support from the Isles in the form of an armed naval force of sixty ships Historia Gruffud vab Kenan records that Gruffudd invaded Anglesey and defeated a force of Anglo Normans before the Islesmen returned home 218 Gruffudd and Gothrei appear to have directed their efforts against the Anglo Norman castle of Aberlleiniog before the former tackled other installations 219 A significant feature of the encroachment of English power into Gwynedd was the erection of a line of mottes along the northern Welsh coast The strategic placement of these military sites suggests that they were constructed with the command of the sea in mind 220 As such this fortified coastal network could have been perceived as a potential threat to Norse Gaelic mercenarial operations and raiding expeditions in the region and may partly explain Gothrei s cooperation with Gruffudd 221 note 16 nbsp Great Orme where Grithfridus is said to have made landfall before battling and killing Robert de TilleulIn 1093 at about the time of this cooperation between Gruffudd and Gothrei the twelfth century Historia ecclesiastica records the death of Robert de Tilleul an eminent Anglo Norman based in Rhuddlan According to this source Robert was slain by a certain king named Grithfridus 224 Although there is reason to suspect that the latter is identical to Gruffudd 225 this identification is by no means certain as the less than impartial Historia Gruffud vab Kenan makes no mention of this episode at all 226 In fact another possibility is that the sea roving Grithfridus is identical to Gothrei and thus Godred himself 227 Whatever the case Historia ecclesiastica states that Robert was slain during a sea borne predatory raid in which Grithfridus three ship force made landfall under the cliffs of Great Orme The invaders are further said to have ravished the surrounding countryside loading their ships with livestock and captives Having crushed Robert s forces Grithfridus is stated to have had the former s severed head bound as a trophy to the top of his mast 224 note 17 Just as Godred s rise in the Irish Sea region appears to have provoked William II to protect the north western reaches of his realm 174 the participation of the Islesmen in war wracked northern Wales may have provoked a similar response The activity of the Islesmen in the region and the prospect of their consolidation on Anglesey may well have posed a potential threat to English interests in the area 230 note 18 Certainly Historia Gruffud vab Kenan records that William II launched an utterly unsuccessfully campaign into the region directed at Gruffudd himself and that the English were forced to turn back without having gained any plunder 233 Nevertheless an alternate possibility is that William II had been lured into the region by the native resurgence throughout the Welsh Marches 234 an event in which Gruffudd s participation is uncertain 235 Whatever the reason the English counter operation appears to have been undertaken with mainly defensive objectives in mind 236 Downfall and death edit nbsp Late eleventh century cross slab uncovered on IslayGodred s rule in Dublin lasted until 1094 That year the Annals of Inisfallen reveal that warfare broke out between Muirchertach and a northern Irish alliance that included Godred This source and the seventeenth century Annals of Clonmacnoise the Annals of the Four Masters and the Annals of Ulster reveal that Muirchertach marched upon Dublin where he was confronted by the alliance Godred s maritime force in this campaign is numbered at ninety ships by the seventeenth century Annals of the Four Masters Although all these sources indicate that Muirchertach s forces were at first forced to flee Muirchertach soon returned after the alliance had dispersed and succeeded in driving Godred from Dublin 237 The Annals of Inisfallen appears to indicate that warfare between Muirchertach and Godred was wrought throughout the year The source also reveals that during Dublin s fall Muirchertach captured Conchobar Ua Conchobair Failge King of Ui Failge 238 Although the Kingdom of Ui Failge had previously enjoyed the patronage of the Ui Briain it is possible that Godred had forged an alliance with Conchobar 230 Following the Ui Briain conquest of Dublin the Ua Conchobair kings of Ui Failge may have been the only Leinster lords who refused to acknowledge Muirchertach s overlordship 239 nbsp The name of Domnall Mac Lochlainn Muirchertach s arch rival and Godred s possible ally as it appears on folio 19r of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488 Domnall mac Lochlainn 240 From a late eleventh century Irish perspective dominance of Dublin appears to have been a virtual prerequisite of gaining the Irish high kingship 241 and Muirchertach s quest for control of this coastal kingdom appears to have been undertaken in such a context In fact it is evidence that Godred had allied himself with Muirchertach s fiercest rival for the high kingship Domnall Mac Lochlainn King of Cenel nEogain 242 It possible that this compact contributed to Godred s successes in Dublin 243 Just as Godred s seizure of Dublin appears to have taken place at a point when two superior powers were occupied elsewhere 138 his expulsion from the kingdom appears to have taken place at a time when Muirchertach s hands were free having temporarily settled matters with his rival half brother Diarmait Ua Briain 230 and having earned some success in extending Ui Briain authority into Connacht 244 Contemporary numismatic material concerning Dublin indicates that starting in 1095 immediately following Godred s demise the kingdom s coinage became drastically debased in terms of weight and stylistic quality For about a generation previous Dublin s coinage had imitated the near contemporary styles of the English and Anglo Normans albeit with varying consistency but immediately after 1095 Dublin s coins dramatically degenerated into poor imitations of nearly century old designs 245 This could be evidence that in comparison to Muirchertach s immediate Norse Gaelic predecessors in Dublin his own regime lacked the expertise to ensure the vitality of the kingdom s commerce and currency 246 note 19 nbsp The name of Muirchertach Ua Briain as it appears on folio 33v of British Library Cotton Julius A VII Murecardum 248 Annalistic evidence from throughout Europe indicates that the continent suffered from a resurgence of plague and famine during the first years of the 1090s 249 In fact if the Annals of the Four Masters is to be believed about a quarter of Ireland s population succumbed to pestilence in 1095 This source 250 and a host of others such as the Annals of Clonmacnoise the Annals of Inisfallen the Annals of Tigernach and the Annals of Ulster all single out Godred as one of the many mortalities 251 The Chronicle of Mann which also records Godred s death reveals that he died on Islay 252 The fact that he met his end on that island could be evidence that Muirchertach not only drove him from Dublin but from Mann as well 253 note 20 On the other hand the possibility that Islay was an important locus of royal power in the Isles combined with the evidence of his father s links with the island could instead be evidence against such an overthrow 255 Furthermore the chronicle itself states that Godred was succeeded by his eldest son Lagmann 256 nbsp Godred s name and title as it appears on folio 30v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 503 the Annals of Inisfallen Gobraith rig Atha Cliath amp Inse Gall 257 This title describing him as king of both Dublin and the Isles is quite rare and may further evidence Godred s Irish connections 258 On Godred s death the Annals of Inisfallen accord him the title rig Atha Cliath amp Inse Gall translated variously as King of Dublin and of the Isles and king of Dublin and the Hebrides 259 a remarkable designation in the fact that it is quite rare 260 and perhaps only elsewhere accorded to Diarmait mac Mail na mBo In the case of the latter the title may emphasise Diarmait s achievement of stretching his influence from Ireland into the Isles In Godred s case the title may instead underscore Godred s expansion into Ireland from the Isles 258 note 21 The chronicle s record of Godred s death on Islay could indicate that the island formed a secondary power centre in the Isles 262 The fact that Historia Gruffud vab Kenan notes that Gruffudd travelled into the Isles to obtain military assistance from Gothrei could also be evidence that Godred s headquarters was located there 263 The record of Godred s death on Islay further suggests that he may well have been buried on the nearby holy island of Iona the burial place of his like named grandson Gofraid mac Amlaib King of Dublin and the Isles 264 Legacy editSiol nGofraidh and the Crovan dynasty edit nbsp The Landing of King Orry an early twentieth century railway poster depicting the legendary King Orry 265 Godred s greatest impact on history may have been his foundation of the Crovan dynasty 266 a vigorous family of sea kings that ruled in the Isles for almost two centuries until its extinction in the mid thirteenth century when the remaining kingdom was annexed by Alexander III King of Scotland 267 There is uncertainty concerning the political situation in the Isles in the last decade of the eleventh century 268 It is apparent however that the dynasty descended from him soon turned upon itself Although Godred s eldest son Lagmann appears to have succeeded him during the decade the latter was soon forced to fend off rivals factions supporting Godred s younger sons Aralt in particular 269 Irish power appears to have encroached into the Isles at about this time as well 270 and it is evident that the political upheaval and dynastic instability in the wake of Godred s demise eventually provoked Magnus olafsson King of Norway to forcibly take control of the Isles before the century s end 271 note 22 It wasn t until the about the second decade of the twelfth century that the Crovan dynasty re established firm control in the person of Amlaib Godred s youngest son 275 In the mid twelfth century the Isles were partitioned between two rival power blocks One faction controlling Mann and the northern Hebrides was led by the representative of the Crovan dynasty Gofraid mac Amlaib Godred s grandson the other faction controlling the southern Hebrides was ruled by Somairle mac Gilla Brigte Lord of Argyll husband of Ragnailt ingen Amlaib Godred s granddaughter Somairle eventually forced his brother in law from power and ruled the entire kingdom for almost a decade before the Crovan dynasty regained control of their permanently partitioned domain 276 note 23 Although the dynasty expired in the mid thirteenth century Somairle s descendants Clann Somairle held power in the Hebrides for centuries to come 277 In fact the later mediaeval Clann Somairle Lordship of the Isles which survived into the late fifteenth century was a direct successor of Godred s maritime imperium 278 nbsp Image a nbsp Image bForms of Gofraid mac Fergusa s name as they appear on folios 13r image a and 320v image b of the seventeenth century Dublin Royal Irish Academy C iii 3 the Annals of the Four Masters The Chronicle of Mann Orkneyinga saga 279 and later tradition preserved in the eighteenth century Book of Clanranald reveal that it was through Ragnailt s descent that Clann Somairle and Somairle himself claimed kingship in the Isles 280 Godred s place at the royal apex of the two dynasties who contested the kingship of the Isles in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries suggests that he is identical to the like named man proclaimed as an eminent ancestral figure in two thirteenth century poems concerning Clann Somairle dynasts 281 The professed descendants of this Gofraid were poetically conceptualised as Siol nGofraidh the seed of Gofraid a Gaelic term that conceivably originally applied to both the Crovan dynasty and Clann Somairle 279 Later unease with a matrilineal descendant from Godred may have led to the invention of a patrilineal descent of Clann Somairle from a like named man with enviable albeit concocted Scottish connections Godred therefore may be identical to the anachronistic Gofraid mac Fergusa 279 an alleged ninth century figure dubiously noted in the Annals of the Four Masters 282 and otherwise only specifically attested in later genealogical accounts concerning Clann Somairle 279 note 24 Memory in Manx and Hebridean tradition edit nbsp Image a nbsp Image bPrehistoric Manx sites linked to Godred in modern times King Orry s Grave image a and Cashtel yn Ard image b Godred s arrival on Mann is commonly taken as a starting point of Manx history This elevated place in the island s historiography is partly due to his position as an apical ancestral figure of later kings and by his preeminent position in the historical account of the Isles preserved by the Chronicle of Mann In fact this source appears to have been commissioned by Godred s later descendants as a means to legitimize their claims to the kingship and the later historiographical emphasis that separates Godred from his predecessors may well be unwarranted 283 That being said Godred is possibly the historical prototype of the celebrated King Orry 284 Manx Gaelic Ree Gorree and Ree Orree of Manx folklore 285 note 25 This legendary figure appears in the earliest example of Manx literature the so called Manannan Ballad 288 an eighteenth century text that appears to contain content of sixteenth century provenance 289 This traditional account of Mann asserts that following King Orry s arrival and his subsequent introduction of the island s legal system thirteen of his descendants ruled in turn as king before Alexander III s takeover 290 In fact this tally appears to conform to the number of historical Manx rulers during the Crovan dynasty s floruit 291 King Orry and thus Godred himself is seemingly referred to in Manx legislation dating to the early fifteenth century as the term in King Orryes Days was recorded at the 1422 sitting of Tynwald 292 This phrase likely equates to time immemorial a time beyond memory once defined under English law as the time before the reign of the celebrated Richard I King of England 286 nbsp Carragh Bhan a prehistoric standing stone on IslayAccording to local tradition on Islay Godred s grave is marked by Carragh Bhan grid reference NR32834781 a standing stone situated near the settlement of Kintra on the island s Oa peninsula 293 The site itself is likely prehistoric 294 although there is a legitimate late eleventh century cross slab found on the island near Port Ellen grid reference NR357458 that appears to contain motifs from contemporary Scandinavian and Irish art 295 As with Godred on Islay supposed burial places of King Orry are traditionally marked by prehistoric burial sites on Mann 296 One such site is the now mutilated tomb known as King Orry s Grave grid reference SC440844 located near Laxey another is Cashtal yn Ard grid reference SC463893 also known as Cashtal Ree Gorree located near Maughold 297 The so called Godred Crovan Stone a massive granite rock once located in the Manx parish of Malew but destroyed in the nineteenth century may have owed its name to eighteenth or nineteenth century romanticism 298 nbsp The area surrounding Dun Ghuaidhre a ruinous mediaeval fortress traditionally associated with Godred 299 The area surrounding Dun Ghuaidhre grid reference NR38926483 300 a ruinous mediaeval fortress on Islay is traditionally associated with Godred 299 and overlooks some of the island s most fertile lands 300 The south east ridge along Dun Ghuaidhre is named in Gaelic Clac an Righ Ridge of the King 301 According to local tradition Godred slew a dragon at Emaraconart a site only about 2 kilometres 1 2 mi from the fortress and ridge 299 Although the present form of the fort s name appears to refer to Godred himself it is unknown if there is any historical connection between him and the site 302 A nearby site is Airidh Ghutharaidh The etymology of this place name is uncertain It could be derived from the Gaelic airigh shieling and Gutharaidh a hypothesised Gaelic form of the Old Norse personal name Gudrodr The fact that this site is only about 2 kilometres 1 2 mi from Dun Ghuaidhre could suggest that the names of both locations refer to Godred 303 On the other hand it is possible that the names of the fort ridge and shieling are merely the result of folk etymology 304 Another Islay site associated with Godred is Conisby grid reference NR262618 This place name is derived from the Old Norse Konungsbyr king s farm a prestigious designation that appears to echo the district s not insignificant size and quality of lands Whether the site was ever owned by a king is unknown although local tradition certainly associates it with Godred himself 305 nbsp Detail of a proposed mid nineteenth century Manx monument to King OrryThe eighteenth century poet Thomas Chatterton composed Godred Crovan a poem that appeared in print in 1769 under the full title Godred Crovan A poem Composed by Dopnal Syrric Scheld of Godred Crovan King of the Isle of Man published in the Town and Country Magazine 306 The poem appears to have influenced the work of the contemporaneous poet William Blake particularly Blake s first piece of revolutionary poetry Gwin King of Norway 307 Whilst Chatterton s composition tells the tale of an invasion of Mann by a tyrannous Norseman named Godred Crovan 308 Blake s ballad is about a tyrannous Norse king who is slain by a native giant named Gordred 309 Chatterton s compositions in Town and Country Magazine were strongly influenced by and imitative of the so called Ossianic poetry of the contemporaneous poet James Macpherson In fact it was likely through Chatterton s work that Blake was most influenced by Macpherson 310 Unlike Macpherson who deceptively insisted that his epic Ossianic corpus was translated from the work of an ancient Celtic bard 311 Chatterton did not claim his Ossianic inspired compositions were the remnants of ancient literature 312 note 26 In the wake of Macpherson s publications several examples of Manx folksongs appear to have first come to light One particular piece a Manx Gaelic song called Fin as Oshin is the only example of fianaigecht existing in Manx musical tradition 313 note 27 Surviving in several eighteenth century manuscripts 315 Fin as Oshin tells a tale similar to other poems recounting the story of the burning of Finn s house 316 A central character in the song is a certain Gorree Orree Orree Beg a hero who corresponds to Garadh Garaidh in cognate tales The spelling of this hero s name in Fin as Oshin suggests that he represents Godred himself thereby giving the story a native slant 317 Godred s place in this song probably accounts for its survival in local memory 318 note 28 In Vindication of the Celtic Character the nineteenth century Gaelic poet William Livingstone offered imaginative accounts of Viking incursions on Islay One such tale alleged by Livingstone to have been handed down from the Danish mythologists of those days concerns exploits of Godred in the island s Loch Indaal vicinity Livingstone s versions of such local traditions appear to be the inspiration behind his epic Gaelic battle poem Na Lochlannaich an Ile The Norsemen in Islay 320 The Gaelic folk song Birlinn Ghoraidh Chrobhain sometimes called Birlinn Ghoraidh Chrobhain and Godred Crovan s Galley was composed by Duncan Johnston and released in part one of his 1938 book Cronan nan Tonn Johnston s song describes the journey of Godred s royal birlinn from Mann to Islay and commemorates the sea power of the Crovan dynasty 321 Due to Godred s place in Manx history he is given a role in the fictional history of The Island of Sodor in The Railway Series by Wilbert Awdry the name Sodor itself being a reference to the title of Bishop of Sodor and Man 322 The station of Crovan s Gate as depicted in the books and the TV adaption Thomas amp Friends is the junction of the North Western Railway and the narrow gauge Skarloey Railway and in Awdry s writing was the site of a battle between Godred Crovan and the Norman army Notes edit Since the 1980s academics have accorded Godred various personal names in English secondary sources Godfred 4 Godfrey 5 Godred 6 Goffraid 7 Goffraigh 8 Gofhraidh 9 Gofraid 10 Gofraidh 11 Goraidh 8 Gudrod 12 Gudrodr 13 and Gudrodr 14 Likewise with various epithets Godred s name has been rendered Godfrey Crovan 15 Godfrey Croven 16 Godred Cro ban 17 Godred crovan 18 Godred Crovan 19 Godred Crovan Haraldsson 20 Godred Crowan 21 Godred Meranach 22 Goffraid Meranach 7 Goffraigh Meranach 8 Gofhraidh Meranach 9 Gofraid Croban 23 Gofraid Crobhan 24 Gofraid Meranach 25 Gofraid Meranach 26 Gofraidh Crobh bhan 27 Gofraidh Merach 27 Goraidh Crobhan 28 Gudrod Crovan 12 Gudrodr Croban 29 Gudrodr Crovan 30 and Gudrodr crovan 31 Since the 2010s Godred has also been accorded the following patronyms Gofraid mac Arailt and Gudrodr Haraldsson 32 In 1044 Imar launched a devastating raid into Armagh The Annals of Tigernach which notes this enterprise doesn t call him by his personal name but merely identifies him as a son of Aralt 40 This could be evidence that Imar s contemporaries sometimes knew him by his patronym alone If this was indeed the case and if Godred was in fact Imar s son it could also explain how later chroniclers garbled the name of Godred s father 41 The Old Norse form of Iceland is Island and the usual Latin form is Islandia 35 The chronicle elsewhere refers to Islay as Yle 48 The late mediaeval Welsh genealogical tract Achau Brenhinoedd a Thywysogion Cymru preserves a pedigree concerning an early thirteenth century descendant of Godred Ragnall mac Gofraid King of the Isles The pedigree runs Rhanallt m Gwythryg ap Afloyd m Gwrthryt Mearch m Harallt Ddu m Ifor Gamle m Afloyd m Swtrig 50 The Gwrthryt Mearch refers to Godred whilst Harallt Ddu conforms to the chronicle s Haraldi nigri de Ysland 51 the Welsh du and Latin niger both mean black 52 The pedigree s Ifor Gamle appears to represent the Old Norse Ivarr gamli the Old Norse gamli is a weak declension of gamall meaning old 53 An historical candidate for the pedigree s Afloyd m Swtrig may be Amlaib Cuaran whose father was Sitriuc Caech King of Northumbria and Dublin 54 It is possible that the pedigree s Ifor Gamle represents Imar 51 The fact that the latter s father is known to have been named Aralt however could be evidence that the compiler of the pedigree either erroneously reversed the order of Harallt Ddu and Ifor Gamle or else missed an additional Aralt in the lineage 55 The Gaelic epithet Croban taken to mean white claw has sometimes been accorded to Godred in recent scholarly secondary sources 63 Godred s epithet is apparently not unlike that of the later Cathal Crobderg Ua Conchobair King of Connacht 64 whose epithet from the Gaelic crob dhearg means red handed 65 There is uncertainty in regard to Gofraid mac Sitriuc s ancestry Toirdelbach s son Tadc was certainly married to a daughter of Echmarcach 85 Furthermore it is possible that Donnchad mac Briain King of Munster had previously married Cacht ingen Ragnaill a sister or niece of Echmarcach 86 English settlement in the early fifteenth century could also have introduced some of these place names 117 There is uncertainty as to when the Norse first settled on Mann It is conceivable however that colonisation began at some point in the early ninth century at about the same time that other regions in Scotland and the Isles were being settled 118 Such a date is supported by archaeological evidence in the form of several grave sites 119 The inscription of the boat may date to about the time of the Crovan dynasty possibly from about the eleventh to the thirteenth century 122 The boat itself appears to be similar to those that appear on seals borne by later members of the dynasty 124 Fine Gall formed a distinct part of Dublin s valuable agricultural hinterland which in turn supplied the town with essential raw materials 129 As such Fine Gall was frequently preyed upon by powers wishing to gain dominance over Dublin The geographical extent of Fine Gall appears to roughly correspond to the boundary of modern Fingal 130 The place name Fine Gall literally means kindred of the foreigners 131 or territory of the foreigners 132 The so called Scots in this passage could refer to subjects of either Godred 4 or the Scottish Crown 147 On the other hand the passage may concern Irishmen 148 or possibly to maritime magnates from Galloway and Argyll who potentially could have threatened the Islesmen s communication lines 149 The specific meaning of the passage is somewhat uncertain 150 Conceivably the bolts may have been instrumental in constructing keels that were too large to be made of a single timber Another possibility is that the bolts fixed stern and stem pieces to the keel Either way the passage appears to refer to the Islesmen restricting the size of the boats built by contemporaries 151 As such the record may be evidence that typical naval vessels of the era such as snekkar and skeidar were under royal regulation 4 The Meic Taidc were descended from Muirchertach s brother Tadc 163 According to the twelfth century Banshenchas Tadc was married to Echmarcach s daughter Mor and the two had three sons and a daughter 164 Toirdelbach s death in 1086 sent the Ui Briain into a succession crisis and his three sons Muirchertach Diarmait Ua Briain and Tadc himself divided Munster between themselves When Tadc died almost immediately afterwards Muirchertach seized complete control of the kingdom and drove Diarmait into exile 165 As for the Ulaid they certainly possessed familial links with the Ui Briain albeit through the marriage of Donn Sleibe mac Eochada King of Ulaid to a daughter of Toirdelbach s bitter rival Cennetig mac Lorcain a great grandson of Brian Boruma 166 Maughold was also the site of a pre Viking Age monastery 177 The Manx Gaelic keeill refers to early Christian dry stone walled churches or oratories 178 Once regarded as pre Viking Age structures scholars now date the keeill phenomena between the late ninth to the late thirteenth centuries 179 Another candidate for the site of Roolwer s cathedral is St Patrick s Isle 180 The surviving stone tower on this island appears to date to the mid eleventh century 181 and made have been erected by Roolwer himself 182 The fact that after Gilla Patraic was consecrated by Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury the latter sent correspondence to both Gofraid called glorioso Hiberniae regi and Toirdelbach called magnifico Hibernie regi suggests that Gofraid had little independence from his Irish overlord Toirdelbach 194 Historia Gruffud vab Kenan calls the Isles the islands of Denmark and describes the location of them and Ireland as in the sea side by side with the island of Britain 212 This source s account of Gruffudd receiving aid from Gothrei may be corroborated by the Life of St Gwynllyw a twelfth century source which states that at some point in his career Gruffudd received refuge and military aid in Orkney 213 It is also possible that the castles were seated along the coast in order to be easily supplied by sea 222 However there is no evidence of any seaborne reinforcements when the Welsh successfully campaigned against them and the record of prolific Norse Gaelic military activity in the area suggests that the English were not dominating the waves 223 During the tenth eleventh and twelfth centuries Dublin was the heart of the slave trade between Britain and Ireland 228 According to the account of the sack of Aberlleiniog given by Historia Gruffud vab Kenan 229 a conflict in which Godred may have assisted Gruffudd 209 Gruffudd s plunder included French and English captives 229 According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan the Norse Gaelic father of Gruffudd s mother built and commanded a Welsh fortress called Castell Avloed 231 The site of this fortress is unknown for certain 232 although it may have been located at Moel y don 231 There appears to have been no Manx coinage between the late eleventh and early fourteenth centuries 247 The chronicle s notice of Godred s death on Islay is the first documentary source to make mention of the island after the record of an earthquake there in 740 254 The title ri Atha Cliath king of Dublin is uncommon in primary sources and the men regarded by historians as kings of Dublin are more usually styled ri Gall king of the foreigners The earliest attestation of a king styled ri Atha Cliath occurs in the record of Gofraid mac Amlaib meic Ragnaill s death in 1075 261 In its account of the reign of Domnall mac Donnchada King of Alba the twelfth century Prophecy of Berchan claims that Domnall left Scotland to the gentiles or Scotland to Vikings 272 Although the meaning of this passage is uncertain it is possible that it refers to Godred s consolidation of power in the Isles 273 or perhaps to Magnus invasion after his death 274 This Ragnailt was a daughter of Godred s son Amlaib and should not be confused with the like named mother of Gruffudd The annal entries concerning Gofraid mac Fergusa are derived from entries concerning the historical Gofraid ua Imair King of Dublin and Northumbria The former unlike the latter is portrayed as a Gaelic noble who aided the Scottish Crown 279 The Manx Gaelic Gorree is a Gaelicisation of the Old Norse Gudrodr 286 Another historical candidate for King Orry is Gofraid mac Arailt King of the Isles 287 That being said Chatterton famously forged a corpus of so called Rowleian poetry that he claimed was the work of a mediaeval monk named Thomas Rowley 312 The Gaelic term fianaigecht refers to literature concerning the legendary Finn mac Cumaill his fian and family 314 In this case the epithet Beg appears to be a diminutive of affection rather than a reference to a physical trait 319 Citations edit a b Munch Goss 1874a pp 112 113 Cotton MS Julius A VII n d The Chronicle of Man and the Sundreys 1874 p 51 Thornton DE 1996 The Genealogy of Gruffudd ap Cynan In Maund KL ed Gruffudd ap Cynan A Collaborative Biography Studies in Celtic History Woodbridge The Boydell Press pp 79 108 a b c d Holm 2015 Sellar 2000 Wyatt 1999 Sellar 1997 1998 Cowan 1991 McDonald 2019 Downham 2017 o Croinin 2017 Crawford DKE 2016 o Muircheartaigh 2016 Davies S 2014 Macniven 2013b Flanagan 2008 Abrams 2007 Davey PJ 2006 Hudson B 2006 Hudson BT 2005 Moody Martin Byrne 2005 Moore D 2005 Power 2005 Duffy 2004a Woolf 2003 Davey P 2002 Duffy 2002a Duffy 2002b Muhr 2002 Fellows Jensen 2001 Wilson 2001 Duffy 1999 Jones NA 1999 Sellar 1997 1998 McDonald 1997 Thornton 1996 Duffy 1993a Andersen 1991 Candon 1988 Swift 1987 Power 1986 a b Candon 1988 a b c Jennings Kruse 2009 a b McLeod 2002 Ni Mhaonaigh 2018 Downham 2017 o Muircheartaigh 2016 Oram 2011 Flanagan 2008 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 Moody Martin Byrne 2005 Woolf 2005 Duffy 2004a Woolf 2004 Duffy 2002a Duffy 2002b Holland 2000 Oram 2000 Duffy 1999 Jones NA 1999 Ni Mhaonaigh 1995 Jennings A 1994 Duffy 1993a Flanagan 1989 o Corrain n d MacQuarrie 2006 Sellar 1997 1998 a b Williams DGE 1997 Downham 2017 McDonald 2016 o Muircheartaigh 2016 McDonald 2012 Oram 2011 Jennings Kruse 2009 McDonald 2008 McDonald 2007a Hudson B 2006 Macniven 2006 Power 2005 Duffy 2004a Hudson B 2002 Hudson BT 1996 Gade 1994 Hudson B 1994b Power 1986 Jennings A 2015 Sellar 2000 Sellar 1997 1998 Jennings A 1994 Cowan 1991 Wyatt 1999 a b Woolf 2003 Hudson B 2006 McDonald 2019 Broderick 2018 Downham 2017 o Croinin 2017 Crawford DKE 2016 o Muircheartaigh 2016 Davies S 2014 Flanagan 2008 Davey PJ 2006 Hudson BT 2005 Moody Martin Byrne 2005 Moore D 2005 Duffy 2004a Davey P 2002 Duffy 2002a Duffy 2002b Muhr 2002 Fellows Jensen 2001 Wilson 2001 Duffy 1999 Jones NA 1999 Sellar 1997 1998 Duffy 1997 McDonald 1997 Thornton 1996 Duffy 1993a Candon 1988 Swift 1987 Macniven 2013b Andersen 1991 Thornton 1996 Oram 2011 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 Woolf 2005 Woolf 2004 Oram 2000 Jennings A 1994 Duffy 2002b Holland 2000 Flanagan 1989 o Corrain n d Ni Mhaonaigh 2018 o Muircheartaigh 2016 Flanagan 2008 Moody Martin Byrne 2005 Duffy 2004a Woolf 2004 Duffy 2002a Duffy 1999 Jones NA 1999 Duffy 1997 Ni Mhaonaigh 1995 Jennings A 1994 Duffy 1993a a b MacQuarrie 2006 Broderick 2018 Jennings Kruse 2009 Oram 2011 McDonald 2016 McDonald 2012 McDonald 2008 McDonald 2007a Macniven 2006 Hudson B 2002 Gade 1994 Hudson B 2006 Hudson B 1994b Downham 2017 Duffy 2004a McDonald 2012 p 164 McDonald 2007b p 62 Duffy 2006 p 60 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Duffy 2004a Duffy 2002a p 55 n 8 Sellar 2000 p 190 n 16 Sellar 1997 1998 McDonald 1997 p 33 Thornton 1996 p 95 Duffy 1993a p 35 n 18 Duffy 1992 p 106 Broderick Stowell 1973 p 61 Anderson 1922 pp 43 44 n 6 Munch Goss 1874a pp 50 51 144 a b c d Duffy 2006 p 60 The Annals of Tigernach 2010 1091 5 McDonald 2007b pp 61 62 Duffy 2006 p 60 Annals of Tigernach 2005 1091 5 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Duffy 2004a Duffy 2002a p 55 McDonald 1997 p 33 Thornton 1996 p 95 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 pp 106 107 McDonald 2019 pp 22 27 n 4 McDonald 2008 pp 133 133 134 n 12 McDonald 2007b p 62 62 n 18 Duffy 2006 pp 53 60 Hudson BT 2005 pp 54 83 fig 3 171 Duffy 2004a Woolf 2004 p 100 Duffy 2002a pp 55 56 McDonald 1997 p 33 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 106 McDonald 2019 p 27 n 4 McDonald 2008 pp 133 134 n 12 McDonald 2007b p 62 n 18 Duffy 2004a Duffy 2002a pp 55 56 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 106 McDonald 1997 p 33 Woolf 2004 p 100 The Annals of Tigernach 2010 1044 4 Annals of Tigernach 2005 1044 4 Hudson BT 2005 pp 136 171 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 McDonald 2019 p 22 Oram 2011 p 31 Duffy 2006 p 53 Hudson B 2006 pp 77 110 170 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 pp 232 233 Hudson BT 2005 pp 9 53 54 83 fig 3 170 171 Duffy 2004a Woolf 2004 p 100 Hudson B 2002 p 262 Woolf 2001 Oram 2000 p 19 Sellar 2000 p 190 Hudson B 1994b p 146 Duffy 1992 p 106 McDonald 2012 p 164 Duffy 2006 p 60 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Duffy 2002a p 55 n 8 Sellar 2000 p 190 n 16 Sellar 1997 1998 Thornton 1996 p 95 Duffy 1993a p 35 n 18 Duffy 1992 p 106 Anderson AO 1922 pp 43 44 n 6 Munch Goss 1874a p 144 McDonald 2012 pp 164 180 181 n 145 Duffy 2006 p 60 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Sellar 2000 p 190 n 16 Sellar 1997 1998 McDonald 1997 p 33 n 24 Anderson AO 1922 pp 43 44 n 6 Munch Goss 1874a pp 54 55 144 McDonald 2012 pp 180 181 n 145 Duffy 2006 pp 60 61 Duffy 2004a Sellar 2000 p 190 Anderson AO 1922 pp 43 44 n 6 Munch Goss 1874a p 144 McDonald 2012 p 164 Duffy 2006 pp 60 61 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Duffy 2002a p 55 n 8 Munch Goss 1874a p 144 McDonald 2007b p 62 Duffy 2006 pp 60 61 Duffy 2006 p 60 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Sellar 1997 1998 Munch Goss 1874a pp 54 55 McDonald 2007b p 61 Duffy 2004a Munch Goss 1874a pp 50 51 Sellar 1997 1998 Thornton 1996 pp 94 96 a b Sellar 1997 1998 Thornton 1996 pp 95 96 Thornton 1996 p 95 Thornton 1996 p 95 n 74 Sellar 1997 1998 Thornton 1996 p 95 Thornton 1996 pp 95 96 The Annals of Tigernach 2010 1091 5 Annals of Tigernach 2005 1091 5 Bodleian Library MS Rawl B 488 n d Duffy 2006 p 59 Duffy 2002a p 56 n 9 Duffy 1993a p 35 n 20 Broderick Stowell 1973 p 61 Anderson AO 1922 p 18 n 1 Munch Goss 1874a pp 50 51 o Croinin 2017 p 258 McDonald 2016 p 339 Jennings Kruse 2009 p 128 Duffy 2006 p 59 Fellows Jensen 1998 p 30 McDonald 1997 p 33 n 23 Duffy 1993a p 35 n 20 Duffy 1992 p 106 n 66 Candon 1988 p 402 Megaw 1976 p 16 McDonald 2012 p 174 n 44 McDonald 2007a p 46 n 5 McDonald 2007b p 64 n 34 Anderson AO 1922 p 43 n 6 McDonald 2016 p 339 McDonald 2012 p 174 n 44 McDonald 2007b p 64 Jennings Kruse 2009 p 128 Duffy 2006 p 59 eDIL s v 1 Mer n d eDIL s v Meranach n d McDonald 2016 p 339 Duffy 2006 p 59 Duffy 2002a p 56 n 9 Duffy 1993a p 35 n 20 Candon 1988 p 402 eDIL s v Merach n d eDIL s v 1 Mer n d a b Woolf 2004 p 101 Duffy 2006 p 59 Megaw 1976 p 16 Duffy 2006 p 59 McDonald 2016 p 336 McDonald 2012 p 150 McDonald 2007a p 50 o Croinin 2017 p 258 Heald 2007 pp 23 24 Davey PJ 2006 Fellows Jensen 1998 p 30 Sawyer 1982 p 111 Crawford BE 2004 Crawford BE 2006 Crawford BE 2004 Crawford BE 2006 Vigfusson 1887 pp 58 59 38 Anderson Hjaltalin Goudie 1873 pp 44 45 22 Oram 2011 pp 31 32 Hudson BT 2005 p 135 Duffy 1992 p 100 Hudson B 2005a Hudson BT 2004a Duffy 2002a p 53 Oram 2000 p 18 Duffy 1992 pp 94 96 98 100 Duffy 1992 pp 96 97 Duffy 2006 pp 55 56 Hudson B 2005a Hudson BT 2004c p 47 Duffy 2002a p 54 Duffy 1993a p 32 Duffy 1992 pp 99 100 Duffy 2006 pp 55 56 Hudson B 2005a Hudson BT 2004a Duffy 2002a p 54 Oram 2000 p 18 Duffy 1993a pp 32 33 Duffy 1992 p 100 Hudson BT 2004c p 51 Duffy 2002a p 54 Oram 2000 p 18 Duffy 1993a p 33 Duffy 1992 pp 100 101 Duffy 2006 p 52 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 231 Hudson BT 2005 pp 83 fig 3 171 172 Oram 2000 p 18 Downham 2017 p 100 Candon 2006 p 116 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Oram 2000 p 18 Hudson B 1994b p 149 Duffy 1992 p 101 Flanagan 2008 p 900 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Oram 2000 p 18 Duffy 1992 p 102 o Corrain n d p 34 Duffy 2006 p 57 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Oram 2000 p 18 a b Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Oram 2000 p 18 Candon 2006 p 116 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Hudson BT 2005 p 130 fig 4 Oram 2000 p 18 Duffy 1993a p 34 34 n 16 Duffy 1992 p 105 105 n 59 Candon 1988 p 403 Duffy 2006 p 56 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Hudson BT 2005 p 130 fig 4 Oram 2000 p 18 Duffy 1992 p 97 a b Downham 2017 p 100 Candon 2006 p 116 Duffy 2006 pp 57 58 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Hudson B 2005b Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Oram 2000 pp 18 19 Ni Mhaonaigh 1995 p 375 Duffy 1993a p 33 Duffy 1992 p 102 Candon 1988 p 403 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Hudson B 2005b Oram 2000 pp 18 19 Richards J 2005 p 120 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Duffy 2002a p 56 Oram 2000 p 19 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 106 Duffy 2006 pp 51 61 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Woolf 2004 p 100 Duffy 2002a p 56 Sellar 2000 p 190 Sellar 1997 1998 McDonald 1997 p 33 Williams DGE 1997 p 146 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 106 Anderson 1922 pp 18 n 1 43 44 n 6 Munch Goss 1874a pp 50 51 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 pp 210 211 Hudson B 2006 p 77 n 31 Downham 2004 p 68 Duffy 2002a p 56 n 10 Duffy 1993a p 35 n 20 Duffy 1992 p 106 n 67 Anderson 1922 p 16 n 4 Schmeidler 1917 p 196 51 Duffy 1992 p 106 n 67 Hudson B 2006 p 77 n 31 Byrne 2008a p 864 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Woolf 2004 p 100 Anderson 1922 pp 18 n 1 43 44 n 6 Munch Goss 1874a pp 50 51 Abrams 2012 p 28 a b c Duffy 2006 p 61 Downham 2018 p 112 Ni Mhaonaigh 2018 p 139 Wyatt 2018 p 791 n 196 Barlow 2013 pp 59 168 169 Wyatt 2009 p 385 385 n 196 Hudson B 2005a Downham 2004 pp 67 68 Hudson BT 2004a Hudson BT 2004c p 52 Etchingham 2001 p 154 Duffy 1995 p 387 Hudson B 1994b p 146 Duffy 1993a p 6 Maund 1993 pp 164 165 Richter 1985 p 336 Hudson B 1979 Freeman 1876 pp 158 224 225 Downham 2018 p 112 Ni Mhaonaigh 2018 p 139 Wyatt 2018 p 791 n 196 Barlow 2013 pp 168 169 Duffy 2009 p 295 Wyatt 2009 p 385 385 n 196 Hudson B 2005a Downham 2004 p 68 Hudson BT 2004a Duffy 1995 p 387 Hudson B 1994b p 146 146 n 9 Duffy 1993a p 6 n 25 Richter 1985 p 336 Hudson B 1979 Freeman 1876 pp 224 227 Barlow 2013 pp 168 169 Hudson B 2005a Downham 2004 p 68 Hudson BT 2004a Hudson BT 2004c p 51 Duffy 1995 p 387 Hudson B 1994b pp 146 147 147 n 13 Duffy 1993a p 6 n 25 Hudson B 1979 Freeman 1876 pp 224 227 791 793 Duffy 2006 p 61 Hudson BT 2005 p 171 Woolf 2004 p 100 McDonald 2007b pp 61 62 Duffy 2006 p 51 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Woolf 2004 p 100 McDonald 1997 p 34 Flanagan 2008 p 907 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Oram 2000 p 19 McDonald 2019 pp 11 48 Flanagan 2008 p 907 Duffy 2006 pp 61 62 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Woolf 2004 pp 100 101 Duffy 2002a p 56 Duffy 1993a p 35 McDonald 2019 pp 46 48 McDonald 2007b p 61 Duffy 2006 pp 61 62 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 McDonald 1997 pp 33 34 Anderson 1922 pp 43 45 Munch Goss 1874a pp 50 53 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Woolf 2004 pp 100 101 Oram 2000 p 19 McDonald 1997 p 34 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 232 Oram 2000 p 19 a b c Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 McDonald 1997 pp 33 34 Anderson 1922 pp 43 45 Munch Goss 1874a pp 50 53 Oram 2011 p 31 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 pp 232 233 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Woolf 2001 Oram 2000 p 19 McDonald 2019 p 47 McDonald 2016 p 341 McDonald 2007b pp 61 218 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Davey P 2002 p 95 McDonald 1997 pp 33 34 Williams DGE 1997 p 52 Andersen 1991 p 79 Munch Goss 1874a pp 52 53 Crawford BE 1997 pp 199 200 Williams DGE 1997 pp 146 147 Andersen 1996 Crawford BE 1997 pp 199 200 Williams DGE 1997 pp 146 147 Andersen 1996 Gurevic 1993 Karras 1993 Fellows Jensen 2008 pp 395 397 Fellows Jensen 2001 Fellows Jensen 1985 pp 66 67 Fellows Jensen 1983 pp 46 48 Fellows Jensen 1983 pp 46 48 Fellows Jensen 2008 p 395 Fellows Jensen 2001 Freke 1990 p 111 Fellows Jensen 1983 p 37 Wilson 2008 pp 385 388 Wilson 2001 Wilson 2008 p 390 Wilson 2001 McDonald 2007a p 59 McDonald 2007b pp 128 129 pl 1 Rixson 1982 pp 114 115 pl 1 Cubbon 1952 p 70 fig 24 Kermode 1915 1916 p 57 fig 9 a b McDonald 2012 p 151 McDonald 2007a pp 58 59 McDonald 2007b pp 54 55 128 129 pl 1 Wilson 1973 p 15 McDonald 2016 p 337 McDonald 2012 p 151 McDonald 2007b pp 120 128 129 pl 1 McDonald 2007a pp 58 60 McDonald 2007b pp 54 55 Wilson 1973 p 15 15 n 43 The Annals of Tigernach 2010 1091 5 Flanagan 2008 p 907 McDonald 2007b pp 61 62 Annals of Tigernach 2005 1091 5 Duffy 2002a p 56 Williams DGE 1997 p 147 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 107 Candon 1988 p 400 Anderson 1922 p 45 Munch Goss 1874a pp 52 53 The Annals of Tigernach 2010 1091 5 McDonald 2007b p 62 Annals of Tigernach 2005 1091 5 Duffy 2002a p 56 Williams DGE 1997 p 147 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 107 Candon 1988 p 400 401 n 8 McDonald 2007b p 62 Duffy 2002a p 56 Duffy 2002b p 54 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 107 Candon 1988 pp 402 403 Anderson 1922 p 45 Munch Goss 1874a pp 52 53 McDonald 2007b p 62 Duffy 2002a p 56 Duffy 2002b p 54 Duffy 1993a p 35 Duffy 1992 p 107 Downham 2014 p 19 Downham 2013a p 158 Downham 2005 Holm 2000 pp 254 255 Valante 1998 1999 p 246 246 n 16 Downham 2005 Woolf 2018 p 126 Downham 2014 p 19 Downham 2013a p 158 Downham 2005 Duffy 2017 Duffy 2009 p 291 Downham 2005 p 158 Annals of Inisfallen 2010 1088 3 Annals of Inisfallen 2008 1088 3 Candon 1988 p 401 The Annals of Ulster 2012 1088 4 Annals of Loch Ce 2008 1088 2 The Annals of Ulster 2008 1088 4 Annals of Loch Ce 2005 1088 2 Candon 1988 p 401 The Annals of Tigernach 2010 1089 3 Annals of Tigernach 2005 1089 3 Candon 1988 p 401 Annals of Inisfallen 2010 1089 2 Annals of Inisfallen 2008 1089 2 Candon 1988 p 401 401 n 7 Candon 1988 p 401 n 8 a b Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 234 Hudson BT 2005 p 183 Oram 2000 p 20 McDonald 2007b p 62 Duffy 1997 p 42 Richards JD 2013 ch 8 fig 12 a b Oram 2011 p 32 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 233 Oram 2000 p 19 French 2015 p 22 Hudson BT 2004c p 40 McDonald 2019 pp viii 20 Holm 2015 McDonald 2007a pp 46 52 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 pp 233 234 Oram 2000 p 20 Duffy 1999 p 355 Duffy 1993a pp 29 30 Cowan 1991 p 66 Rixson 1982 pp 122 123 242 n 7 Munch Goss 1874a pp 52 53 McDonald 2007a p 52 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 pp 233 234 Oram 2000 p 20 Rixson 1982 pp 122 123 242 n 7 Duffy 1999 p 355 Duffy 1993a pp 29 30 McDonald 2007a pp 46 52 Cowan 1991 p 66 Rixson 1982 p 122 McDonald 2007a p 52 Holm 2015 Rixson 1982 pp 122 123 242 n 7 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 pp 233 234 Oram 2000 p 20 The Annals of Tigernach 2010 1095 5 Annals of Tigernach 2005 1095 5 Bodleian Library MS Rawl B 488 n d Oram 2011 p 32 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 233 Oram 2000 p 16 Annals of Inisfallen 2010 1094 5 Annals of Inisfallen 2008 1094 5 Hudson BT 2005 p 172 Duffy 1992 p 99 n 32 Candon 1988 p 402 a b Oram 2011 p 32 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 233 Oram 2000 pp 19 20 a b The Annals of Ulster 2012 1087 7 Oram 2011 p 32 The Annals of Ulster 2008 1087 7 Duffy 2006 p 62 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 233 Duffy 2002a p 55 Oram 2000 p 20 Duffy 1992 p 105 Candon 1988 pp 403 403 Oram 2011 p 32 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 233 Hudson BT 2005 p 130 fig 4 Oram 2000 pp 19 20 Oram 2011 p 32 Duffy 2006 p 62 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 233 Oram 2000 pp 19 20 Candon 1988 pp 403 403 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 234 Duffy 2002a p 55 Oram 2000 p 20 Duffy 1992 p 105 n 61 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 234 Oram 2000 p 20 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 445 Oram 2000 p 20 Duffy 1992 p 105 Downham 2017 p 100 n 62 Downham 2013b p 147 Duffy 2002a p 55 55 n 7 Duffy 1993a p 34 34 n 16 Duffy 1992 p 105 105 n 59 Candon 1988 p 403 Dobbs 1931 pp 196 229 Duffy 2005 Bracken 2004 Duffy 1992 p 105 Forte Oram Pedersen 2005 p 234 Oram 2000 p 20 Duffy 1992 p 105 n 60 Duffy 2006 p 62 Downham 2018 pp 44 90 McDonald 2007b p 56 McDonald 2007b p 56 Downham 2004 pp 68 69 McDonald 2007b p 56 Ravn Bischoff Englert Nielsen 2011 pp 244 245 fig 10 6 Oram 2011 p 32 Oram 2011 pp 34 35 a b Oram 2011 pp 34 35 McDonald 2007b p 62 Freke 2002 p 441 Watt 1994 pp 108 110 Anderson 1922 pp 95 96 n 1 Munch Goss 1874a pp 112 115 Freke 2002 p 441 Wilson 2001 Freke 1990 p 108 Johnson 2006 Moore RH 2012 Watt 1994 pp 108 110 Crawford DKE 2016 p 134 Watt 1994 p 108 Watt 1994 p 108 McDonald 2019 pp 11 52 Abrams 2007 pp 184 185 Hudson BT 2005 p 181 Woolf 2003 p 171 Watt 1994 pp 108 109 Swift 1987 p 36 Anderson 1922 p 95 n 1 Munch Goss 1874a pp 112 113 Wilson 2008 p 390 Hudson BT 2005 p 181 Woolf 2003 p 171 Anderson 1922 pp 95 96 n 1 Abrams 2007 pp 184 185 Hudson BT 2005 p 181 Woolf 2003 p 171 Watt 1994 p 109 Swift 1987 p 36 Anderson 1922 p 95 n 1 Munch Goss 1874a pp 112 113 Woolf 2003 p 172 a b Crawford BE 1997 p 82 Watt 1994 p 110 Hudson BT 2005 p 181 Crawford BE 1997 p 82 Crawford BE 1996 p 8 8 n 40 Watt 1994 p 110 Anderson 1922 pp 95 96 n 1 The Annals of Ulster 2012 1074 1 The Annals of Ulster 2008 1074 1 Bodleian Library MS Rawl B 489 n d Woolf 2018 p 129 Hudson BT 2004b Woolf 2003 pp 172 173 Woolf 2018 p 129 n 52 The Annals of Ulster 2012 1074 1 The Annals of Ulster 2008 1074 1 Woolf 2003 pp 172 173 Duffy 1992 p 102 n 45 a b Woolf 2003 pp 172 173 Holland 2005 Flanagan 2004 Woolf 2003 pp 172 173 Hudson B 1994b pp 149 150 Duffy 1992 p 102 n 45 Ni Mhaonaigh 2018 p 147 Flanagan 2008 pp 904 905 Hudson B 1994b pp 149 150 150 n 26 Duffy 1992 p 102 n 45 Clover Gibson 1979 pp 66 69 9 70 73 10 Munch Goss 1874b pp 266 268 Erlington Todd n d pp 490 491 26 492 494 27 Woolf 2018 p 129 n 52 Woolf 2003 pp 171 172 Anderson 1922 pp 95 96 n 1 Munch Goss 1874a pp 114 115 Abrams 2007 p 185 Woolf 2003 pp 171 172 Watt 1994 p 110 Watt 1994 p 110 Woolf 2003 p 172 Watt 1994 p 110 Anderson 1922 pp 95 96 n 1 Munch Goss 1874a pp 114 115 Jesus College MS 111 n d Oxford Jesus College MS 111 n d Wyatt 1999 p 595 Moore D 1996 p 18 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Duffy 2004b p 104 Pryce 2004 Carr 2002 pp 68 69 Wyatt 1999 Moore D 1996 pp 23 25 Longley 1991 p 79 Candon 1988 p 409 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Duffy 2004b p 104 Carr 2002 pp 68 69 Duffy 1993a p 229 Jones A 1910 pp 102 103 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Duffy 2004b p 104 Wyatt 1999 p 597 Moore D 1996 p 23 Duffy 1993a pp 3 4 232 Flanagan 1989 p 62 Jones A 1910 pp 102 105 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Duffy 2004b p 104 Carr 2002 pp 68 69 Wyatt 1999 Moore D 1996 pp 23 25 Duffy 1993a pp 14 15 Longley 1991 p 79 Candon 1988 pp 409 410 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Davies JR 1997 p 401 Moore D 1996 p 25 25 n 181 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Moore D 1996 p 25 25 n 181 a b Pryce 2004 Lloyd 1912 p 404 404 n 22 Jones A 1910 pp 136 139 Pryce 2004 Wyatt 1999 p 606 Lewis 1996 p 69 Moore D 1996 pp 18 19 Duffy 1993a p 237 Maund 1993 p 181 Davies S 2014 p 60 Hudson BT 2005 p 182 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Pryce 2004 Carr 2002 pp 68 69 Jones NA 1999 p 79 n 26 Wyatt 1999 pp 606 607 Moore D 1996 pp 23 24 24 n 176 Duffy 1993a pp 237 238 Maund 1993 p 181 Duffy 1992 p 107 n 70 Evans 1990 pp 40 72 Candon 1988 p 410 Jones A 1910 pp 136 137 Hudson BT 2005 p 182 Moore D 2005 ch 3 Jones NA 1999 p 79 n 26 Williams DGE 1997 p 147 Duffy 1992 p 107 n 70 Evans 1990 p 56 Candon 1988 p 410 Jones A 1910 pp 106 107 173 174 n 1 Jones NA 1999 p 79 n 26 Wyatt 1999 p 607 n 70 Duffy 1993a pp 237 238 Maund 1993 p 181 Wyatt 1999 p 607 n 70 Moore D 1996 p 24 Evans 1990 pp 40 72 Jones A 1910 pp 136 137 Maund 1993 p 181 Davies S 2014 p 60 Hudson BT 2005 p 182 Carr 2002 pp 68 69 Moore D 1996 p 20 Longley 1991 p 79 Evans 1990 pp 40 72 Jones A 1910 pp 136 137 Pryce 2004 Wyatt 1999 pp 606 607 Lewis 1996 p 71 Longley 1991 p 79 Wyatt 1999 p 607 Lewis 1996 pp 69 70 Wyatt 1999 p 607 607 n 74 Wyatt 1999 p 607 607 n 74 Lewis 1996 p 70 Wyatt 1999 p 607 n 74 a b Wyatt 2018 p 762 Wyatt 2009 p 357 Pryce 2004 Turvey 2002 p 41 Lewis 1996 pp 70 71 Moore D 1996 pp 24 n 176 36 38 Forester 1854 pp 445 447 Le Prevost 1845 pp 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Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 11693 Retrieved 9 July 2011 Subscription or UK public library membership required Ravn M Bischoff V Englert A Nielsen S 2011 Recent Advances in Post Excavation Documentation Reconstruction and Experimental Maritime Archaeology In Catsambis A Ford B Hamilton DL eds The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology Oxford Oxford University Press pp 232 249 ISBN 978 0 19 537517 6 Richards J 2005 The Vikings A Very Short Introduction Very Short Introductions Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 280607 9 Richards JD 2013 1991 Viking Age England EPUB Brimscombe Port The History Press ISBN 978 0 7509 5252 1 Richter M 1985 The European Dimension of Irish History in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries Peritia 4 328 345 doi 10 1484 J Peri 3 113 eISSN 2034 6506 ISSN 0332 1592 Rixson D 1982 The West Highland Galley Edinburgh Birlinn ISBN 1 874744 86 6 Rixson D 2001 The Small Isles Canna Rum Eigg and Muck Edinburgh Birlinn ISBN 1 84158 154 2 OL 3544460M Sawyer PH 1982 Kings and Vikings Scandinavia and Europe 700 1100 London Methuen ISBN 0 416 74180 0 Sellar WDH 1997 1998 The Ancestry of the MacLeods Reconsidered Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness 60 233 258 via Associated Clan MacLeod Societies Genealogical Resource Centre Sellar WDH 2000 Hebridean Sea Kings The Successors of Somerled 1164 1316 In Cowan EJ McDonald RA eds Alba Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages East Linton Tuckwell Press pp 187 218 ISBN 1 86232 151 5 Sellar WDH 2004 Somerled d 1164 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 26782 Retrieved 5 July 2011 Subscription or UK public library membership required Swift C 1987 Irish Influence on Ecclesiastical Settlements in Scotland a Case Study of the Island of Islay MA thesis Durham University Thornton DE 1996 The Genealogy of Gruffudd ap Cynan In Maund KL ed Gruffudd ap Cynan A Collaborative Biography Studies in Celtic History Woodbridge The Boydell Press pp 79 108 ISBN 0 85115 389 5 ISSN 0261 9865 Turvey R 2002 The Welsh Princes The Native Rulers of Wales 1063 1283 London Longman ISBN 0 582 30811 9 Valante MA 1998 1999 Taxation Tolls and Tribute The Language of Economics and Trade in Viking Age Ireland Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium 18 19 242 258 ISSN 1545 0155 JSTOR 20557344 Watt DER 1994 Bishops in the Isles Before 1203 Bibliography and Biographical Lists The Innes Review 45 2 99 119 doi 10 3366 inr 1994 45 2 99 eISSN 1745 5219 ISSN 0020 157X Williams DGE 1997 Land Assessment and Military Organisation in the Norse Settlements in Scotland c 900 1266 AD PhD thesis University of St Andrews hdl 10023 7088 Williams P ed 2012 Historical Texts From Medieval Wales MHRA Library of Medieval Welsh Literature London Modern Humanities Research Association ISBN 978 1 907322 60 0 Wilson DM 1973 Manx Memorial Stones of the Viking Period PDF Saga Book 18 1 18 Wilson DM 2001 Man Germanische Altertumskunde Online De Gruyter Retrieved 16 May 2015 Wilson DM 2008 The Isle of Man In Brink S Price N eds The Viking World Routledge Worlds Milton Park Abingdon Routledge pp 385 390 ISBN 978 0 203 41277 0 Woolf A 2001 Isles Kingdom of the In Lynch M ed The Oxford Companion to Scottish History Oxford Companions Oxford Oxford University Press pp 346 347 ISBN 0 19 211696 7 Woolf A 2003 The Diocese of the Sudreyar In Imsen S ed Ecclesia Nidrosiensis 1153 1537 Sokelys pa Nidaroskirkens og Nidarosprovinsens Historie Tapir Akademisk Forlag pp 171 181 ISBN 9788251918732 Woolf A 2004 The Age of Sea Kings 900 1300 In Omand D ed The Argyll Book Edinburgh Birlinn pp 94 109 ISBN 1 84158 253 0 Woolf A 2005 The Origins and Ancestry of Somerled Gofraid mac Fergusa and The Annals of the Four Masters Mediaeval Scandinavia 15 199 213 Woolf A 2007 From Pictland to Alba 789 1070 The New Edinburgh History of Scotland Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 0 7486 1233 8 Woolf A 2018 The Scandinavian Intervention In Smith B ed The Cambridge History of Ireland Vol 1 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 107 130 doi 10 1017 9781316275399 008 ISBN 978 1 107 11067 0 S2CID 166176165 Wyatt D 1999 Gruffudd ap Cynan and the Hiberno Norse World The Welsh History Review 19 4 595 617 eISSN 0083 792X hdl 10107 1083764 ISSN 0043 2431 Wyatt D 2009 Slaves and Warriors in Medieval Britain and Ireland 800 1200 The Northern World North Europe and the Baltic c 400 1700 AD Peoples Economics and Cultures Leiden Brill ISBN 978 90 04 17533 4 ISSN 1569 1462 Wyatt D 2018 Slavery and Cultural Antipathy In Pargas DA Rosu F eds Critical Readings on Global Slavery Vol 2 Leiden Brill pp 742 799 doi 10 1163 9789004346611 025 ISBN 978 90 04 34661 1 Whyte C 1991 William Livingston Uilleam Macdhunleibhe 1808 70 A Survey of His Poetry and Prose MA thesis University of Glasgow External links editHow Goraidh Crobhan slayed a dragon Tobar an Dualchais Kist o Riches recording of an account of Godred slaying a dragon on Islay Birlinn Ghoraidh Chrobhain Tobar an Dualchais Kist o Riches recording of a song concerning Godred Birlinn Ghoraidh Chrobhain Tobar an Dualchais Kist o Riches recording of a song concerning Godred Birlinn Ghoraidh Chrobhain Tobar an Dualchais Kist o Riches recording of a song concerning Godred nbsp Media related to Godred Crovan at Wikimedia Commons nbsp Media related to King Orry at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Godred Crovan amp oldid 1170482711, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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