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Fuel economy in aircraft

November 23, 2023

The fuel economy in aircraft is the measure of the transport energy efficiency of aircraft. Fuel efficiency is increased with better aerodynamics and by reducing weight, and with improved engine brake-specific fuel consumption and propulsive efficiency or thrust-specific fuel consumption. Endurance and range can be maximized with the optimum airspeed, and economy is better at optimum altitudes, usually higher. An airline efficiency depends on its fleet fuel burn, seating density, air cargo and passenger load factor, while operational procedures like maintenance and routing can save fuel.

Between 1950 and 2018, efficiency per passenger grew from 0.4 to 8.2 RPK per kg of CO₂.[1]

Average fuel burn of new aircraft fell 45% from 1968 to 2014, a compounded annual reduction 1.3% with a variable reduction rate. In 2018, CO₂ emissions totalled 747 million tonnes for passenger transport, for 8.5 trillion revenue passenger kilometres (RPK), giving an average of 88 grams CO₂ per RPK[2] (this represents 28 g of fuel per kilometre, or a 3.5 L/100 km (67 mpg‑US) fuel consumption per passenger, on average. The worst-performing flights are short trips of from 500 to 1500 kilometres because the fuel used for takeoff is relatively large compared to the amount expended in the cruise segment, and because less fuel-efficient regional jets are typically used on shorter flights.[2]

New technology can reduce engine fuel consumption, like higher pressure and bypass ratios, geared turbofans, open rotors, hybrid electric or fully electric propulsion; and airframe efficiency with retrofits, better materials and systems and advanced aerodynamics.

Flight efficiency theory edit

 
The main forces acting on an aircraft

A powered aircraft counters its weight through aerodynamic lift and counters its aerodynamic drag with thrust. The aircraft's maximum range is determined by the level of efficiency with which thrust can be applied to overcome the aerodynamic drag.

Aerodynamics edit

 
Drag forces by velocity

A subfield of fluid dynamics, aerodynamics studies the physics of a body moving through the air. As lift and drag are functions of air speed, their relationships are major determinants of an aircraft's design efficiency.

Aircraft efficiency is augmented by maximizing lift-to-drag ratio, which is attained by minimizing parasitic drag and lift-generated induced drag, the two components of aerodynamic drag. As parasitic drag increases and induced drag decreases with speed, there is an optimum speed where the sum of both is minimal; this is the best glide ratio. For powered aircraft, the optimum glide ratio has to be balanced with thrust efficiency.

Parasitic drag is constituted by form drag and skin-friction drag, and grows with the square of the speed in the drag equation. The form drag is minimized by having the smallest frontal area and by streamlining the aircraft for a low drag coefficient, while skin friction is proportional to the body's surface area and can be reduced by maximizing laminar flow.

Induced drag can be reduced by decreasing the size of the airframe, fuel and payload weight, and by increasing the wing aspect ratio or by using wingtip devices at the cost of increased structure weight.[citation needed]

Design speed edit

By increasing efficiency, a lower cruise-speed augments the range and reduces the environmental impact of aviation; however, a higher cruise-speed allows more revenue passenger miles flown per day.

For supersonic flight, drag increases at Mach 1.0 but decreases again after the transition. With a specifically designed aircraft, such as the (in development) Aerion AS2, the Mach 1.1 range at 3,700 nmi is 70% of the maximum range of 5,300 nmi at Mach 0.95, but increases to 4,750 nmi at Mach 1.4 for 90% before falling again.[3]

Wingtip devices edit

Wingtip devices increase the effective wing aspect ratio, lowering lift-induced drag caused by wingtip vortices and improving the lift-to-drag ratio without increasing the wingspan. (Wingspan is limited by the available width in the ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code.) Airbus installed wingtip fences on its planes since the A310-300 in 1985, and Sharklet blended-winglets for the A320 were launched during the November 2009 Dubai Airshow. Their installation adds 200 kilograms (440 lb) but offers a 3.5% fuel burn reduction on flights over 2,800 km (1,500 nmi).[4]

On average, among large commercial jets, Boeing 737-800s benefit the most from winglets. They average a 6.69% increase in efficiency but depending on the route have a fuel savings distribution spanning from 4.6% to 10.5%. Airbus A319s see the most consistent fuel and emissions savings from winglets. Airbus A321s average a 4.8% improvement in fuel consumption, but have the widest swing based on routes and individual aircraft, recognizing anywhere from 0.2% improvement to 10.75%.[5]

Weight edit

 
The components of aircraft weight

As the weight indirectly generates lift-induced drag, its minimization leads to better aircraft efficiency. For a given payload, a lighter airframe generates a lower drag. Minimizing weight can be achieved through the airframe's configuration, materials science and construction methods. To obtain a longer range, a larger fuel fraction of the maximum takeoff weight is needed, adversely affecting efficiency.[citation needed]

The deadweight of the airframe and fuel is non-payload that must be lifted to altitude and kept aloft, contributing to fuel consumption. A reduction in airframe weight enables the use of smaller, lighter engines. The weight savings in both allow for a lighter fuel load for a given range and payload. A rule-of-thumb is that a reduction in fuel consumption of about 0.75% results from each 1% reduction in weight.[6]

The payload fraction of modern twin-aisle aircraft is 18.4% to 20.8% of their maximum take-off weight, while single-aisle airliners are between 24.9% and 27.7%. An aircraft weight can be reduced with light-weight materials such as titanium, carbon fiber and other composite plastics if the expense can be recouped over the aircraft's lifetime. Fuel efficiency gains reduce the fuel carried, reducing the take-off weight for a positive feedback. For example, the Airbus A350 design includes a majority of light-weight composite materials. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner was the first airliner with a mostly composite airframe.[7]

Flight distance edit

For long-haul flights, the airplane needs to carry additional fuel, leading to higher fuel consumption. Above a certain distance it becomes more fuel-efficient to make a halfway stop to refuel, despite the energy losses in descent and climb. For example, a Boeing 777-300 reaches that point at 3,000 nautical miles (5,600 km). It is more fuel-efficient to make a non-stop flight at less than this distance and to make a stop when covering a greater total distance.[8]

 
The specific range of a Boeing 777-200 per distance

Very long non-stop passenger flights suffer from the weight penalty of the extra fuel required, which means limiting the number of available seats to compensate. For such flights, the critical fiscal factor is the quantity of fuel burnt per seat-nautical mile.[9] For these reasons, the world's longest commercial flights were cancelled c. 2013. An example is Singapore Airlines' former New York to Singapore flight, which could carry only 100 passengers (all business class) on the 10,300-mile (16,600 km) flight. According to an industry analyst, "It [was] pretty much a fuel tanker in the air."[10] Singapore Airlines Flights 21 and 22 were re-launched in 2018 with more seats in an A350-900ULR.

In the late 2000s/early 2010s, rising fuel prices coupled with the Great Recession caused the cancellation of many ultra-long haul, non-stop flights. This included the services provided by Singapore Airlines from Singapore to both Newark and Los Angeles that was ended in late 2013.[11][12] But as fuel prices have since decreased and more fuel-efficient aircraft have come into service, many ultra-long-haul routes have been reinstated or newly scheduled[13] (see Longest flights).

Propulsive efficiency edit

 
Propulsive efficiency comparison for various gas turbine engine configurations

The efficiency can be defined as the amount of energy imparted to the plane per unit of energy in the fuel. The rate at which energy is imparted equals thrust multiplied by airspeed.[citation needed]

To get thrust, an aircraft engine is either a shaft engine – piston engine or turboprop, with its efficiency inversely proportional to its brake-specific fuel consumption – coupled with a propeller having its own propulsive efficiency; or a jet engine with its efficiency given by its airspeed divided by the thrust-specific fuel consumption and the specific energy of the fuel.[14][need quotation to verify]

Turboprops have an optimum speed below 460 miles per hour (740 km/h).[15] This is less than jets used by major airlines today, however propeller planes are much more efficient.[16][need quotation to verify] The Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 turboprop is used for this reason as a regional airliner.[17][18][verification needed]

Jet fuel cost and emissions reduction have renewed interest in the propfan concept for jetliners with an emphasis on engine/airframe efficiency that might come into service beyond the Boeing 787 and Airbus A350XWB. For instance, Airbus has patented aircraft designs with twin rear-mounted counter-rotating propfans.[19] Propfans bridge the gap between turboprops, losing efficiency beyond Mach 0.5-0.6, and high-bypass turbofans, more efficient beyond Mach 0.8. NASA has conducted an Advanced Turboprop Project (ATP), where they researched a variable-pitch propfan that produced less noise and achieved high speeds.[20]

Operations edit

 
Refuelling an Airbus A320 with biofuel

In Europe in 2017, the average airline fuel consumption per passenger was 3.4 L/100 km (69 mpg‑US), 24% less than in 2005, but as the traffic grew by 60% to 1,643 billion passenger kilometres, CO₂ emissions were up by 16% to 163 million tonnes for 99.8 g/km CO₂ per passenger.[21] In 2018, the US airlines had a fuel consumption of 58 mpg‑US (4.06 L/100 km) per revenue passenger for domestic flights,[22] or 32.5 g of fuel per km, generating 102 g CO₂ / RPK of emissions.

Seating classes edit

In 2013, the World Bank evaluated the business class carbon footprint as 3.04 times higher than economy class in wide-body aircraft, and first class 9.28 times higher, due to premium seating taking more space, lower weight factors, and larger baggage allowances (assuming Load Factors of 80% for Economy Class, 60% for Business Class, and 40% for First Class).[23]

Speed edit

At constant propulsive efficiency, the maximum range speed is when the ratio between velocity and drag is minimal,[24] while maximum endurance is attained at the best lift-to-drag ratio.

Altitude edit

Air density decreases with altitude, thus lowering drag, assuming the aircraft maintains a constant equivalent airspeed. However, air pressure and temperature both decrease with altitude, causing the maximum power or thrust of aircraft engines to reduce. To minimize fuel consumption, an aircraft should cruise close to the maximum altitude at which it can generate sufficient lift to maintain its altitude. As the aircraft's weight decreases throughout the flight, due to fuel burn, its optimum cruising altitude increases.

In a piston engine, the decrease in pressure at higher altitudes can be mitigated by the installation of a turbocharger.

Decreasing temperature at higher altitudes increases thermal efficiency.[citation needed]

Airlines edit

 
A Boeing 787-8 of Norwegian Long Haul

Since early 2006 until 2008, Scandinavian Airlines was flying slower, from 860 to 780 km/h, to save on fuel costs and curb emissions of carbon dioxide.[25]

From 2010 to 2012, the most fuel-efficient US domestic airline was Alaska Airlines, due partly to its regional affiliate Horizon Air flying turboprops.[17] In 2014, MSCI ranked Ryanair as the lowest-emissions-intensity airline in its ACWI index with 75 g CO2-e/revenue passenger kilometre – below Easyjet at 82 g, the average at 123 g and Lufthansa at 132 g – by using high-density 189-seat Boeing 737-800s. In 2015 Ryanair emitted 8.64 Bn t of CO2 for 545,034 sectors flown: 15.85 t per 776 mi (674 nmi; 1,249 km) average sector (or 5.04 t of fuel: 4.04 kg/km) representing 95 kg per 90.6 million passengers (30.4 kg of fuel: 3.04 L/100 km or 76 g CO2/km).[26]

In 2016, over the transpacific routes, the average fuel consumption was 31 pax-km per L (3.23 L/100 km [73 mpg‑US] per passenger). The most fuel-efficient were Hainan Airlines and ANA with 36 pax-km/L (2.78 L/100 km [85 mpg‑US] per passenger) while Qantas was the least efficient at 22 pax-km/L (4.55 L/100 km [51.7 mpg‑US] per passenger).[27] Key drivers for efficiency were the air freight share for 48%, seating density for 24%, aircraft fuel burn for 16% and passenger load factor for 12%.[27] That same year, Cathay Pacific and Cathay Dragon consumed 4,571,000 tonnes of fuel to transport 123,478 million revenue passenger kilometers, or 37 g/RPK, 25% better than in 1998: 4.63 L/100 km (50.8 mpg‑US).[28] Again in 2016, the Aeroflot Group fuel consumption is 22.9g/ASK, or 2.86 L/100 km (82 mpg‑US) per seat, 3.51 L/100 km (67.0 mpg‑US) per passenger at its 81.5% load factor.[29]

Fuel economy in air transport comes from the fuel efficiency of the aircraft + engine model, combined with airline efficiency: seating configuration, passenger load factor and air cargo. Over the transatlantic route, the most-active intercontinental market, the average fuel consumption in 2017 was 34 pax-km per L (2.94 L/100 km [80 mpg‑US] per passenger). The most fuel-efficient airline was Norwegian Air Shuttle with 44 pax-km/L (2.27 L/100 km [104 mpg‑US] per passenger), thanks to its fuel-efficient Boeing 787-8, a high 85% passenger load factor and a high density of 1.36 seat/m2 due to a low 9% premium seating. On the other side, the least efficient was British Airways at 27 pax-km/L (3.7 L/100 km [64 mpg‑US] per passenger), using fuel-inefficient Boeing 747-400s with a low density of 0.75 seat/m2 due to a high 25% premium seating, in spite of a high 82% load factor.[30]

In 2018, CO₂ emissions totalled 918 Mt with passenger transport accounting for 81% or 744 Mt, for 8.2 trillion revenue passenger kilometres:[31] an average fuel economy of 90.7 g/RPK CO₂ - 29 g/km of fuel (3.61 L/100 km [65.2 mpg‑US] per passenger)

In 2019, Wizz Air stated a 57 g/RPK CO₂ emissions (equivalent to 18.1 g/km of fuel, 2.27 L/100 km [104 mpg‑US] per passenger), 40% lower than IAG or Lufthansa (95 g CO₂/RPK - 30 g/km of fuel, 3.8 L/100 km [62 mpg‑US] per passenger), due to their business classes, lower-density seating, and flight connections.[32]

In 2021, the highest seating density in its A330neo, with 459 single-class seats, enabled Cebu Pacific to claim the lowest carbon footprint with 1.4 kg (3 lb) of fuel per seat per 100 km,[33] equivalent to 1.75 L/100 km [134 mpg‑US] per seat.

Procedures edit

 
An Airbus A330-300 of Thai Airways at Tokyo Narita

Continuous Descent Approaches can reduce emissions.[34] Beyond single-engine taxi, electric taxiing could allow taxiing on APU power alone, with the main engines shut down, to lower the fuel burn.[35][36]

Airbus presented the following measures to save fuel, in its example of an A330 flying 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km) on a route like Bangkok–Tokyo: direct routing saves 190 kg (420 lb) fuel by flying 40 km (25 mi) less; 600 kg (1,300 lb) more fuel is consumed if flying 600 m (2,000 ft) below optimum altitude without vertical flight profile optimization; cruising Mach 0.01 above the optimum speed consumes 800 kg (1,800 lb) more fuel; 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) more fuel on board consumes 150 kg (330 lb) more fuel while 100 litres (22 imp gal; 26 US gal) of unused potable water consumes 15 kg (33 lb) more fuel.[37]

Operational procedures can save 35 kg (77 lb) fuel for every 10-minute reduction in use of the Auxiliary power unit (APU), 15 kg (33 lb) with a reduced flap approach and 30 kg (66 lb) with reduced thrust reversal on landing.[37] Maintenance can also save fuel: 100 kg (220 lb) more fuel is consumed without an engine wash schedule; 50 kg (110 lb) with a 5 mm (0.20 in) slat rigging gap, 40 kg (88 lb) with a 10 mm (0.39 in) spoiler rigging gap, and 15 kg (33 lb) with a damaged door seal.[37]

Yield management allows the optimization of the load factor, benefiting the fuel efficiency, as is the air traffic management optimization.[38]

By taking advantage of wake updraft like migrating birds (biomimicry), Airbus believes an aircraft can save 5-10% of fuel by flying in formation, 1.5–2 nmi (2.8–3.7 km) behind the preceding one.[39] After A380s tests showing 12% savings, test flights were scheduled for 2020 with two A350s, before transatlantic flight trials with airlines in 2021.[39] Certification for shorter separation is enabled by ADS-B in oceanic airspace, and the only modification required would be flight control systems software.[39] Comfort would not be affected and trials are limited to two aircraft to reduce complexity but the concept could be expanded to include more.[39] Commercial operations could begin in 2025 with airline schedule adjustments, and other manufacturers' aircraft could be included.[39]

While routes are up to 10% longer than necessary, modernized air traffic control systems using ADS-B technology like the FAA NEXTGEN or European SESAR could allow more direct routing, but there is resistance from air traffic controllers.[40]

History edit

Past edit

 
The earliest jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet

Modern jet aircraft have twice the fuel efficiency of the earliest jet airliners.[41] Late 1950s piston airliners like the Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation and DC-7 were 1% to 28% more energy-intensive than 1990s jet airliners which cruise 40 to 80% faster.[42] The early jet airliners were designed at a time when air crew labor costs were higher relative to fuel costs. Despite the high fuel consumption, because fuel was inexpensive in that era the higher speed resulted in favorable economical returns since crew costs and amortization of capital investment in the aircraft could be spread over more seat-miles flown per day.[43] Productivity including speed went from around 150 ASK/MJ*km/h for the 1930s DC-3 to 550 for the L-1049 in the 1950s, and from 200 for the DH-106 Comet 3 to 900 for the 1990s B737-800.[44]

Today's turboprop airliners have better fuel-efficiency than current jet airliners, in part because of their propellers and turbines that are more efficient than those of the 1950s-era piston-powered airliners.[17] In 2012, turboprop airliner usage was correlated with US regional carriers fuel efficiency.[17]

 
The Airbus A220-300 is the most fuel-efficient, compared with the A319neo and Boeing 737 MAX 7[45]

Jet airliners have become 70% more fuel efficient between 1967 and 2007.[46] Jetliner fuel efficiency improves continuously, 40% of the improvement come from engines and 30% from airframes.[47] Efficiency gains were larger early in the jet age than later, with a 55-67% gain from 1960 to 1980 and a 20-26% gain from 1980 to 2000.[42] Average fuel burn of new aircraft fell 45% from 1968 to 2014, a compounded annual reduction 1.3% with variable reduction rate.[48]

Concorde, a supersonic transport, managed about 17 passenger-miles to the Imperial gallon, which is 16.7 L/100 km per passenger; similar to a business jet, but much worse than a subsonic turbofan aircraft. Airbus states a fuel rate consumption of their A380 at less than 3 L/100 km per passenger (78 passenger-miles per US gallon).[49]

Newer aircraft like the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Airbus A350 and Bombardier CSeries, are 20% more fuel efficient per passenger kilometre than previous generation aircraft. For the 787, this is achieved through more fuel-efficient engines and lighter composite material airframes, and also through more aerodynamic shapes, winglets, more advanced computer systems for optimising routes and aircraft loading.[50][verification needed] A life-cycle assessment based on the Boeing 787 shows a 20% emission savings compared to conventional aluminium airliners, 14-15% fleet-wide when encompassing a fleet penetration below 100%, while the air travel demand would increase due to lower operating costs.[51]

Lufthansa, when it ordered both, stated the Airbus A350-900 and the Boeing 777X-9 will consume an average of 2.9 L/100 km (81 mpg‑US) per passenger.[52] The Airbus A321 featuring Sharklet wingtip devices consume 2.2 L/100 km (110 mpg‑US) per person with a 200-seat layout for WOW Air.[53]

Airbus airliners delivered in 2019 had a carbon intensity of 66.6 g of CO2e per passenger-kilometre, improving to 63.5g in 2020.[54]

Example values edit

The aviation fuel density used is 6.7 lb/USgal or 0.8 kg/L.

Commuter flights edit

For flights of 300 nmi (560 km):

Model First flight Seats Fuel burn Fuel per seat
Antonov An-148 (241 nmi) 2004 89 4.23 kg/km (15.0 lb/mi) 5.95 L/100 km (39.5 mpg‑US)[55]
Antonov An-158 (241 nmi) 2010 99 4.34 kg/km (15.4 lb/mi) 5.47 L/100 km (43.0 mpg‑US)[55]
ATR 42-500 1995 48 1.26 kg/km (4.5 lb/mi) 3.15 L/100 km (75 mpg‑US)[56]
ATR 72-500 1997 72 1.67 kg/km (5.9 lb/mi) 2.89 L/100 km (81 mpg‑US)[56]
ATR 72-500 1997 70 1.42 kg/km (5.0 lb/mi) 2.53 L/100 km (93 mpg‑US)[57]
ATR 72-600 2010 72 1.56 kg/km (5.5 lb/mi) 2.79 L/100 km (84 mpg‑US)[58]
Beechcraft 1900D (226 nm) 1982 19 1.00 kg/km (3.56 lb/mi) 6.57 L/100 km (35.8 mpg‑US)[59]
Bombardier CRJ100 1991 50 2.21 kg/km (7.83 lb/mi) 5.50 L/100 km (42.8 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier CRJ200 1995 50 2.18 kg/km (7.73 lb/mi) 5.43 L/100 km (43.3 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier CRJ700 1999 70 2.95 kg/km (10.47 lb/mi) 5.25 L/100 km (44.8 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier CRJ900 2001 88 3.47 kg/km (12.31 lb/mi) 4.91 L/100 km (47.9 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 1998 78 2.16 kg/km (7.7 lb/mi) 3.46 L/100 km (68.0 mpg‑US)[61]
Dornier 228 1981 19 0.94 kg/km (3.3 lb/mi) 6.22 L/100 km (37.8 mpg‑US)[62]
Dornier 328 1991 32 1.22 kg/km (4.3 lb/mi) 4.76 L/100 km (49.4 mpg‑US)[63]
Embraer Brasilia 1983 30 0.92 kg/km (3.3 lb/mi) 3.82 L/100 km (61.6 mpg‑US)[64]
Embraer ERJ-135ER (309 nmi) 1998 37 1.64 kg/km (5.83 lb/mi) 5.52 L/100 km (42.6 mpg‑US)[65]
Embraer ERJ-145ER (305 nmi) 1995 50 1.76 kg/km (6.23 lb/mi) 4.37 L/100 km (53.8 mpg‑US)[65]
Saab 340 1983 32 1.1 kg/km (3.9 lb/mi) 4.29 L/100 km (54.8 mpg‑US)[66]
Saab 2000 1992 50 1.75 kg/km (6.2 lb/mi) 4.39 L/100 km (53.6 mpg‑US)[67]

Regional flights edit

For flights of 500–700 nmi (930–1,300 km)

Model First flight Seats Sector Fuel burn Fuel efficiency per seat
Airbus A220 100 2013 115 600 nmi (1,100 km) 2.8 kg/km (10.1 lb/mi) 3.07 L/100 km (76.7 mpg‑US)[68]
Airbus A220 300 2015 140 600 nmi (1,100 km) 3.10 kg/km (11.01 lb/mi) 2.75 L/100 km (85.6 mpg‑US)[68]
Airbus A220-100 2013 125 500 nmi (930 km) 2.57 kg/km (9.1 lb/mi) 2.57 L/100 km (92 mpg‑US)[69]
Airbus A220-300 2015 160 500 nmi (930 km) 2.85 kg/km (10.11 lb/mi) 2.23 L/100 km (105 mpg‑US)[70]
Airbus A319neo 2015 144 600 nmi (1,100 km) 3.37 kg/km (11.94 lb/mi) 2.92 L/100 km (80.6 mpg‑US)[68]
Airbus A319neo 2015 124 660 nmi (1,220 km) 2.82 kg/km (10 lb/mi) 2.82 L/100 km (83.5 mpg‑US)[71]
Airbus A320neo 2015 154 660 nmi (1,220 km) 2.79 kg/km (9.9 lb/mi) 2.25 L/100 km (104.7 mpg‑US)[71]
Airbus A321neo 2015 192 660 nmi (1,220 km) 3.30 kg/km (11.7 lb/mi) 2.19 L/100 km (107.4 mpg‑US)[71]
Antonov An-148 2004 89 684 nmi (1,267 km) 2.89 kg/km (10.3 lb/mi) 4.06 L/100 km (57.9 mpg‑US)[55]
Antonov An-158 2010 99 684 nmi (1,267 km) 3 kg/km (11 lb/mi) 3.79 L/100 km (62.1 mpg‑US)[55]
ATR 42-600 2010 50 500 nmi (930 km) 1.30 kg/km (4.6 lb/mi) 3.27 L/100 km (72 mpg‑US)[72]
ATR 72-600 2010 72 500 nmi (930 km) 1.41 kg/km (5 lb/mi) 2.46 L/100 km (96 mpg‑US)[73]
Boeing 737-300 1984 126 507 nmi (939 km) 3.49 kg/km (12.4 lb/mi) 3.46 L/100 km (68 mpg‑US)[74]
Boeing 737-600 1998 110 500 nmi (930 km) 3.16 kg/km (11.2 lb/mi) 3.59 L/100 km (65.5 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737-700 1997 126 500 nmi (930 km) 3.21 kg/km (11.4 lb/mi) 3.19 L/100 km (74 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737 MAX 7 2017 128 660 nmi (1,220 km) 2.85 kg/km (10.1 lb/mi) 2.77 L/100 km (84.8 mpg‑US)[71]
Boeing 737 MAX 7 2017 144 600 nmi (1,100 km) 3.39 kg/km (12.01 lb/mi) 2.93 L/100 km (80.2 mpg‑US)[68]
Boeing 737-800 1997 162 500 nmi (930 km) 3.59 kg/km (12.7 lb/mi) 2.77 L/100 km (85 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737 MAX 8 2017 166 660 nmi (1,220 km) 3.04 kg/km (10.8 lb/mi) 2.28 L/100 km (103.2 mpg‑US)[71]
Boeing 737-900ER 2006 180 500 nmi (930 km) 3.83 kg/km (13.6 lb/mi) 2.66 L/100 km (88 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737 MAX 9 2017 180 660 nmi (1,220 km) 3.30 kg/km (11.7 lb/mi) 2.28 L/100 km (103 mpg‑US)[71]
Boeing 757-200 1982 200 500 nmi (930 km) 4.68 kg/km (16.61 lb/mi) 2.91 L/100 km (80.7 mpg‑US)[76]
Boeing 757-300 1998 243 500 nmi (930 km) 5.19 kg/km (18.41 lb/mi) 2.66 L/100 km (88.4 mpg‑US)[76]
Bombardier CRJ100 1991 50 577 nmi (1,069 km) 1.87 kg/km (6.65 lb/mi) 4.68 L/100 km (50.3 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier CRJ200 1995 50 580 nmi (1,070 km) 1.80 kg/km (6.39 lb/mi) 4.49 L/100 km (52.4 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier CRJ700 1999 70 574 nmi (1,063 km) 2.45 kg/km (8.68 lb/mi) 4.36 L/100 km (54 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier CRJ900 2001 88 573 nmi (1,061 km) 2.78 kg/km (9.88 lb/mi) 3.94 L/100 km (59.7 mpg‑US)[60]
Bombardier CRJ1000 2009 100 500 nmi (930 km) 2.66 kg/km (9.4 lb/mi) 3.33 L/100 km (71 mpg‑US)[77]
Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 1998 74 500 nmi (930 km) 2.31 kg/km (8.2 lb/mi) 3.9 L/100 km (60 mpg‑US)[78]
Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 1998 74 600 nmi (1,100 km) 1.83 kg/km (6.5 lb/mi) 3.09 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[79]
Dornier 328 1991 31 600 nmi (1,100 km) 1.08 kg/km (3.8 lb/mi) 4.35 L/100 km (54.1 mpg‑US)[80]
Embraer E-Jet E2-175 2020 88 600 nmi (1,100 km) 2.44 kg/km (8.64 lb/mi) 3.44 L/100 km (68.3 mpg‑US)[68]
Embraer E-Jet E2-190 2018 106 500 nmi (930 km) 2.48 kg/km (8.8 lb/mi) 2.93 L/100 km (80 mpg‑US)[81]
Embraer E-Jet E2-190 2018 106 600 nmi (1,100 km) 2.83 kg/km (10.04 lb/mi) 3.32 L/100 km (70.8 mpg‑US)[68]
Embraer E-Jet E2-195 2019 132 500 nmi (930 km) 2.62 kg/km (9.3 lb/mi) 2.5 L/100 km (94 mpg‑US)[82]
Embraer E-Jet E2-195 2019 132 600 nmi (1,100 km) 3.07 kg/km (10.91 lb/mi) 2.90 L/100 km (81 mpg‑US)[68]
Embraer E-Jet-170 2002 80 606 nmi (1,122 km) 2.6 kg/km (9.3 lb/mi) 4.08 L/100 km (57.7 mpg‑US)[83]
Embraer E-Jet-175 2005 88 605 nmi (1,120 km) 2.80 kg/km (9.95 lb/mi) 3.97 L/100 km (59.3 mpg‑US)[83]
Embraer E-Jet-190 2004 114 607 nmi (1,124 km) 3.24 kg/km (11.48 lb/mi) 3.54 L/100 km (66.5 mpg‑US)[83]
Embraer E-Jet-195 2004 122 607 nmi (1,124 km) 3.21 kg/km (11.38 lb/mi) 3.28 L/100 km (71.8 mpg‑US)[83]
Embraer ERJ-135ER 1998 37 596 nmi (1,104 km) 1.44 kg/km (5.12 lb/mi) 4.86 L/100 km (48.4 mpg‑US)[65]
Embraer ERJ-145ER 1996 50 598 nmi (1,107 km) 1.55 kg/km (5.49 lb/mi) 3.86 L/100 km (61 mpg‑US)[65]
Pilatus PC-12 1991 9 500 nmi (930 km) 0.41 kg/km (1.5 lb/mi) 5.66 L/100 km (41.6 mpg‑US)[84]
Saab 340 1983 31 500 nmi (930 km) 0.95 kg/km (3.4 lb/mi) 3.83 L/100 km (61.4 mpg‑US)[66]
Saab 2000 1992 50 500 nmi (930 km) 1.54 kg/km (5.5 lb/mi) 3.85 L/100 km (61.1 mpg‑US)[67]
Sukhoi SSJ100 2008 98 500 nmi (930 km) 2.81 kg/km (10.0 lb/mi) 3.59 L/100 km (65.5 mpg‑US)[85]

Short-haul flights edit

For flights of 1,000 nmi (1,900 km):

Model First flight Seats Fuel Burn Fuel efficiency per seat
Airbus A220-100 2013 125 2.28 kg/km (8.1 lb/mi) 2.28 L/100 km (103 mpg‑US)[69]
Airbus A220-300 2015 135 2.30 kg/km (8.17 lb/mi) 2.13 L/100 km (110 mpg‑US)[45]
Airbus A220-300 2015 150 2.42 kg/km (8.6 lb/mi) 2.02 L/100 km (116 mpg‑US)[86]
Airbus A220-300 2015 160 2.56 kg/km (9.08 lb/mi) 2.00 L/100 km (118 mpg‑US)[70]
Airbus A319 1995 124 2.93 kg/km (10.4 lb/mi) 2.95 L/100 km (80 mpg‑US)[87]
Airbus A319neo 2015 136 2.4 kg/km (8.6 lb/mi) 2.22 L/100 km (106 mpg‑US)[45]
Airbus A320 1987 150 3.13 kg/km (11.1 lb/mi) 2.61 L/100 km (90 mpg‑US)[87]
Airbus A320neo 2016 180 2.79 kg/km (9.9 lb/mi) 1.94 L/100 km (121 mpg‑US)[88]
Airbus A321-200 1996 180 3.61 kg/km (12.8 lb/mi) 2.50 L/100 km (94 mpg‑US)[87]
Airbus A321neo 2017 220 3.47 kg/km (12.3 lb/mi) 1.98 L/100 km (119 mpg‑US)[89]
Airbus A330-200 1997 293 5.6 kg/km (19.8 lb/mi) 2.37 L/100 km (99 mpg‑US)[87]
Antonov An-148 (1190 nmi) 2004 89 2.75 kg/km (9.8 lb/mi) 3.86 L/100 km (60.9 mpg‑US)[55]
Antonov An-158 (1190 nmi) 2010 99 2.83 kg/km (10.0 lb/mi) 3.57 L/100 km (65.9 mpg‑US)[55]
Boeing 737-600 1998 110 2.77 kg/km (9.8 lb/mi) 3.15 L/100 km (75 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737-700 1997 126 2.82 kg/km (10.0 lb/mi) 2.79 L/100 km (84 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737-700 1997 128 2.8 kg/km (9.9 lb/mi) 2.71 L/100 km (87 mpg‑US)[87]
Boeing 737 MAX-7 2017 140 2.51 kg/km (8.91 lb/mi) 1.94 L/100 km (121 mpg‑US)[45]
Boeing 737-800 1997 162 3.17 kg/km (11.2 lb/mi) 2.44 L/100 km (96 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737-800 1997 160 3.45 kg/km (12.23 lb/mi) 2.68 L/100 km (88 mpg‑US)[87]
Boeing 737-800W 1997 162 3.18 kg/km (11.3 lb/mi) 2.45 L/100 km (96 mpg‑US)[90]
Boeing 737 MAX-8 2017 162 2.71 kg/km (9.6 lb/mi) 2.04 L/100 km (115 mpg‑US)[90]
Boeing 737-900ER 2006 180 3.42 kg/km (12.1 lb/mi) 2.38 L/100 km (99 mpg‑US)[75]
Boeing 737-900ERW 2006 180 3.42 kg/km (12.1 lb/mi) 2.37 L/100 km (99 mpg‑US)[90]
Boeing 737 MAX-9 2017 180 2.91 kg/km (10.3 lb/mi) 2.02 L/100 km (116 mpg‑US)[90]
Boeing 757-200 1982 190 4.60 kg/km (16.33 lb/mi) 3.02 L/100 km (78 mpg‑US)[87]
Boeing 757-200 1982 200 4.16 kg/km (14.76 lb/mi) 2.59 L/100 km (90.8 mpg‑US)[76]
Boeing 757-300 1998 243 4.68 kg/km (16.62 lb/mi) 2.40 L/100 km (98 mpg‑US)[76]
Boeing 787-8 2009 248 5.50 kg/km (19.5 lb/mi) 2.77 L/100 km (85 mpg‑US)[91]
Boeing 787-9 2013 296 5.67 kg/km (20.1 lb/mi) 2.39 L/100 km (98 mpg‑US)[92]
Boeing 787-10 2017 336 6.09 kg/km (21.6 lb/mi) 2.27 L/100 km (104 mpg‑US)[93]
Quest Kodiak 2004 9 0.71 kg/km (2.52 lb/mi) 6.28 L/100 km (37.5 mpg‑US)[94]

Medium-haul flights edit

For flights around 2,000–3,000 nmi (3,700–5,600 km), transcontinental (e.g. Washington Dulles – Seattle-Tacoma is 2,000 nmi) to short transatlantic flights (e.g. New York JFK – London-Heathrow is 3,000 nmi).[95]

Model First flight Seats Sector Fuel burn Fuel per seat
Airbus A220-300 2015 150 2,000 nmi (3,700 km) 2.42 kg/km (8.59 lb/mi) 2.02 L/100 km (116 mpg‑US)[70]
Airbus A320 1987 150 2,151 nmi (3,984 km) 2.91 kg/km (10.3 lb/mi) 2.43 L/100 km (97 mpg‑US)[96]
Airbus A321LR 2016 154 3,400 nmi (6,300 km) 2.99 kg/km (10.6 lb/mi) 2.43 L/100 km (97 mpg‑US)[97]
Airbus A330-200 1997 241 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 6 kg/km (21 lb/mi) 3.11 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[98]
Airbus A330-300 1992 262 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 6.25 kg/km (22.2 lb/mi) 2.98 L/100 km (79 mpg‑US)[98]
Airbus A330-900 2016 310 3,350 nmi (6,200 km) 6 kg/km (21 lb/mi) 2.42 L/100 km (97 mpg‑US)[99]
Airbus A340-300 1992 262 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 6.81 kg/km (24.2 lb/mi) 3.25 L/100 km (72 mpg‑US)[98]
Airbus A380 2005 544 2,000 nmi (3,700 km) 13.6 kg/km (48.4 lb/mi) 3.14 L/100 km (75 mpg‑US)[100]
Boeing 737 MAX-8 2017 168 3,400 nmi (6,300 km) 2.86 kg/km (10.1 lb/mi) 2.13 L/100 km (110 mpg‑US)[101]
Boeing 737 MAX-9 2017 144 3,400 nmi (6,300 km) 2.91 kg/km (10.3 lb/mi) 2.53 L/100 km (93 mpg‑US)[97]
Boeing 747-400 1988 416 2,151 nmi (3,984 km) 10.77 kg/km (38.2 lb/mi) 3.24 L/100 km (73 mpg‑US)[96]
Boeing 747-8 2011 467 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 9.9 kg/km (35 lb/mi) 2.65 L/100 km (89 mpg‑US)[102]
Boeing 757-200W 1981 158 3,400 nmi (6,300 km) 3.79 kg/km (13.4 lb/mi) 3.00 L/100 km (78 mpg‑US)[97]
Boeing 767-200ER 1984 181 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 4.83 kg/km (17.1 lb/mi) 3.34 L/100 km (70 mpg‑US)[103]
Boeing 767-200ER 1984 193 3,400 nmi (6,300 km) 5.01 kg/km (17.8 lb/mi) 3.25 L/100 km (72 mpg‑US)[97]
Boeing 767-200ER 1984 224 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 4.93 kg/km (17.5 lb/mi) 2.75 L/100 km (86 mpg‑US)[103]
Boeing 767-300ER 1988 218 2,151 nmi (3,984 km) 5.38 kg/km (19.1 lb/mi) 3.09 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[96]
Boeing 767-300ER 1988 218 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 5.39 kg/km (19.1 lb/mi) 3.09 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[103]
Boeing 767-300ER 1988 269 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 5.51 kg/km (19.5 lb/mi) 2.56 L/100 km (92 mpg‑US)[103]
Boeing 767-400ER 1999 245 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 5.78 kg/km (20.5 lb/mi) 2.95 L/100 km (80 mpg‑US)[103]
Boeing 767-400ER 1999 304 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 5.93 kg/km (21.0 lb/mi) 2.44 L/100 km (96 mpg‑US)[103]
Boeing 767-400ER 1999 304 3,265 nmi (6,047 km) 5.92 kg/km (21 lb/mi) 2.43 L/100 km (96.9 mpg‑US)[74]
Boeing 777-200 1994 305 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 6.83 kg/km (24.2 lb/mi) 2.80 L/100 km (84 mpg‑US)[104]
Boeing 777-200ER 1996 301 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 6.96 kg/km (24.7 lb/mi) 2.89 L/100 km (81 mpg‑US)[98]
Boeing 777-300 1997 368 3,000 nmi (5,600 km) 7.88 kg/km (28.0 lb/mi) 2.68 L/100 km (88 mpg‑US)[104]
Boeing 787-8 2009 291 3,400 nmi (6,300 km) 5.26 kg/km (18.7 lb/mi) 2.26 L/100 km (104 mpg‑US)[101]
Boeing 787-8 2009 238 3,400 nmi (6,300 km) 5.11 kg/km (18.1 lb/mi) 2.68 L/100 km (88 mpg‑US)[97]
Boeing 787-9 2013 304 3,350 nmi (6,200 km) 5.77 kg/km (20.5 lb/mi) 2.37 L/100 km (99 mpg‑US)[99]
Irkut MC-21-300 2017 163 1,750 nmi (3,240 km) 3.04 kg/km (10.8 lb/mi) 2.33 L/100 km (101 mpg‑US)[105]

Long-haul flights edit

For flights around 5,000 to 7,000 nmi (9,300 to 13,000 km), including transpacific flights (e.g. Hong Kong – San Francisco International is 6,000 nmi).[106]

Model First flight Seats Sector Fuel burn Fuel per seat
Airbus A330-200 1997 241 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 6.4 kg/km (23 lb/mi) 3.32 L/100 km (71 mpg‑US)[98]
Airbus A330-200 1997 248 5,549 nmi (10,277 km) 6.55 kg/km (23.2 lb/mi) 3.3 L/100 km (71 mpg‑US)[107]
Airbus A330-300 1992 274 5,548 nmi (10,275 km) 6.81 kg/km (24.2 lb/mi) 3.11 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[107]
Airbus A330-800 2017 248 4,650 nmi (8,610 km) 5.45 kg/km (19.3 lb/mi) 2.75 L/100 km (86 mpg‑US)[108]
Airbus A330-900 2017 300 4,650 nmi (8,610 km) 5.94 kg/km (21.1 lb/mi) 2.48 L/100 km (95 mpg‑US)[108]
Airbus A340-300 1992 262 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 7.32 kg/km (26.0 lb/mi) 3.49 L/100 km (67.4 mpg‑US)[98]
Airbus A350-900 2013 315 4,972 nmi (9,208 km) 6.03 kg/km (21.4 lb/mi) 2.39 L/100 km (98 mpg‑US)[99]
Airbus A350-900 2013 318 5,534 nmi (10,249 km) 6.52 kg/km (23.1 lb/mi) 2.56 L/100 km (92 mpg‑US)[107]
Airbus A350-900 2013 315 6,542 nmi (12,116 km) 7.07 kg/km (25.1 lb/mi) 2.81 L/100 km (84 mpg‑US)[109]
Airbus A350-1000 2016 327 5,531 nmi (10,243 km) 7.46 kg/km (26.5 lb/mi) 2.85 L/100 km (83 mpg‑US)[107]
Airbus A350-1000 2016 367 5,531 nmi (10,243 km) 7.58 kg/km (26.9 lb/mi) 2.58 L/100 km (91 mpg‑US)[107]
Airbus A380 2005 525 7,200 nmi (13,300 km) 13.78 kg/km (48.9 lb/mi) 3.27 L/100 km (72 mpg‑US)[110]
Airbus A380 2005 544 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 13.78 kg/km (48.9 lb/mi) 3.16 L/100 km (74 mpg‑US)[111]
Boeing 747-400 1988 416 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 11.11 kg/km (39.4 lb/mi) 3.34 L/100 km (70 mpg‑US)[112]
Boeing 747-400 1988 393 5,503 nmi (10,192 km) 11.82 kg/km (41.9 lb/mi) 3.76 L/100 km (62.6 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 747-400 1988 487 5,479 nmi (10,147 km) 12.31 kg/km (43.7 lb/mi) 3.16 L/100 km (74 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 747-8 2011 467 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 10.54 kg/km (37.4 lb/mi) 2.82 L/100 km (83 mpg‑US)[102]
Boeing 747-8 2011 405 7,200 nmi (13,300 km) 10.9 kg/km (39 lb/mi) 3.35 L/100 km (70 mpg‑US)[110]
Boeing 777-200ER 1996 304 5,535 nmi (10,251 km) 7.57 kg/km (26.9 lb/mi) 3.11 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 777-200ER 1996 301 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 7.42 kg/km (26.3 lb/mi) 3.08 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[98]
Boeing 777-200ER 1996 301 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 7.44 kg/km (26.4 lb/mi) 3.09 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[104]
Boeing 777-200LR 2005 291 4,972 nmi (9,208 km) 7.57 kg/km (26.9 lb/mi) 3.25 L/100 km (72 mpg‑US)[99]
Boeing 777-300ER 2003 382 5,507 nmi (10,199 km) 8.86 kg/km (31.4 lb/mi) 2.9 L/100 km (81 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 777-300ER 2003 365 6,000 nmi (11,000 km) 8.49 kg/km (30.1 lb/mi) 2.91 L/100 km (81 mpg‑US)[104]
Boeing 777-300ER 2003 344 7,200 nmi (13,300 km) 8.58 kg/km (30.4 lb/mi) 3.11 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[110]
Boeing 777-9X 2020 395 7,200 nmi (13,300 km) 7.69 kg/km (27.3 lb/mi) 2.42 L/100 km (97 mpg‑US)[110]
Boeing 787-8 2011 243 4,650 nmi (8,610 km) 5.38 kg/km (19.1 lb/mi) 2.77 L/100 km (85 mpg‑US)[108]
Boeing 787-8 GEnx 2011 220 5,537 nmi (10,255 km) 5.3 kg/km (19 lb/mi) 3.01 L/100 km (78 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 787-8 Trent 2011 220 5,537 nmi (10,255 km) 5.51 kg/km (19.5 lb/mi) 3.13 L/100 km (75 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 787-9 GEnx 2013 294 4,650 nmi (8,610 km) 5.85 kg/km (20.8 lb/mi) 2.49 L/100 km (94 mpg‑US)[108]
Boeing 787-9 2013 304 4,972 nmi (9,208 km) 5.63 kg/km (20.0 lb/mi) 2.31 L/100 km (102 mpg‑US)[99]
Boeing 787-9 GEnx 2013 266 5,534 nmi (10,249 km) 5.62 kg/km (19.9 lb/mi) 2.64 L/100 km (89 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 787-9 2013 291 6,542 nmi (12,116 km) 7.18 kg/km (25.5 lb/mi) 3.08 L/100 km (76 mpg‑US)[109]
Boeing 787-10 GEnx 2017 337 5,529 nmi (10,240 km) 6.12 kg/km (21.7 lb/mi) 2.27 L/100 km (104 mpg‑US)[107]
Boeing 787-10 Trent 2017 337 5,529 nmi (10,240 km) 6.24 kg/km (22.1 lb/mi) 2.31 L/100 km (102 mpg‑US)[107]

For a comparison with ground transportation - much slower and with shorter range than air travel - a Volvo bus 9700 averages 0.41 L/100 km (570 mpg‑US) per seat for 63 seats.[113] In highway travel an average auto has the potential for 1.61 L/100 km (146 mpg‑US)[114] per seat (assuming 4 seats) and for a 5-seat 2014 Toyota Prius, 0.98 L/100 km (240 mpg‑US).[115] While this shows the capabilities of the vehicles, the load factors (percentage of seats occupied) may differ between personal use (commonly just the driver in the car) and societal averages for long-distance auto use, and among those of particular airlines.

General aviation edit

For private aircraft in general aviation, current FAI Aeroplane Efficiency records are :[116]

  • 33.92 km/kg fuel or 3.9 L/100 km in a Aeroprakt-40 two seater for 300– 500 kg MTOW airplanes (C-1a class) (1.95 L/100 km per seat).
  • 37.22 km/kg fuel or 3.56 L/100 km in a Monnett Sonerai single-seat racer for 500-1,000 kg MTOW airplanes(C-1b class)
  • 9.19 km/kg or 13.6 L/100 km in a four-seat diesel-powered Cessna 182 for 1,000-1,750 kg MTOW airplanes (C-1c class) (3.4 L/100 km per seat).
  • 3.08 km/kg or 40.6 L/100 km in a Cirrus SF50 seven-seat jet for 1.75-3 t MTOW airplanes (C-1d class) (5.8 L/100 km per seat).

A four-seat Dyn'Aéro MCR4S powered by a Rotax 914 consumes 8.3 L/100 km at 264 km/h[117] (2.1 L/100 km per seat).

Business aircraft edit

Hourly Fuel Burn for Private Aircraft[118]
Type Aircraft US gal L lb kg
Turboprops Pilatus PC12[a] 66 250 442 200
Cessna Grand Caravan EX[b] 58 220 390 177
King Air 350[b] 100 379 670 304
Light Jets Cessna Citation M2 137–104 519–394 918–697 416–316
Embraer Phenom 100[c] 109–77 413–291 730–516 331–234
Cessna Citation CJ3+[d] 124–116 469–439 830–780 376–354
Embraer Phenom 300[c] 166–115 628–435 1,112–770 504–349
Learjet 70/75[c] 239–179 905–678 1,600–1,200 726–544
Mid-Size Jets Bombardier Challenger 300[a] 266 1,007 1,782 808
Gulfstream G200[a] 233 882 1,561 708
Hawker 900XP[a] 257 973 1,722 781
Cessna Citation X+[a] 336 1,272 2,251 1,021
Dassault Falcon 7X[a] 318 1,204 2,130 966
Long-Range Jets Gulfstream G550[c] 672–447 2,544–1,692 4,500–3,000 2,041–1,361
Bombardier Global 6000 512–486 1,938–1,840 3,430–3,256 1,556–1,477
Airbus ACJ319[a] 640 2,423 4,288 1,945
  1. ^ a b c d e f g Average
  2. ^ a b Cruise
  3. ^ a b c d 1st hour-2nd hour
  4. ^ Average-Cruise

Future edit

 
Boeing/NASA's X-48B blended wing body demonstrator
 
Boeing's blended wing body concept
 
NASA / Aurora Flight Sciences D8 airliner concept
 
Boeing Volt truss-braced wing concept

NASA and Boeing flight-tested a 500 lb (230 kg) blended wing body (BWB) X-48B demonstrator from August 2012 to April 2013. This design provides greater fuel efficiency, since the whole craft produces lift, not just the wings.[119] The BWB concept offers advantages in structural, aerodynamic and operating efficiencies over today's more-conventional fuselage-and-wing designs. These features translate into greater range, fuel economy, reliability and life-cycle savings, as well as lower manufacturing costs.[120][121] NASA has created a cruise efficient STOL (CESTOL) concept.

Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Applied Materials Research (IFAM) have researched a sharkskin-imitating paint that would reduce drag through a riblet effect.[122] Aviation is a major potential application for new technologies such as aluminium metal foam and nanotechnology.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) technology roadmap envisions improvements in aircraft configuration and aerodynamics. It projects the following reductions in engine fuel consumption, compared to baseline aircraft in service in 2015:[123]

Moreover, it projects the following gains for aircraft design technologies:[123]

  • 6 to 12% from airframe retrofits (winglets, riblets, lightweight cabin furnishing) currently available
  • 4 to 10% from materials and Structure (composite structure, adjustable landing gear, fly-by-wire) also currently available
  • 1 to 4% from electric taxiing from 2020+
  • 5 to 15% from advanced aerodynamics (hybrid/natural laminar flow, variable camber, spiroid wingtip) from 2020–25
  • 30% from strut-braced wings (with advanced turbofan engines, ~2030-35)
  • 35% from a double bubble fuselage like the Aurora D8 (with advanced turbofan engines, ~2035)
  • 30-35% from a box/joined closed wing (with advanced turbofan engines, ~2035-40)
  • 27 to 50% from a blended wing body design (with hybrid propulsion, ~2040)
  • Up to 100% with fully electric aircraft (short range, ~2035-45)

Today's tube-and-wing configuration could remain in use until the 2030s due to drag reductions from active flutter suppression for slender flexible-wings and natural and hybrid laminar flow.[124] Large, ultra high bypass engines will need upswept gull wings or overwing nacelles as Pratt & Whitney continue to develop its geared turbofan to save a projected 10–15% of fuel costs by the mid-2020s.[124] NASA indicates this configuration could gain up to 45% with advanced aerodynamics, structures and geared turbofans, but longer term suggests savings of up to 50% by 2025 and 60% by 2030 with new ultra-efficient configurations and propulsion architectures: hybrid wing body, truss-braced wing, lifting body designs, embedded engines, and boundary-layer ingestion.[124] By 2030 hybrid-electric architectures may be ready for 100 seaters and distributed propulsion with tighter integration of airframe may enable further efficiency and emissions improvements.[124]

Research projects such as Boeing's ecoDemonstrator program have sought to identify ways of improving the fuel economy of commercial aircraft operations. The U.S. government has encouraged such research through grant programs, including the FAA's Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions and Noise (CLEEN) program, and NASA's Environmentally Responsible Aviation (ERA) Project.[citation needed]

Multiple concepts are projected to reduce fuel consumption:[125]

  • the Airbus/Rolls-Royce E-Thrust is a hybrid electric with a gas turbine engine and electric ducted fans with energy storage allowing peak power for takeoff and climb while for the descent the engine is shut down and the fans recover energy to recharge the batteries;[125]
  • Empirical Systems Aerospace (ESAero) is developing the 150-seat ECO-150 concept for turboelectric distributed propulsion with two turboshaft engines mounted on the wing and driving generators powering ducted fans embedded in the inboard wing sections, effectively increasing the bypass ratio and propulsive efficiency for 20–30% fuel savings over the Boeing 737 NG, while providing some powered lift;[125]
  • NASA's single-aisle turbo-electric aircraft with an aft boundary layer propulsor (STARC-ABL) is a conventional tube-and-wing 737-sized airliner with an aft-mounted electric fan ingesting the fuselage boundary layer hybrid-electric propulsion, with 5.4 MW of power distributed to three electric motors: the design will be evaluated by Aurora Flight Sciences;[126]
  • The Boeing blended wing body (BWB) with a wide fuselage mated to high-aspect-ratio wings is more aerodynamically efficient because the entire aircraft contributes to the lift and it has less surface area, producing less drag and offering weight savings due to lower wing loading, while noise is shielded by locating the engines on the aft upper surface;[125]
  • Developed with the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory and refined with NASA, the Lockheed Martin Hybrid Wing Body (HWB) combines a blended forward fuselage and wing with a conventional aft fuselage and T-tail for compatibility with existing infrastructure and airdrop; the engines in overwing nacelles on struts over the trailing edge enable higher-bypass-ratio engines with 5% less drag, provide acoustic shielding and increases lift without a thrust or drag penalty at low speed;[125]
  • Airbus-backed German Bauhaus-Luftfahrt designed the Propulsive Fuselage concept, reducing drag with a fan in the tail ingesting air flowing over the fuselage via an annular (ring-shaped) inlet and re-energizes the wake, driven with a gearbox or as a turbo-electric configuration;[125]
  • Conceived by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for NASA, Aurora Flight Sciences developed the "double-bubble" D8, a 180-seat aircraft with a wide lifting fuselage, twin-aisle cabin to replace A320 and B737 narrowbodies, and boundary-layer ingestion with engines in the tail driving distortion-tolerant fans for a 49% fuel-burn reduction over the B737NG;[125]
  • The Boeing truss-braced wing (TBW) concept was developed for the NASA-funded Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research program with an aspect ratio of 19.5 compared to 11 for the Boeing 787: the strut relieves some bending moment and a braced wing can be lighter than a cantilevered wing or longer for the same weight, having better lift-to-drag ratio by lowering the induced drag and thinner, facilitating natural laminar flow and reducing wave drag at transonic speeds;[125]
  • Dzyne Technologies reduces the thickness of the blended wing body for a 110–130-seat super-regional, a configuration usually too thick for a narrowbody replacement and better suited for large aircraft, by placing the landing gear outward and storing baggage in the wing roots, enabling 20% fuel savings;[125]
  • the French research agency ONERA designed two concepts for a 180-seat airliner Versatile Aircraft (NOVA) including turbofans with higher bypass ratios and fan diameter: a gull wing with increased dihedral inboard to accommodate larger geared turbofans under without lengthening the gear and the other with engines embedded in the tail to ingest the low-energy fuselage boundary layer flow and re-energize the wake to reduce drag;[127]
  • with Cranfield University, Rolls-Royce developed the Distributed Open Rotor (DORA) with high-aspect-ratio wing and V-tail to minimize drag, and turbogenerators on the wing driving electric propellers along the inboard leading edge with open rotor high-propulsive efficiency and increasing the effective bypass ratio.[125]

Climate change edit

Main article: Environmental impact of aviation

The growth of air travel outpaces its fuel-economy improvements and corresponding CO2 emissions, compromising climate sustainability. Although low-cost carriers' higher seat-density increases fuel economy and lowers greenhouse gas emissions per-passenger-kilometer, the lower airfares cause a rebound effect of more flights and larger overall emissions. The tourism industry could shift emphasis to emissions eco-efficiency in CO2 per unit of revenue or profit instead of fuel economy, favoring shorter trips and ground transportation over flying long journeys to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[128]

See also edit

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External links edit

  • Air Transport Department, Cranfield University (2008). "Fuel and air transport" (PDF). European Commission.
  • "Aircraft Technology Roadmap to 2050" (PDF). IATA. 2019.
  • Scott W. Ashcraft; Andres S. Padron; Kyle A. Pascioni; Gary W. Stout Jr.; Dennis L. Huff (October 2011). "Review of Propulsion Technologies for N+3 Subsonic Vehicle Concepts" (PDF). Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio. NASA.
  • "Air Transport and Energy Efficiency" (PDF). World Bank. February 2012.
  • Elyse Moody (1 March 2012). "Focus on Fuel Savings". Overhaul & Maintenance. Aviation Week.
  • Yongha Park; Morton E. O'Kelly (December 2014). "Fuel burn rates of commercial passenger aircraft: Variations by seat configuration and stage distance Article". The Ohio State University. Journal of Transport Geography. 41: 137–147. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.08.017.
  • Irene Kwan and Daniel Rutherford (November 2015). "Transatlantic airline fuel efficiency ranking, 2014" (PDF). International Council on Clean Transportation.
  • James Albright (27 February 2016). "Getting the Most Miles from Your Jet-A". Business & Commercial Aviation. Aviation Week.

November 23, 2023
fuel, economy, aircraft, fuel, economy, aircraft, measure, transport, energy, efficiency, aircraft, fuel, efficiency, increased, with, better, aerodynamics, reducing, weight, with, improved, engine, brake, specific, fuel, consumption, propulsive, efficiency, t. The fuel economy in aircraft is the measure of the transport energy efficiency of aircraft Fuel efficiency is increased with better aerodynamics and by reducing weight and with improved engine brake specific fuel consumption and propulsive efficiency or thrust specific fuel consumption Endurance and range can be maximized with the optimum airspeed and economy is better at optimum altitudes usually higher An airline efficiency depends on its fleet fuel burn seating density air cargo and passenger load factor while operational procedures like maintenance and routing can save fuel Between 1950 and 2018 efficiency per passenger grew from 0 4 to 8 2 RPK per kg of CO 1 Average fuel burn of new aircraft fell 45 from 1968 to 2014 a compounded annual reduction 1 3 with a variable reduction rate In 2018 CO emissions totalled 747 million tonnes for passenger transport for 8 5 trillion revenue passenger kilometres RPK giving an average of 88 grams CO per RPK 2 this represents 28 g of fuel per kilometre or a 3 5 L 100 km 67 mpg US fuel consumption per passenger on average The worst performing flights are short trips of from 500 to 1500 kilometres because the fuel used for takeoff is relatively large compared to the amount expended in the cruise segment and because less fuel efficient regional jets are typically used on shorter flights 2 New technology can reduce engine fuel consumption like higher pressure and bypass ratios geared turbofans open rotors hybrid electric or fully electric propulsion and airframe efficiency with retrofits better materials and systems and advanced aerodynamics Contents 1 Flight efficiency theory 1 1 Aerodynamics 1 1 1 Design speed 1 1 2 Wingtip devices 1 2 Weight 1 2 1 Flight distance 1 3 Propulsive efficiency 2 Operations 2 1 Seating classes 2 2 Speed 2 3 Altitude 2 4 Airlines 2 5 Procedures 3 History 3 1 Past 4 Example values 4 1 Commuter flights 4 2 Regional flights 4 3 Short haul flights 4 4 Medium haul flights 4 5 Long haul flights 4 6 General aviation 4 7 Business aircraft 5 Future 6 Climate change 7 See also 8 References 9 External linksFlight efficiency theory edit nbsp The main forces acting on an aircraftA powered aircraft counters its weight through aerodynamic lift and counters its aerodynamic drag with thrust The aircraft s maximum range is determined by the level of efficiency with which thrust can be applied to overcome the aerodynamic drag Aerodynamics edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message nbsp Drag forces by velocityA subfield of fluid dynamics aerodynamics studies the physics of a body moving through the air As lift and drag are functions of air speed their relationships are major determinants of an aircraft s design efficiency Aircraft efficiency is augmented by maximizing lift to drag ratio which is attained by minimizing parasitic drag and lift generated induced drag the two components of aerodynamic drag As parasitic drag increases and induced drag decreases with speed there is an optimum speed where the sum of both is minimal this is the best glide ratio For powered aircraft the optimum glide ratio has to be balanced with thrust efficiency Parasitic drag is constituted by form drag and skin friction drag and grows with the square of the speed in the drag equation The form drag is minimized by having the smallest frontal area and by streamlining the aircraft for a low drag coefficient while skin friction is proportional to the body s surface area and can be reduced by maximizing laminar flow Induced drag can be reduced by decreasing the size of the airframe fuel and payload weight and by increasing the wing aspect ratio or by using wingtip devices at the cost of increased structure weight citation needed Design speed edit By increasing efficiency a lower cruise speed augments the range and reduces the environmental impact of aviation however a higher cruise speed allows more revenue passenger miles flown per day For supersonic flight drag increases at Mach 1 0 but decreases again after the transition With a specifically designed aircraft such as the in development Aerion AS2 the Mach 1 1 range at 3 700 nmi is 70 of the maximum range of 5 300 nmi at Mach 0 95 but increases to 4 750 nmi at Mach 1 4 for 90 before falling again 3 Wingtip devices edit Wingtip devices increase the effective wing aspect ratio lowering lift induced drag caused by wingtip vortices and improving the lift to drag ratio without increasing the wingspan Wingspan is limited by the available width in the ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code Airbus installed wingtip fences on its planes since the A310 300 in 1985 and Sharklet blended winglets for the A320 were launched during the November 2009 Dubai Airshow Their installation adds 200 kilograms 440 lb but offers a 3 5 fuel burn reduction on flights over 2 800 km 1 500 nmi 4 On average among large commercial jets Boeing 737 800s benefit the most from winglets They average a 6 69 increase in efficiency but depending on the route have a fuel savings distribution spanning from 4 6 to 10 5 Airbus A319s see the most consistent fuel and emissions savings from winglets Airbus A321s average a 4 8 improvement in fuel consumption but have the widest swing based on routes and individual aircraft recognizing anywhere from 0 2 improvement to 10 75 5 Weight edit nbsp The components of aircraft weightAs the weight indirectly generates lift induced drag its minimization leads to better aircraft efficiency For a given payload a lighter airframe generates a lower drag Minimizing weight can be achieved through the airframe s configuration materials science and construction methods To obtain a longer range a larger fuel fraction of the maximum takeoff weight is needed adversely affecting efficiency citation needed The deadweight of the airframe and fuel is non payload that must be lifted to altitude and kept aloft contributing to fuel consumption A reduction in airframe weight enables the use of smaller lighter engines The weight savings in both allow for a lighter fuel load for a given range and payload A rule of thumb is that a reduction in fuel consumption of about 0 75 results from each 1 reduction in weight 6 The payload fraction of modern twin aisle aircraft is 18 4 to 20 8 of their maximum take off weight while single aisle airliners are between 24 9 and 27 7 An aircraft weight can be reduced with light weight materials such as titanium carbon fiber and other composite plastics if the expense can be recouped over the aircraft s lifetime Fuel efficiency gains reduce the fuel carried reducing the take off weight for a positive feedback For example the Airbus A350 design includes a majority of light weight composite materials The Boeing 787 Dreamliner was the first airliner with a mostly composite airframe 7 Flight distance edit For long haul flights the airplane needs to carry additional fuel leading to higher fuel consumption Above a certain distance it becomes more fuel efficient to make a halfway stop to refuel despite the energy losses in descent and climb For example a Boeing 777 300 reaches that point at 3 000 nautical miles 5 600 km It is more fuel efficient to make a non stop flight at less than this distance and to make a stop when covering a greater total distance 8 nbsp The specific range of a Boeing 777 200 per distanceVery long non stop passenger flights suffer from the weight penalty of the extra fuel required which means limiting the number of available seats to compensate For such flights the critical fiscal factor is the quantity of fuel burnt per seat nautical mile 9 For these reasons the world s longest commercial flights were cancelled c 2013 An example is Singapore Airlines former New York to Singapore flight which could carry only 100 passengers all business class on the 10 300 mile 16 600 km flight According to an industry analyst It was pretty much a fuel tanker in the air 10 Singapore Airlines Flights 21 and 22 were re launched in 2018 with more seats in an A350 900ULR In the late 2000s early 2010s rising fuel prices coupled with the Great Recession caused the cancellation of many ultra long haul non stop flights This included the services provided by Singapore Airlines from Singapore to both Newark and Los Angeles that was ended in late 2013 11 12 But as fuel prices have since decreased and more fuel efficient aircraft have come into service many ultra long haul routes have been reinstated or newly scheduled 13 see Longest flights Propulsive efficiency edit nbsp Propulsive efficiency comparison for various gas turbine engine configurationsThe efficiency can be defined as the amount of energy imparted to the plane per unit of energy in the fuel The rate at which energy is imparted equals thrust multiplied by airspeed citation needed To get thrust an aircraft engine is either a shaft engine piston engine or turboprop with its efficiency inversely proportional to its brake specific fuel consumption coupled with a propeller having its own propulsive efficiency or a jet engine with its efficiency given by its airspeed divided by the thrust specific fuel consumption and the specific energy of the fuel 14 need quotation to verify Turboprops have an optimum speed below 460 miles per hour 740 km h 15 This is less than jets used by major airlines today however propeller planes are much more efficient 16 need quotation to verify The Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 turboprop is used for this reason as a regional airliner 17 18 verification needed Jet fuel cost and emissions reduction have renewed interest in the propfan concept for jetliners with an emphasis on engine airframe efficiency that might come into service beyond the Boeing 787 and Airbus A350XWB For instance Airbus has patented aircraft designs with twin rear mounted counter rotating propfans 19 Propfans bridge the gap between turboprops losing efficiency beyond Mach 0 5 0 6 and high bypass turbofans more efficient beyond Mach 0 8 NASA has conducted an Advanced Turboprop Project ATP where they researched a variable pitch propfan that produced less noise and achieved high speeds 20 Operations edit nbsp Refuelling an Airbus A320 with biofuelIn Europe in 2017 the average airline fuel consumption per passenger was 3 4 L 100 km 69 mpg US 24 less than in 2005 but as the traffic grew by 60 to 1 643 billion passenger kilometres CO emissions were up by 16 to 163 million tonnes for 99 8 g km CO per passenger 21 In 2018 the US airlines had a fuel consumption of 58 mpg US 4 06 L 100 km per revenue passenger for domestic flights 22 or 32 5 g of fuel per km generating 102 g CO RPK of emissions Seating classes edit In 2013 the World Bank evaluated the business class carbon footprint as 3 04 times higher than economy class in wide body aircraft and first class 9 28 times higher due to premium seating taking more space lower weight factors and larger baggage allowances assuming Load Factors of 80 for Economy Class 60 for Business Class and 40 for First Class 23 Speed edit At constant propulsive efficiency the maximum range speed is when the ratio between velocity and drag is minimal 24 while maximum endurance is attained at the best lift to drag ratio Altitude edit Air density decreases with altitude thus lowering drag assuming the aircraft maintains a constant equivalent airspeed However air pressure and temperature both decrease with altitude causing the maximum power or thrust of aircraft engines to reduce To minimize fuel consumption an aircraft should cruise close to the maximum altitude at which it can generate sufficient lift to maintain its altitude As the aircraft s weight decreases throughout the flight due to fuel burn its optimum cruising altitude increases In a piston engine the decrease in pressure at higher altitudes can be mitigated by the installation of a turbocharger Decreasing temperature at higher altitudes increases thermal efficiency citation needed Airlines edit nbsp A Boeing 787 8 of Norwegian Long HaulSince early 2006 until 2008 Scandinavian Airlines was flying slower from 860 to 780 km h to save on fuel costs and curb emissions of carbon dioxide 25 From 2010 to 2012 the most fuel efficient US domestic airline was Alaska Airlines due partly to its regional affiliate Horizon Air flying turboprops 17 In 2014 MSCI ranked Ryanair as the lowest emissions intensity airline in its ACWI index with 75 g CO2 e revenue passenger kilometre below Easyjet at 82 g the average at 123 g and Lufthansa at 132 g by using high density 189 seat Boeing 737 800s In 2015 Ryanair emitted 8 64 Bn t of CO2 for 545 034 sectors flown 15 85 t per 776 mi 674 nmi 1 249 km average sector or 5 04 t of fuel 4 04 kg km representing 95 kg per 90 6 million passengers 30 4 kg of fuel 3 04 L 100 km or 76 g CO2 km 26 In 2016 over the transpacific routes the average fuel consumption was 31 pax km per L 3 23 L 100 km 73 mpg US per passenger The most fuel efficient were Hainan Airlines and ANA with 36 pax km L 2 78 L 100 km 85 mpg US per passenger while Qantas was the least efficient at 22 pax km L 4 55 L 100 km 51 7 mpg US per passenger 27 Key drivers for efficiency were the air freight share for 48 seating density for 24 aircraft fuel burn for 16 and passenger load factor for 12 27 That same year Cathay Pacific and Cathay Dragon consumed 4 571 000 tonnes of fuel to transport 123 478 million revenue passenger kilometers or 37 g RPK 25 better than in 1998 4 63 L 100 km 50 8 mpg US 28 Again in 2016 the Aeroflot Group fuel consumption is 22 9g ASK or 2 86 L 100 km 82 mpg US per seat 3 51 L 100 km 67 0 mpg US per passenger at its 81 5 load factor 29 Fuel economy in air transport comes from the fuel efficiency of the aircraft engine model combined with airline efficiency seating configuration passenger load factor and air cargo Over the transatlantic route the most active intercontinental market the average fuel consumption in 2017 was 34 pax km per L 2 94 L 100 km 80 mpg US per passenger The most fuel efficient airline was Norwegian Air Shuttle with 44 pax km L 2 27 L 100 km 104 mpg US per passenger thanks to its fuel efficient Boeing 787 8 a high 85 passenger load factor and a high density of 1 36 seat m2 due to a low 9 premium seating On the other side the least efficient was British Airways at 27 pax km L 3 7 L 100 km 64 mpg US per passenger using fuel inefficient Boeing 747 400s with a low density of 0 75 seat m2 due to a high 25 premium seating in spite of a high 82 load factor 30 In 2018 CO emissions totalled 918 Mt with passenger transport accounting for 81 or 744 Mt for 8 2 trillion revenue passenger kilometres 31 an average fuel economy of 90 7 g RPK CO 29 g km of fuel 3 61 L 100 km 65 2 mpg US per passenger In 2019 Wizz Air stated a 57 g RPK CO emissions equivalent to 18 1 g km of fuel 2 27 L 100 km 104 mpg US per passenger 40 lower than IAG or Lufthansa 95 g CO RPK 30 g km of fuel 3 8 L 100 km 62 mpg US per passenger due to their business classes lower density seating and flight connections 32 In 2021 the highest seating density in its A330neo with 459 single class seats enabled Cebu Pacific to claim the lowest carbon footprint with 1 4 kg 3 lb of fuel per seat per 100 km 33 equivalent to 1 75 L 100 km 134 mpg US per seat Procedures edit nbsp An Airbus A330 300 of Thai Airways at Tokyo NaritaContinuous Descent Approaches can reduce emissions 34 Beyond single engine taxi electric taxiing could allow taxiing on APU power alone with the main engines shut down to lower the fuel burn 35 36 Airbus presented the following measures to save fuel in its example of an A330 flying 2 500 nautical miles 4 600 km on a route like Bangkok Tokyo direct routing saves 190 kg 420 lb fuel by flying 40 km 25 mi less 600 kg 1 300 lb more fuel is consumed if flying 600 m 2 000 ft below optimum altitude without vertical flight profile optimization cruising Mach 0 01 above the optimum speed consumes 800 kg 1 800 lb more fuel 1 000 kg 2 200 lb more fuel on board consumes 150 kg 330 lb more fuel while 100 litres 22 imp gal 26 US gal of unused potable water consumes 15 kg 33 lb more fuel 37 Operational procedures can save 35 kg 77 lb fuel for every 10 minute reduction in use of the Auxiliary power unit APU 15 kg 33 lb with a reduced flap approach and 30 kg 66 lb with reduced thrust reversal on landing 37 Maintenance can also save fuel 100 kg 220 lb more fuel is consumed without an engine wash schedule 50 kg 110 lb with a 5 mm 0 20 in slat rigging gap 40 kg 88 lb with a 10 mm 0 39 in spoiler rigging gap and 15 kg 33 lb with a damaged door seal 37 Yield management allows the optimization of the load factor benefiting the fuel efficiency as is the air traffic management optimization 38 By taking advantage of wake updraft like migrating birds biomimicry Airbus believes an aircraft can save 5 10 of fuel by flying in formation 1 5 2 nmi 2 8 3 7 km behind the preceding one 39 After A380s tests showing 12 savings test flights were scheduled for 2020 with two A350s before transatlantic flight trials with airlines in 2021 39 Certification for shorter separation is enabled by ADS B in oceanic airspace and the only modification required would be flight control systems software 39 Comfort would not be affected and trials are limited to two aircraft to reduce complexity but the concept could be expanded to include more 39 Commercial operations could begin in 2025 with airline schedule adjustments and other manufacturers aircraft could be included 39 While routes are up to 10 longer than necessary modernized air traffic control systems using ADS B technology like the FAA NEXTGEN or European SESAR could allow more direct routing but there is resistance from air traffic controllers 40 History editPast edit nbsp The earliest jet airliner the de Havilland CometModern jet aircraft have twice the fuel efficiency of the earliest jet airliners 41 Late 1950s piston airliners like the Lockheed L 1049 Super Constellation and DC 7 were 1 to 28 more energy intensive than 1990s jet airliners which cruise 40 to 80 faster 42 The early jet airliners were designed at a time when air crew labor costs were higher relative to fuel costs Despite the high fuel consumption because fuel was inexpensive in that era the higher speed resulted in favorable economical returns since crew costs and amortization of capital investment in the aircraft could be spread over more seat miles flown per day 43 Productivity including speed went from around 150 ASK MJ km h for the 1930s DC 3 to 550 for the L 1049 in the 1950s and from 200 for the DH 106 Comet 3 to 900 for the 1990s B737 800 44 Today s turboprop airliners have better fuel efficiency than current jet airliners in part because of their propellers and turbines that are more efficient than those of the 1950s era piston powered airliners 17 In 2012 turboprop airliner usage was correlated with US regional carriers fuel efficiency 17 nbsp The Airbus A220 300 is the most fuel efficient compared with the A319neo and Boeing 737 MAX 7 45 Jet airliners have become 70 more fuel efficient between 1967 and 2007 46 Jetliner fuel efficiency improves continuously 40 of the improvement come from engines and 30 from airframes 47 Efficiency gains were larger early in the jet age than later with a 55 67 gain from 1960 to 1980 and a 20 26 gain from 1980 to 2000 42 Average fuel burn of new aircraft fell 45 from 1968 to 2014 a compounded annual reduction 1 3 with variable reduction rate 48 Concorde a supersonic transport managed about 17 passenger miles to the Imperial gallon which is 16 7 L 100 km per passenger similar to a business jet but much worse than a subsonic turbofan aircraft Airbus states a fuel rate consumption of their A380 at less than 3 L 100 km per passenger 78 passenger miles per US gallon 49 Newer aircraft like the Boeing 787 Dreamliner Airbus A350 and Bombardier CSeries are 20 more fuel efficient per passenger kilometre than previous generation aircraft For the 787 this is achieved through more fuel efficient engines and lighter composite material airframes and also through more aerodynamic shapes winglets more advanced computer systems for optimising routes and aircraft loading 50 verification needed A life cycle assessment based on the Boeing 787 shows a 20 emission savings compared to conventional aluminium airliners 14 15 fleet wide when encompassing a fleet penetration below 100 while the air travel demand would increase due to lower operating costs 51 Lufthansa when it ordered both stated the Airbus A350 900 and the Boeing 777X 9 will consume an average of 2 9 L 100 km 81 mpg US per passenger 52 The Airbus A321 featuring Sharklet wingtip devices consume 2 2 L 100 km 110 mpg US per person with a 200 seat layout for WOW Air 53 Airbus airliners delivered in 2019 had a carbon intensity of 66 6 g of CO2e per passenger kilometre improving to 63 5g in 2020 54 Example values editThe aviation fuel density used is 6 7 lb USgal or 0 8 kg L Commuter flights edit For flights of 300 nmi 560 km Model First flight Seats Fuel burn Fuel per seatAntonov An 148 241 nmi 2004 89 4 23 kg km 15 0 lb mi 5 95 L 100 km 39 5 mpg US 55 Antonov An 158 241 nmi 2010 99 4 34 kg km 15 4 lb mi 5 47 L 100 km 43 0 mpg US 55 ATR 42 500 1995 48 1 26 kg km 4 5 lb mi 3 15 L 100 km 75 mpg US 56 ATR 72 500 1997 72 1 67 kg km 5 9 lb mi 2 89 L 100 km 81 mpg US 56 ATR 72 500 1997 70 1 42 kg km 5 0 lb mi 2 53 L 100 km 93 mpg US 57 ATR 72 600 2010 72 1 56 kg km 5 5 lb mi 2 79 L 100 km 84 mpg US 58 Beechcraft 1900D 226 nm 1982 19 1 00 kg km 3 56 lb mi 6 57 L 100 km 35 8 mpg US 59 Bombardier CRJ100 1991 50 2 21 kg km 7 83 lb mi 5 50 L 100 km 42 8 mpg US 60 Bombardier CRJ200 1995 50 2 18 kg km 7 73 lb mi 5 43 L 100 km 43 3 mpg US 60 Bombardier CRJ700 1999 70 2 95 kg km 10 47 lb mi 5 25 L 100 km 44 8 mpg US 60 Bombardier CRJ900 2001 88 3 47 kg km 12 31 lb mi 4 91 L 100 km 47 9 mpg US 60 Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 1998 78 2 16 kg km 7 7 lb mi 3 46 L 100 km 68 0 mpg US 61 Dornier 228 1981 19 0 94 kg km 3 3 lb mi 6 22 L 100 km 37 8 mpg US 62 Dornier 328 1991 32 1 22 kg km 4 3 lb mi 4 76 L 100 km 49 4 mpg US 63 Embraer Brasilia 1983 30 0 92 kg km 3 3 lb mi 3 82 L 100 km 61 6 mpg US 64 Embraer ERJ 135ER 309 nmi 1998 37 1 64 kg km 5 83 lb mi 5 52 L 100 km 42 6 mpg US 65 Embraer ERJ 145ER 305 nmi 1995 50 1 76 kg km 6 23 lb mi 4 37 L 100 km 53 8 mpg US 65 Saab 340 1983 32 1 1 kg km 3 9 lb mi 4 29 L 100 km 54 8 mpg US 66 Saab 2000 1992 50 1 75 kg km 6 2 lb mi 4 39 L 100 km 53 6 mpg US 67 Regional flights edit For flights of 500 700 nmi 930 1 300 km Model First flight Seats Sector Fuel burn Fuel efficiency per seatAirbus A220 100 2013 115 600 nmi 1 100 km 2 8 kg km 10 1 lb mi 3 07 L 100 km 76 7 mpg US 68 Airbus A220 300 2015 140 600 nmi 1 100 km 3 10 kg km 11 01 lb mi 2 75 L 100 km 85 6 mpg US 68 Airbus A220 100 2013 125 500 nmi 930 km 2 57 kg km 9 1 lb mi 2 57 L 100 km 92 mpg US 69 Airbus A220 300 2015 160 500 nmi 930 km 2 85 kg km 10 11 lb mi 2 23 L 100 km 105 mpg US 70 Airbus A319neo 2015 144 600 nmi 1 100 km 3 37 kg km 11 94 lb mi 2 92 L 100 km 80 6 mpg US 68 Airbus A319neo 2015 124 660 nmi 1 220 km 2 82 kg km 10 lb mi 2 82 L 100 km 83 5 mpg US 71 Airbus A320neo 2015 154 660 nmi 1 220 km 2 79 kg km 9 9 lb mi 2 25 L 100 km 104 7 mpg US 71 Airbus A321neo 2015 192 660 nmi 1 220 km 3 30 kg km 11 7 lb mi 2 19 L 100 km 107 4 mpg US 71 Antonov An 148 2004 89 684 nmi 1 267 km 2 89 kg km 10 3 lb mi 4 06 L 100 km 57 9 mpg US 55 Antonov An 158 2010 99 684 nmi 1 267 km 3 kg km 11 lb mi 3 79 L 100 km 62 1 mpg US 55 ATR 42 600 2010 50 500 nmi 930 km 1 30 kg km 4 6 lb mi 3 27 L 100 km 72 mpg US 72 ATR 72 600 2010 72 500 nmi 930 km 1 41 kg km 5 lb mi 2 46 L 100 km 96 mpg US 73 Boeing 737 300 1984 126 507 nmi 939 km 3 49 kg km 12 4 lb mi 3 46 L 100 km 68 mpg US 74 Boeing 737 600 1998 110 500 nmi 930 km 3 16 kg km 11 2 lb mi 3 59 L 100 km 65 5 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 700 1997 126 500 nmi 930 km 3 21 kg km 11 4 lb mi 3 19 L 100 km 74 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 MAX 7 2017 128 660 nmi 1 220 km 2 85 kg km 10 1 lb mi 2 77 L 100 km 84 8 mpg US 71 Boeing 737 MAX 7 2017 144 600 nmi 1 100 km 3 39 kg km 12 01 lb mi 2 93 L 100 km 80 2 mpg US 68 Boeing 737 800 1997 162 500 nmi 930 km 3 59 kg km 12 7 lb mi 2 77 L 100 km 85 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 MAX 8 2017 166 660 nmi 1 220 km 3 04 kg km 10 8 lb mi 2 28 L 100 km 103 2 mpg US 71 Boeing 737 900ER 2006 180 500 nmi 930 km 3 83 kg km 13 6 lb mi 2 66 L 100 km 88 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 MAX 9 2017 180 660 nmi 1 220 km 3 30 kg km 11 7 lb mi 2 28 L 100 km 103 mpg US 71 Boeing 757 200 1982 200 500 nmi 930 km 4 68 kg km 16 61 lb mi 2 91 L 100 km 80 7 mpg US 76 Boeing 757 300 1998 243 500 nmi 930 km 5 19 kg km 18 41 lb mi 2 66 L 100 km 88 4 mpg US 76 Bombardier CRJ100 1991 50 577 nmi 1 069 km 1 87 kg km 6 65 lb mi 4 68 L 100 km 50 3 mpg US 60 Bombardier CRJ200 1995 50 580 nmi 1 070 km 1 80 kg km 6 39 lb mi 4 49 L 100 km 52 4 mpg US 60 Bombardier CRJ700 1999 70 574 nmi 1 063 km 2 45 kg km 8 68 lb mi 4 36 L 100 km 54 mpg US 60 Bombardier CRJ900 2001 88 573 nmi 1 061 km 2 78 kg km 9 88 lb mi 3 94 L 100 km 59 7 mpg US 60 Bombardier CRJ1000 2009 100 500 nmi 930 km 2 66 kg km 9 4 lb mi 3 33 L 100 km 71 mpg US 77 Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 1998 74 500 nmi 930 km 2 31 kg km 8 2 lb mi 3 9 L 100 km 60 mpg US 78 Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 1998 74 600 nmi 1 100 km 1 83 kg km 6 5 lb mi 3 09 L 100 km 76 mpg US 79 Dornier 328 1991 31 600 nmi 1 100 km 1 08 kg km 3 8 lb mi 4 35 L 100 km 54 1 mpg US 80 Embraer E Jet E2 175 2020 88 600 nmi 1 100 km 2 44 kg km 8 64 lb mi 3 44 L 100 km 68 3 mpg US 68 Embraer E Jet E2 190 2018 106 500 nmi 930 km 2 48 kg km 8 8 lb mi 2 93 L 100 km 80 mpg US 81 Embraer E Jet E2 190 2018 106 600 nmi 1 100 km 2 83 kg km 10 04 lb mi 3 32 L 100 km 70 8 mpg US 68 Embraer E Jet E2 195 2019 132 500 nmi 930 km 2 62 kg km 9 3 lb mi 2 5 L 100 km 94 mpg US 82 Embraer E Jet E2 195 2019 132 600 nmi 1 100 km 3 07 kg km 10 91 lb mi 2 90 L 100 km 81 mpg US 68 Embraer E Jet 170 2002 80 606 nmi 1 122 km 2 6 kg km 9 3 lb mi 4 08 L 100 km 57 7 mpg US 83 Embraer E Jet 175 2005 88 605 nmi 1 120 km 2 80 kg km 9 95 lb mi 3 97 L 100 km 59 3 mpg US 83 Embraer E Jet 190 2004 114 607 nmi 1 124 km 3 24 kg km 11 48 lb mi 3 54 L 100 km 66 5 mpg US 83 Embraer E Jet 195 2004 122 607 nmi 1 124 km 3 21 kg km 11 38 lb mi 3 28 L 100 km 71 8 mpg US 83 Embraer ERJ 135ER 1998 37 596 nmi 1 104 km 1 44 kg km 5 12 lb mi 4 86 L 100 km 48 4 mpg US 65 Embraer ERJ 145ER 1996 50 598 nmi 1 107 km 1 55 kg km 5 49 lb mi 3 86 L 100 km 61 mpg US 65 Pilatus PC 12 1991 9 500 nmi 930 km 0 41 kg km 1 5 lb mi 5 66 L 100 km 41 6 mpg US 84 Saab 340 1983 31 500 nmi 930 km 0 95 kg km 3 4 lb mi 3 83 L 100 km 61 4 mpg US 66 Saab 2000 1992 50 500 nmi 930 km 1 54 kg km 5 5 lb mi 3 85 L 100 km 61 1 mpg US 67 Sukhoi SSJ100 2008 98 500 nmi 930 km 2 81 kg km 10 0 lb mi 3 59 L 100 km 65 5 mpg US 85 Short haul flights edit For flights of 1 000 nmi 1 900 km Model First flight Seats Fuel Burn Fuel efficiency per seatAirbus A220 100 2013 125 2 28 kg km 8 1 lb mi 2 28 L 100 km 103 mpg US 69 Airbus A220 300 2015 135 2 30 kg km 8 17 lb mi 2 13 L 100 km 110 mpg US 45 Airbus A220 300 2015 150 2 42 kg km 8 6 lb mi 2 02 L 100 km 116 mpg US 86 Airbus A220 300 2015 160 2 56 kg km 9 08 lb mi 2 00 L 100 km 118 mpg US 70 Airbus A319 1995 124 2 93 kg km 10 4 lb mi 2 95 L 100 km 80 mpg US 87 Airbus A319neo 2015 136 2 4 kg km 8 6 lb mi 2 22 L 100 km 106 mpg US 45 Airbus A320 1987 150 3 13 kg km 11 1 lb mi 2 61 L 100 km 90 mpg US 87 Airbus A320neo 2016 180 2 79 kg km 9 9 lb mi 1 94 L 100 km 121 mpg US 88 Airbus A321 200 1996 180 3 61 kg km 12 8 lb mi 2 50 L 100 km 94 mpg US 87 Airbus A321neo 2017 220 3 47 kg km 12 3 lb mi 1 98 L 100 km 119 mpg US 89 Airbus A330 200 1997 293 5 6 kg km 19 8 lb mi 2 37 L 100 km 99 mpg US 87 Antonov An 148 1190 nmi 2004 89 2 75 kg km 9 8 lb mi 3 86 L 100 km 60 9 mpg US 55 Antonov An 158 1190 nmi 2010 99 2 83 kg km 10 0 lb mi 3 57 L 100 km 65 9 mpg US 55 Boeing 737 600 1998 110 2 77 kg km 9 8 lb mi 3 15 L 100 km 75 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 700 1997 126 2 82 kg km 10 0 lb mi 2 79 L 100 km 84 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 700 1997 128 2 8 kg km 9 9 lb mi 2 71 L 100 km 87 mpg US 87 Boeing 737 MAX 7 2017 140 2 51 kg km 8 91 lb mi 1 94 L 100 km 121 mpg US 45 Boeing 737 800 1997 162 3 17 kg km 11 2 lb mi 2 44 L 100 km 96 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 800 1997 160 3 45 kg km 12 23 lb mi 2 68 L 100 km 88 mpg US 87 Boeing 737 800W 1997 162 3 18 kg km 11 3 lb mi 2 45 L 100 km 96 mpg US 90 Boeing 737 MAX 8 2017 162 2 71 kg km 9 6 lb mi 2 04 L 100 km 115 mpg US 90 Boeing 737 900ER 2006 180 3 42 kg km 12 1 lb mi 2 38 L 100 km 99 mpg US 75 Boeing 737 900ERW 2006 180 3 42 kg km 12 1 lb mi 2 37 L 100 km 99 mpg US 90 Boeing 737 MAX 9 2017 180 2 91 kg km 10 3 lb mi 2 02 L 100 km 116 mpg US 90 Boeing 757 200 1982 190 4 60 kg km 16 33 lb mi 3 02 L 100 km 78 mpg US 87 Boeing 757 200 1982 200 4 16 kg km 14 76 lb mi 2 59 L 100 km 90 8 mpg US 76 Boeing 757 300 1998 243 4 68 kg km 16 62 lb mi 2 40 L 100 km 98 mpg US 76 Boeing 787 8 2009 248 5 50 kg km 19 5 lb mi 2 77 L 100 km 85 mpg US 91 Boeing 787 9 2013 296 5 67 kg km 20 1 lb mi 2 39 L 100 km 98 mpg US 92 Boeing 787 10 2017 336 6 09 kg km 21 6 lb mi 2 27 L 100 km 104 mpg US 93 Quest Kodiak 2004 9 0 71 kg km 2 52 lb mi 6 28 L 100 km 37 5 mpg US 94 Medium haul flights edit For flights around 2 000 3 000 nmi 3 700 5 600 km transcontinental e g Washington Dulles Seattle Tacoma is 2 000 nmi to short transatlantic flights e g New York JFK London Heathrow is 3 000 nmi 95 Model First flight Seats Sector Fuel burn Fuel per seatAirbus A220 300 2015 150 2 000 nmi 3 700 km 2 42 kg km 8 59 lb mi 2 02 L 100 km 116 mpg US 70 Airbus A320 1987 150 2 151 nmi 3 984 km 2 91 kg km 10 3 lb mi 2 43 L 100 km 97 mpg US 96 Airbus A321LR 2016 154 3 400 nmi 6 300 km 2 99 kg km 10 6 lb mi 2 43 L 100 km 97 mpg US 97 Airbus A330 200 1997 241 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 6 kg km 21 lb mi 3 11 L 100 km 76 mpg US 98 Airbus A330 300 1992 262 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 6 25 kg km 22 2 lb mi 2 98 L 100 km 79 mpg US 98 Airbus A330 900 2016 310 3 350 nmi 6 200 km 6 kg km 21 lb mi 2 42 L 100 km 97 mpg US 99 Airbus A340 300 1992 262 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 6 81 kg km 24 2 lb mi 3 25 L 100 km 72 mpg US 98 Airbus A380 2005 544 2 000 nmi 3 700 km 13 6 kg km 48 4 lb mi 3 14 L 100 km 75 mpg US 100 Boeing 737 MAX 8 2017 168 3 400 nmi 6 300 km 2 86 kg km 10 1 lb mi 2 13 L 100 km 110 mpg US 101 Boeing 737 MAX 9 2017 144 3 400 nmi 6 300 km 2 91 kg km 10 3 lb mi 2 53 L 100 km 93 mpg US 97 Boeing 747 400 1988 416 2 151 nmi 3 984 km 10 77 kg km 38 2 lb mi 3 24 L 100 km 73 mpg US 96 Boeing 747 8 2011 467 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 9 9 kg km 35 lb mi 2 65 L 100 km 89 mpg US 102 Boeing 757 200W 1981 158 3 400 nmi 6 300 km 3 79 kg km 13 4 lb mi 3 00 L 100 km 78 mpg US 97 Boeing 767 200ER 1984 181 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 4 83 kg km 17 1 lb mi 3 34 L 100 km 70 mpg US 103 Boeing 767 200ER 1984 193 3 400 nmi 6 300 km 5 01 kg km 17 8 lb mi 3 25 L 100 km 72 mpg US 97 Boeing 767 200ER 1984 224 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 4 93 kg km 17 5 lb mi 2 75 L 100 km 86 mpg US 103 Boeing 767 300ER 1988 218 2 151 nmi 3 984 km 5 38 kg km 19 1 lb mi 3 09 L 100 km 76 mpg US 96 Boeing 767 300ER 1988 218 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 5 39 kg km 19 1 lb mi 3 09 L 100 km 76 mpg US 103 Boeing 767 300ER 1988 269 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 5 51 kg km 19 5 lb mi 2 56 L 100 km 92 mpg US 103 Boeing 767 400ER 1999 245 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 5 78 kg km 20 5 lb mi 2 95 L 100 km 80 mpg US 103 Boeing 767 400ER 1999 304 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 5 93 kg km 21 0 lb mi 2 44 L 100 km 96 mpg US 103 Boeing 767 400ER 1999 304 3 265 nmi 6 047 km 5 92 kg km 21 lb mi 2 43 L 100 km 96 9 mpg US 74 Boeing 777 200 1994 305 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 6 83 kg km 24 2 lb mi 2 80 L 100 km 84 mpg US 104 Boeing 777 200ER 1996 301 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 6 96 kg km 24 7 lb mi 2 89 L 100 km 81 mpg US 98 Boeing 777 300 1997 368 3 000 nmi 5 600 km 7 88 kg km 28 0 lb mi 2 68 L 100 km 88 mpg US 104 Boeing 787 8 2009 291 3 400 nmi 6 300 km 5 26 kg km 18 7 lb mi 2 26 L 100 km 104 mpg US 101 Boeing 787 8 2009 238 3 400 nmi 6 300 km 5 11 kg km 18 1 lb mi 2 68 L 100 km 88 mpg US 97 Boeing 787 9 2013 304 3 350 nmi 6 200 km 5 77 kg km 20 5 lb mi 2 37 L 100 km 99 mpg US 99 Irkut MC 21 300 2017 163 1 750 nmi 3 240 km 3 04 kg km 10 8 lb mi 2 33 L 100 km 101 mpg US 105 Long haul flights edit For flights around 5 000 to 7 000 nmi 9 300 to 13 000 km including transpacific flights e g Hong Kong San Francisco International is 6 000 nmi 106 Model First flight Seats Sector Fuel burn Fuel per seatAirbus A330 200 1997 241 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 6 4 kg km 23 lb mi 3 32 L 100 km 71 mpg US 98 Airbus A330 200 1997 248 5 549 nmi 10 277 km 6 55 kg km 23 2 lb mi 3 3 L 100 km 71 mpg US 107 Airbus A330 300 1992 274 5 548 nmi 10 275 km 6 81 kg km 24 2 lb mi 3 11 L 100 km 76 mpg US 107 Airbus A330 800 2017 248 4 650 nmi 8 610 km 5 45 kg km 19 3 lb mi 2 75 L 100 km 86 mpg US 108 Airbus A330 900 2017 300 4 650 nmi 8 610 km 5 94 kg km 21 1 lb mi 2 48 L 100 km 95 mpg US 108 Airbus A340 300 1992 262 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 7 32 kg km 26 0 lb mi 3 49 L 100 km 67 4 mpg US 98 Airbus A350 900 2013 315 4 972 nmi 9 208 km 6 03 kg km 21 4 lb mi 2 39 L 100 km 98 mpg US 99 Airbus A350 900 2013 318 5 534 nmi 10 249 km 6 52 kg km 23 1 lb mi 2 56 L 100 km 92 mpg US 107 Airbus A350 900 2013 315 6 542 nmi 12 116 km 7 07 kg km 25 1 lb mi 2 81 L 100 km 84 mpg US 109 Airbus A350 1000 2016 327 5 531 nmi 10 243 km 7 46 kg km 26 5 lb mi 2 85 L 100 km 83 mpg US 107 Airbus A350 1000 2016 367 5 531 nmi 10 243 km 7 58 kg km 26 9 lb mi 2 58 L 100 km 91 mpg US 107 Airbus A380 2005 525 7 200 nmi 13 300 km 13 78 kg km 48 9 lb mi 3 27 L 100 km 72 mpg US 110 Airbus A380 2005 544 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 13 78 kg km 48 9 lb mi 3 16 L 100 km 74 mpg US 111 Boeing 747 400 1988 416 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 11 11 kg km 39 4 lb mi 3 34 L 100 km 70 mpg US 112 Boeing 747 400 1988 393 5 503 nmi 10 192 km 11 82 kg km 41 9 lb mi 3 76 L 100 km 62 6 mpg US 107 Boeing 747 400 1988 487 5 479 nmi 10 147 km 12 31 kg km 43 7 lb mi 3 16 L 100 km 74 mpg US 107 Boeing 747 8 2011 467 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 10 54 kg km 37 4 lb mi 2 82 L 100 km 83 mpg US 102 Boeing 747 8 2011 405 7 200 nmi 13 300 km 10 9 kg km 39 lb mi 3 35 L 100 km 70 mpg US 110 Boeing 777 200ER 1996 304 5 535 nmi 10 251 km 7 57 kg km 26 9 lb mi 3 11 L 100 km 76 mpg US 107 Boeing 777 200ER 1996 301 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 7 42 kg km 26 3 lb mi 3 08 L 100 km 76 mpg US 98 Boeing 777 200ER 1996 301 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 7 44 kg km 26 4 lb mi 3 09 L 100 km 76 mpg US 104 Boeing 777 200LR 2005 291 4 972 nmi 9 208 km 7 57 kg km 26 9 lb mi 3 25 L 100 km 72 mpg US 99 Boeing 777 300ER 2003 382 5 507 nmi 10 199 km 8 86 kg km 31 4 lb mi 2 9 L 100 km 81 mpg US 107 Boeing 777 300ER 2003 365 6 000 nmi 11 000 km 8 49 kg km 30 1 lb mi 2 91 L 100 km 81 mpg US 104 Boeing 777 300ER 2003 344 7 200 nmi 13 300 km 8 58 kg km 30 4 lb mi 3 11 L 100 km 76 mpg US 110 Boeing 777 9X 2020 395 7 200 nmi 13 300 km 7 69 kg km 27 3 lb mi 2 42 L 100 km 97 mpg US 110 Boeing 787 8 2011 243 4 650 nmi 8 610 km 5 38 kg km 19 1 lb mi 2 77 L 100 km 85 mpg US 108 Boeing 787 8 GEnx 2011 220 5 537 nmi 10 255 km 5 3 kg km 19 lb mi 3 01 L 100 km 78 mpg US 107 Boeing 787 8 Trent 2011 220 5 537 nmi 10 255 km 5 51 kg km 19 5 lb mi 3 13 L 100 km 75 mpg US 107 Boeing 787 9 GEnx 2013 294 4 650 nmi 8 610 km 5 85 kg km 20 8 lb mi 2 49 L 100 km 94 mpg US 108 Boeing 787 9 2013 304 4 972 nmi 9 208 km 5 63 kg km 20 0 lb mi 2 31 L 100 km 102 mpg US 99 Boeing 787 9 GEnx 2013 266 5 534 nmi 10 249 km 5 62 kg km 19 9 lb mi 2 64 L 100 km 89 mpg US 107 Boeing 787 9 2013 291 6 542 nmi 12 116 km 7 18 kg km 25 5 lb mi 3 08 L 100 km 76 mpg US 109 Boeing 787 10 GEnx 2017 337 5 529 nmi 10 240 km 6 12 kg km 21 7 lb mi 2 27 L 100 km 104 mpg US 107 Boeing 787 10 Trent 2017 337 5 529 nmi 10 240 km 6 24 kg km 22 1 lb mi 2 31 L 100 km 102 mpg US 107 For a comparison with ground transportation much slower and with shorter range than air travel a Volvo bus 9700 averages 0 41 L 100 km 570 mpg US per seat for 63 seats 113 In highway travel an average auto has the potential for 1 61 L 100 km 146 mpg US 114 per seat assuming 4 seats and for a 5 seat 2014 Toyota Prius 0 98 L 100 km 240 mpg US 115 While this shows the capabilities of the vehicles the load factors percentage of seats occupied may differ between personal use commonly just the driver in the car and societal averages for long distance auto use and among those of particular airlines General aviation edit For private aircraft in general aviation current FAI Aeroplane Efficiency records are 116 33 92 km kg fuel or 3 9 L 100 km in a Aeroprakt 40 two seater for 300 500 kg MTOW airplanes C 1a class 1 95 L 100 km per seat 37 22 km kg fuel or 3 56 L 100 km in a Monnett Sonerai single seat racer for 500 1 000 kg MTOW airplanes C 1b class 9 19 km kg or 13 6 L 100 km in a four seat diesel powered Cessna 182 for 1 000 1 750 kg MTOW airplanes C 1c class 3 4 L 100 km per seat 3 08 km kg or 40 6 L 100 km in a Cirrus SF50 seven seat jet for 1 75 3 t MTOW airplanes C 1d class 5 8 L 100 km per seat A four seat Dyn Aero MCR4S powered by a Rotax 914 consumes 8 3 L 100 km at 264 km h 117 2 1 L 100 km per seat Business aircraft edit Hourly Fuel Burn for Private Aircraft 118 Type Aircraft US gal L lb kgTurboprops Pilatus PC12 a 66 250 442 200Cessna Grand Caravan EX b 58 220 390 177King Air 350 b 100 379 670 304Light Jets Cessna Citation M2 137 104 519 394 918 697 416 316Embraer Phenom 100 c 109 77 413 291 730 516 331 234Cessna Citation CJ3 d 124 116 469 439 830 780 376 354Embraer Phenom 300 c 166 115 628 435 1 112 770 504 349Learjet 70 75 c 239 179 905 678 1 600 1 200 726 544Mid Size Jets Bombardier Challenger 300 a 266 1 007 1 782 808Gulfstream G200 a 233 882 1 561 708Hawker 900XP a 257 973 1 722 781Cessna Citation X a 336 1 272 2 251 1 021Dassault Falcon 7X a 318 1 204 2 130 966Long Range Jets Gulfstream G550 c 672 447 2 544 1 692 4 500 3 000 2 041 1 361Bombardier Global 6000 512 486 1 938 1 840 3 430 3 256 1 556 1 477Airbus ACJ319 a 640 2 423 4 288 1 945 a b c d e f g Average a b Cruise a b c d 1st hour 2nd hour Average CruiseFuture edit nbsp Boeing NASA s X 48B blended wing body demonstrator nbsp Boeing s blended wing body concept nbsp NASA Aurora Flight Sciences D8 airliner concept nbsp Boeing Volt truss braced wing conceptNASA and Boeing flight tested a 500 lb 230 kg blended wing body BWB X 48B demonstrator from August 2012 to April 2013 This design provides greater fuel efficiency since the whole craft produces lift not just the wings 119 The BWB concept offers advantages in structural aerodynamic and operating efficiencies over today s more conventional fuselage and wing designs These features translate into greater range fuel economy reliability and life cycle savings as well as lower manufacturing costs 120 121 NASA has created a cruise efficient STOL CESTOL concept Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Applied Materials Research IFAM have researched a sharkskin imitating paint that would reduce drag through a riblet effect 122 Aviation is a major potential application for new technologies such as aluminium metal foam and nanotechnology The International Air Transport Association IATA technology roadmap envisions improvements in aircraft configuration and aerodynamics It projects the following reductions in engine fuel consumption compared to baseline aircraft in service in 2015 123 10 15 from higher pressure and bypass ratios lighter materials implemented in 2010 2019 20 25 from high pressure core ultra high by pass ratio geared turbofan from 2020 25 30 from Open rotors from 2030 40 80 from Hybrid electric propulsion depending on battery use from 2030 40 up to 100 due to Fully electric propulsion primary energy from renewable source from 2035 40 Moreover it projects the following gains for aircraft design technologies 123 6 to 12 from airframe retrofits winglets riblets lightweight cabin furnishing currently available 4 to 10 from materials and Structure composite structure adjustable landing gear fly by wire also currently available 1 to 4 from electric taxiing from 2020 5 to 15 from advanced aerodynamics hybrid natural laminar flow variable camber spiroid wingtip from 2020 25 30 from strut braced wings with advanced turbofan engines 2030 35 35 from a double bubble fuselage like the Aurora D8 with advanced turbofan engines 2035 30 35 from a box joined closed wing with advanced turbofan engines 2035 40 27 to 50 from a blended wing body design with hybrid propulsion 2040 Up to 100 with fully electric aircraft short range 2035 45 Today s tube and wing configuration could remain in use until the 2030s due to drag reductions from active flutter suppression for slender flexible wings and natural and hybrid laminar flow 124 Large ultra high bypass engines will need upswept gull wings or overwing nacelles as Pratt amp Whitney continue to develop its geared turbofan to save a projected 10 15 of fuel costs by the mid 2020s 124 NASA indicates this configuration could gain up to 45 with advanced aerodynamics structures and geared turbofans but longer term suggests savings of up to 50 by 2025 and 60 by 2030 with new ultra efficient configurations and propulsion architectures hybrid wing body truss braced wing lifting body designs embedded engines and boundary layer ingestion 124 By 2030 hybrid electric architectures may be ready for 100 seaters and distributed propulsion with tighter integration of airframe may enable further efficiency and emissions improvements 124 Research projects such as Boeing s ecoDemonstrator program have sought to identify ways of improving the fuel economy of commercial aircraft operations The U S government has encouraged such research through grant programs including the FAA s Continuous Lower Energy Emissions and Noise CLEEN program and NASA s Environmentally Responsible Aviation ERA Project citation needed Multiple concepts are projected to reduce fuel consumption 125 the Airbus Rolls Royce E Thrust is a hybrid electric with a gas turbine engine and electric ducted fans with energy storage allowing peak power for takeoff and climb while for the descent the engine is shut down and the fans recover energy to recharge the batteries 125 Empirical Systems Aerospace ESAero is developing the 150 seat ECO 150 concept for turboelectric distributed propulsion with two turboshaft engines mounted on the wing and driving generators powering ducted fans embedded in the inboard wing sections effectively increasing the bypass ratio and propulsive efficiency for 20 30 fuel savings over the Boeing 737 NG while providing some powered lift 125 NASA s single aisle turbo electric aircraft with an aft boundary layer propulsor STARC ABL is a conventional tube and wing 737 sized airliner with an aft mounted electric fan ingesting the fuselage boundary layer hybrid electric propulsion with 5 4 MW of power distributed to three electric motors the design will be evaluated by Aurora Flight Sciences 126 The Boeing blended wing body BWB with a wide fuselage mated to high aspect ratio wings is more aerodynamically efficient because the entire aircraft contributes to the lift and it has less surface area producing less drag and offering weight savings due to lower wing loading while noise is shielded by locating the engines on the aft upper surface 125 Developed with the U S Air Force Research Laboratory and refined with NASA the Lockheed Martin Hybrid Wing Body HWB combines a blended forward fuselage and wing with a conventional aft fuselage and T tail for compatibility with existing infrastructure and airdrop the engines in overwing nacelles on struts over the trailing edge enable higher bypass ratio engines with 5 less drag provide acoustic shielding and increases lift without a thrust or drag penalty at low speed 125 Airbus backed German Bauhaus Luftfahrt designed the Propulsive Fuselage concept reducing drag with a fan in the tail ingesting air flowing over the fuselage via an annular ring shaped inlet and re energizes the wake driven with a gearbox or as a turbo electric configuration 125 Conceived by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for NASA Aurora Flight Sciences developed the double bubble D8 a 180 seat aircraft with a wide lifting fuselage twin aisle cabin to replace A320 and B737 narrowbodies and boundary layer ingestion with engines in the tail driving distortion tolerant fans for a 49 fuel burn reduction over the B737NG 125 The Boeing truss braced wing TBW concept was developed for the NASA funded Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research program with an aspect ratio of 19 5 compared to 11 for the Boeing 787 the strut relieves some bending moment and a braced wing can be lighter than a cantilevered wing or longer for the same weight having better lift to drag ratio by lowering the induced drag and thinner facilitating natural laminar flow and reducing wave drag at transonic speeds 125 Dzyne Technologies reduces the thickness of the blended wing body for a 110 130 seat super regional a configuration usually too thick for a narrowbody replacement and better suited for large aircraft by placing the landing gear outward and storing baggage in the wing roots enabling 20 fuel savings 125 the French research agency ONERA designed two concepts for a 180 seat airliner Versatile Aircraft NOVA including turbofans with higher bypass ratios and fan diameter a gull wing with increased dihedral inboard to accommodate larger geared turbofans under without lengthening the gear and the other with engines embedded in the tail to ingest the low energy fuselage boundary layer flow and re energize the wake to reduce drag 127 with Cranfield University Rolls Royce developed the Distributed Open Rotor DORA with high aspect ratio wing and V tail to minimize drag and turbogenerators on the wing driving electric propellers along the inboard leading edge with open rotor high propulsive efficiency and increasing the effective bypass ratio 125 Climate change editMain article Environmental impact of aviation The growth of air travel outpaces its fuel economy improvements and corresponding CO2 emissions compromising climate sustainability Although low cost carriers higher seat density increases fuel economy and lowers greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometer the lower airfares cause a rebound effect of more flights and larger overall emissions The tourism industry could shift emphasis to emissions eco efficiency in CO2 per unit of revenue or profit instead of fuel economy favoring shorter trips and ground transportation over flying long journeys to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 128 See also editEnergy efficiency in transport Range aeronautics References edit D S Lee et al 2021 The contribution of global aviation to anthropogenic climate forcing for 2000 to 2018 Atmospheric Environment 244 117834 Bibcode 2021AtmEn 24417834L doi 10 1016 j atmosenv 2020 117834 PMC 7468346 PMID 32895604 a b Brandon 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November 2017 Tourism s impact on climate change and its mitigation challenges How can tourism become climatically sustainable PhD TU Delft p 187 External links editAir Transport Department Cranfield University 2008 Fuel and air transport PDF European Commission Aircraft Technology Roadmap to 2050 PDF IATA 2019 Scott W Ashcraft Andres S Padron Kyle A Pascioni Gary W Stout Jr Dennis L Huff October 2011 Review of Propulsion Technologies for N 3 Subsonic Vehicle Concepts PDF Glenn Research Center Cleveland Ohio NASA Air Transport and Energy Efficiency PDF World Bank February 2012 Elyse Moody 1 March 2012 Focus on Fuel Savings Overhaul amp Maintenance Aviation Week Yongha Park Morton E O Kelly December 2014 Fuel burn rates of commercial passenger aircraft Variations by seat configuration and stage distance Article The Ohio State University Journal of Transport Geography 41 137 147 doi 10 1016 j jtrangeo 2014 08 017 Irene Kwan and Daniel Rutherford November 2015 Transatlantic airline fuel efficiency ranking 2014 PDF International Council on Clean Transportation James Albright 27 February 2016 Getting the Most Miles from Your Jet A Business amp Commercial Aviation Aviation Week Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fuel economy in aircraft amp oldid 1185647731, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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