Automobile drag coefficient

The drag coefficient is a common measure in automotive design as it pertains to aerodynamics. Drag is a force that acts parallel to and in the same direction as the airflow. The drag coefficient of an automobile measures the way the automobile passes through the surrounding air. When automobile companies design a new vehicle they take into consideration the automobile drag coefficient in addition to the other performance characteristics. Aerodynamic drag increases with the square of speed; therefore it becomes critically important at higher speeds. Reducing the drag coefficient in an automobile improves the performance of the vehicle as it pertains to speed and fuel efficiency.^[1] There are many different ways to reduce the drag of a vehicle. A common way to measure the drag of the vehicle is through the drag area.

Edmund Rumpler's 1921 Tropfenwagen was the first series-produced aerodynamically designed automobile, before the Chrysler Airflow and the Tatra 77.

Reducing drag

The reduction of drag in road vehicles has led to increases in the top speed of the vehicle and the vehicle's fuel efficiency, as well as many other performance characteristics, such as handling and acceleration.^[2] The two main factors that impact drag are the frontal area of the vehicle and the drag coefficient. The drag coefficient is a unit-less value that denotes how much an object resists movement through a fluid such as water or air. A potential complication of altering a vehicle's aerodynamics is that it may cause the vehicle to get too much lift. Lift is an aerodynamic force that acts perpendicular to the airflow around the body of the vehicle. Too much lift can cause the vehicle to lose road traction which can be very unsafe.^[3] Lowering the drag coefficient comes from streamlining the exterior body of the vehicle. Streamlining the body requires assumptions about the surrounding airspeed and characteristic use of the vehicle.

Deletion

The deletion of parts on a vehicle is an easy way for designers and vehicle owners to reduce parasitic and frontal drag of the vehicle with little cost and effort. Deletion can be as simple as removing an aftermarket part, or part that has been installed on the vehicle after production, or having to modify and remove an OEM part, meaning any part of the vehicle that was originally manufactured on the vehicle. Most production sports cars and high efficiency vehicles come standard with many of these deletions in order to be competitive in the automotive and race market, while others choose to keep these drag-increasing aspects of the vehicle for their visual aspects, or to fit the typical uses of their customer base.^[4]

Roof rack

A roof rack is a common trait on many SUV and station wagon vehicles. While roof racks are very useful in carrying extra storage on a vehicle, they also increase the frontal area of the vehicle and increase the drag coefficient. This is because the air flows over the top of the vehicle, following the smooth lines of the hood and windshield, then collides with the roof rack and causes turbulence. The removal of this part has led to increases in fuel efficiency in several studies.^[5]

Mud flaps

Mudflaps are now rarely specified as standard on production cars as they interfere with the clean airflow around the vehicle. For larger vehicles such as trucks, mud flaps are still important for their control of spray, and in 2001 a new version of the mud flap was introduced that has been shown to create significantly less aerodynamic drag than standard mud flaps.^[6][7][8]

Rear spoiler

A rear spoiler usually comes standard in most sports vehicles and resembles the shape of a raised wing in the rear of the vehicle. The main purpose of a rear spoiler in a vehicle's design is to counteract lift, thereby increasing stability at higher speeds. In order to achieve the lowest possible drag, air must flow around the streamlined body of the vehicle without coming into contact with any areas of possible turbulence. A rear spoiler design that stands off the rear deck lid will increase downforce, reducing lift at high speeds while incurring a drag penalty. Flat spoilers, possibly angled slightly downward may reduce turbulence and thereby reduce the coefficient of drag.^[9] Some cars now feature automatically adjustable rear spoilers, so at lower speed the effect on drag is reduced when the benefits of reduced lift are not required.

Side mirrors

Side mirrors both increase the frontal area of the vehicle and increase the coefficient of drag since they protrude from the side of the vehicle.^[10][11] In order to decrease the impact that side mirrors have on the drag of the vehicle the side mirrors can be replaced with smaller mirrors or mirrors with a different shape. Several concept cars of the 2010s are replacing mirrors with tiny cameras^[12] but this option is not common for production cars because most countries require side mirrors. One of the first production passenger automobiles to swap out mirrors for cameras was the Honda e, and in this case the cameras are claimed by Honda to have decreased aerodynamic drag by "around 90% compared to conventional door mirrors" which contributed to an approximately 3.8% reduction in drag for the entire vehicle.^[13] It is estimated that two side mirrors are responsible for 2 to 7% of the total aerodynamic drag of a motor vehicle, and that removing them could improve fuel economy by 1.5–2 miles per US gallon.^[14]

Radio antenna

While they do not have the biggest impact on the drag coefficient due to their small size, radio antennas commonly found protruding from the front of the vehicle can be relocated and changed in design to rid the car of this added drag. The most common replacement for the standard car antenna is the shark fin antenna found in most high efficiency vehicles.^[15]

Windshield wipers

The effect that windshield wipers have on a vehicle's airflow varies between vehicles; however, they are often omitted from race vehicles and high efficiency concepts in order to maintain the smallest possible coefficient of drag. A much more common option is to replace the windshield wipers with lower profile wipers, or to only remove the windshield wiper on the passenger side of the vehicle, and even to fabricate a deflector to deflect the air up and over the wipers.^[16]

Another alternative is to equip the vehicle with a single wiper placed in the centre of the windshield, allowing it to cover both sides of the windshield. This mitigates the amount of drag by decreasing the frontal area of the blade. While such application may be useful for racing, for most road vehicles this would produce minimal improvement in overall drag reduction.

Fabrication

The application of new parts and concepts onto the vehicle design are easier to include when in the design stage of a vehicle, rather than in aftermarket (automotive) parts, however, the fabrication of these parts assists in the streamlining of the vehicle and can help greatly reduce the drag of the vehicle. Most vehicles with very low drag coefficients, such as race cars and high efficiency concept cars, apply these ideas to their design.^[17]

Wheel covers

 

Alloy wheels with covers on a Tesla Model 3

When air flows around the wheel wells it gets disturbed by the rims of the vehicles and forms an area of turbulence around the wheel. In order for the air to flow more smoothly around the wheel well, smooth wheel covers are often applied. Smooth wheel covers are hub caps with no holes in them for air to pass through. This design reduces drag; however, it may cause the brakes to heat up more quickly because the covers prevent airflow around the brake system. As a result, this modification is more commonly seen in high efficiency vehicles rather than sports cars or racing vehicles.^[18]

Air curtains

 

2017 Land Rover Discovery with front air curtains

Air curtains divert air flow from slots in the body and guide it towards the outside edges of the wheel wells.^[19][20][21]

Partial grille block

The front grille of a vehicle is used to direct air through the radiator. In a streamlined design the air flows around the vehicle rather than through; however, the grille of a vehicle redirects airflow from around the vehicle to through the vehicle, which then increases the drag. In order to reduce this impact a grille block is often used. A grille block covers up a portion of, or the entirety of, the front grille of a vehicle. In most high efficiency models or in vehicles with low drag coefficients, a very small grille will already be built into the vehicle's design, eliminating the need for a grille block. The grille in most production vehicles is generally designed to maximize air flow through the radiator where it exits into the engine compartment. This design can actually create too much airflow into the engine compartment, preventing it from warming up in a timely manner, and in such cases a grille block is used to increase engine performance and reduce vehicle drag simultaneously.^{[22][page needed]}

Under tray

The underside of a vehicle often traps air in various places and adds turbulence around the vehicle. In most racing vehicles this is eliminated by covering the entire underside of the vehicle in what is called an under tray. This tray prevents any air from becoming trapped under the vehicle and reduces drag.^[18]

Fender skirts

Fender skirts are often made as extensions of the body panels of the vehicles and cover the entire wheel wells. Much like smooth wheel covers this modification reduces the drag of the vehicle by preventing any air from becoming trapped in the wheel well and assists in streamlining the body of the vehicle. Fender skirts are more commonly found on the rear wheel wells of a vehicle because the tires do not turn and the design is much simpler. This is commonly seen in vehicles such as the first generation Honda Insight. Front fender skirts have the same effect on reducing drag as the rear wheel skirts, but must be further offset from the body in order to compensate for the tire sticking out from the body of the vehicle as turns are made.^[18]

Modified front bumper

The front bumper is the first part of the vehicle that the air must flow around. Therefore, it plays a crucial role in reducing drag. A front air dam is often used which extends from the very front of the vehicle down to the lowest part of the vehicle. This is done to direct airflow around and over the vehicle rather than allowing air to travel under it. Contoured deflectors, or tire spats, are often made as part of the front bumper in order to direct airflow around the tire without having any increase to the outward flow.

Boattails and Kammbacks

A boattail can greatly reduce a vehicle's total drag. Boattails create a teardrop shape that will give the vehicle a more streamlined profile, reducing the occurrence of drag inducing flow separation.^[23] A kammback is a truncated boattail. It is created as an extension of the rear of the vehicle, moving the rear backward at a slight angle toward the bumper of the car. This can reduce drag as well but a boattail would reduce the vehicles drag more. Nonetheless, for practical and style reasons, a kammback is more commonly seen in racing, high efficiency vehicles, and trucking.^[24]

Typical drag coefficients

The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle. Various other characteristics affect the coefficient of drag as well, and are taken into account in these examples. Some sports cars have a surprisingly high drag coefficient (such as the Ariel Atom at 0.40), but this is to compensate for the amount of lift the vehicle generates, while others use aerodynamics to their advantage to gain speed and as a result have much lower drag coefficients.

Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model, which may not be available in some markets. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires, extra spoilers and larger cooling systems as many basic/low power models have half size radiators with the remaining area blanked off to reduce cooling and engine bay drag.

The Cd of a given vehicle will vary depending on which wind tunnel it is measured in. Variations of up to 5% have been documented^[25] and variations in test technique and analysis can also make a difference. So if the same vehicle with a drag coefficient of Cd=0.30 was measured in a different tunnel it could be anywhere from Cd=0.285 to Cd=0.315.

Production cars Cd Automobile Calendar Year 0.7 to 1.1 typical values for a Formula One car (downforce settings change for each circuit) 0.74 Legends car 0.7 Caterham Seven 0.65 to 0.75 Lotus Seven 1957–1972 0.6 + a typical truck 0.59^[26] Land Rover Defender 2008 0.57 Hummer H2 2003 0.54 Mercedes Benz G-Class 0.51 Volkswagen Westfalia Camper 1980-1991 0.51 Citroën 2CV 1948 0.48 Rover Mini 1998 0.48 Volkswagen Beetle (original design)^[27]^[28] 1938 0.48 Volkswagen Cabriolet (Rabbit Convertible)^[29] 1979–1993 0.47 Lancia Aprilia^[30] 1937 0.46 Ford Mustang (coupe) 1979 0.46 Lincoln Town Car (sedan) 1985-1989^[31] 0.454^[32] Jeep Wrangler (JL) 2018 0.45 Dodge Viper RT/10 1996 0.45 Mercury Grand Marquis (sedan) 1988-1991^[33] 0.45 Range Rover Classic 1990 0.45 Volkswagen Gol G1 1980 0.44 Volkswagen Vanagon 1980-1991 0.44 Ford Mustang (fastback) 1979 0.44 Peugeot 305 1978 0.44 Peugeot 504 1968 0.44 Toyota Truck 1990 0.43 TVR 3000S 1978-79 0.425 Duple 425 coach (named for its low Cd by coach standards) 1985 0.42 Lamborghini Countach 1974 0.42 Plymouth Duster 1994 0.42 Triumph Spitfire Mk IV 1971 0.41 Smart Roadster 2003 0.41 Volvo 740 (sedan) 1982 0.405 Subaru Forester 1997-2002^[34] 0.40 Chevrolet Astro 1995-2005^[35] 0.40 Mercury Cougar 1983-1986 0.40 Ariel Atom 2002^[36] 0.40 Ford Escape Hybrid 2005 0.40 Nissan Skyline GT-R R32 1989 0.40 Jaguar XJS 1976-1996 0.40 Ford Ranger 2011-2015 ^[37] 0.39 Chevrolet Tahoe 2006 0.39 MG ZR 2001 0.39 Dodge Durango 2004 0.39 Ford Aerostar 1995^[38] 0.39 Ford Escort 5 Door 1981-1984^[39] 0.39 Honda Odyssey 1994-98 0.39^[40] Toyota Tacoma (N300) 2016 0.39 Triumph Spitfire 1964 0.385 Nissan 280ZX 1978 0.38 Fiat Ritmo 1978 0.38 Ford Territory 2011 0.38 Lexus GX 2003 0.38 Lincoln Mark VII 1984-1992^[41] 0.38 Mazda Miata 1989 0.38 Fiat 500 1957 0.38 Smart Roadster Coupé 2003 0.38 Subaru Forester 2009-2013^[42] 0.38 VW NewBeetle^[43] without wing or spoiler 0.39^[44] 2003 0.374 Ford Capri Mk III 1978 0.372 Ferrari F50 1996 0.37 Ford Escort Mk.III (Europe) 1980 0.37 BMW Z3 M coupe 1999 0.37 Jaguar XJ (X300/X308) 0.37 Mercury Grand Marquis 1998-2002^[45] 0.37 Mercury Grand Marquis 2003-2011^[46] 0.37 Renault Twingo I 0.37 Volkswagen Tiguan 2008 0.36 Alfa Romeo 33 1983^[citation needed] 0.36 Cadillac Escalade hybrid 2008 0.36 Cadillac Fleetwood 1996 0.36 Citroën CX (named after the term for Cd) 1974 0.36 Citroën DS 1955 0.36 Chrysler Sebring 1996 0.36 Ferrari Testarossa 1986 0.36 Ford Escort 1997-2002^[47] 0.36 Ford Focus 3-door 2000-2004 0.36 Ford Mustang 1999 0.36 Honda Civic 2001–2005 0.36 Lincoln Town Car 1990-1997^[48] 0.36 Mercury Cougar 1987-1988 0.36 Mercury Grand Marquis 1992-1997^[33] 0.36 Mitsubishi Magna, V3000 sedan 1985-1991 0.36 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution IX 2006 0.36 Subaru Impreza WRX^[49] 2010 0.36 Saturn SW 1996-2001^[47] 0.36, 0.244 (1:5) Tatra 87 1936-1950^[50] 0.36 Toyota Celica Convertible 1994-1999^[51] 0.36 Volkswagen Jetta 1985-1992^[52] 0.357 Ram 1500 Quad Cab 4x2 2018^[53] 0.355 NSU Ro 80 1967 0.355 Ford Focus RS 2016 0.35 Maserati Quattroporte V 2003 0.35 Aleko 2141 1986-2002 0.35 Aston Martin Vanquish 2004 0.35 BMW M3 Convertible 2005 0.35 BMW Z4 M coupe 2006 0.35 DeltaWing^[54] (endurance racing car) 2012 0.35 Dodge Viper GTS 1996 0.35 Ford Thunderbird 1983-1988 0.35 Ford Windstar 1995-1998^[55] 0.35 Ford Windstar 1999-2003^[56] 0.35 Honda Del Sol 1992–1997^[47] 0.35 Jaguar XKR 2005 0.35 Lexus GX 2010 0.35 Lexus RX 2003–2009 0.35 MINI Cooper 2008 0.35 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X 2008 0.35 Nissan Cube 2009 0.35 Renault Clio (Mk 2) 2002^[57] 0.35 SSC Ultimate Aero 2007–2013 0.35 Tesla Roadster^[58] 2008 0.35 Mitsubishi i-MiEV 2011 0.35 Smart ForTwo^[59] 2008- 0.35 Toyota MR-2 1998 0.35 Toyota Previa 1991-1997^[60]^[61] 0.35 Toyota Sequoia 2007 0.35 Volvo 940 (sedan) 1990 0.348 Toyota Celica Supra (Mk 2) 1982^[62] 0.347 Hyundai Tiburon (RD1) 1997 0.342 Toyota Celica (Liftback Model) 1982 0.34 Alfa Romeo Giulia sedan 1968-1972 0.34 Aston Martin DB9 2004 0.34 Audi TT MK1 (8N) 1998-2005^[63] 0.34 Chevrolet Caprice 1994 0.34 Chevrolet C6 Corvette Z06 2006–2013 0.34 Chevrolet Tahoe hybrid 2008 0.34 Ferrari 360 Modena 1999 0.34 Ferrari F40 1987 0.34 Ferrari F430 F1 2004 0.34 Fiat Uno 1984-1989 0.34 Ford Puma 1997 0.34 Ford Sierra 1982 0.34 Geo Metro (Hatchback) 1995-1997^[47] 0.34 Volkswagen Gol G2 1994 0.34 Honda Prelude 1988 0.34 Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Down) 2001 0.34 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X 2014 0.34 Nissan Altima 1993-1997^[64] 0.34 Nissan Skyline R34 GT-R 1999-2002^[65] 0.34 Peugeot 106 1991 0.34 Saab 900 NG 2003^[66] 0.34 Saab 9000 1984-1998^[66] 0.34 Saturn SL2 1991-1995^[67] 0.34 Subaru Impreza WRX (4 Door) 2009^[68] 0.34 Subaru Legacy Wagon 1993-1999^[69] 0.34 Toyota Corolla (Wagon) 1993-1997^[70] 0.34 Toyota Supra (with factory 3 piece turbo wing) 1989–1990 0.339 Citroen SM 1970-1975^[71] 0.338 Chevrolet Camaro 1995 0.334 Seat Leon FR 2005-2011 0.33 Acura Integra 1993-2001^[72] 0.33 Acura RSX 2002-2006^[73] 0.33 Alfa Romeo Giulia (saloon) 1962^[74] 0.33 Audi A3 2006 0.33 BMW E30 M3 1986–1992 0.33 Chevrolet Caprice (sedan) 1991-1996 0.33^[75] Chevrolet Impala 2006 0.33 Dodge Charger 2006 0.33 Ford Crown Victoria 1992 0.33 Ford Escort ZX2 1998-2003^[76] 0.33 Ford Fusion 2010^[77] 0.33 Holden Commodore (VT) sedan 1997 0.33 Honda Accord Sedan 2002 0.33 Honda Civic Hatchback 1988-1991^[47] 0.33 Honda S2000 2000-2009^[78] 0.33 to 0.37 Koenigsegg Agera R 2013 0.33 Lamborghini Murciélago 2001 0.33 Lexus RX 2010 0.33 Mazda RX-7 FC3C 1987 0.33 Nissan 200SX Coupe 1995-1998^[79] 0.33 Peugeot 206 1998 0.33 Dodge Durango (without roof-rack), ("HEAT" model, 0.325) 2011–present 0.33 Peugeot 309 1986 0.33 Renault Modus 2004 0.33 Saab 9-3 SC 2003^[66] 0.33 Saturn SL2 1999^[80] 0.33 Subaru Impreza WRX STi 2004 0.33 Subaru Forester 2014-2018 0.33^[81] Toyota Camry (Sedan) 1991 0.33 Toyota Corolla (E100) 1993-1997^[47] 0.33 Toyota Supra (without wing) 1989–1990 0.329 Chevrolet Corsica 1989-2006^[82] 0.325 Opel Astra J 2009 0.324 Cobalt SS Supercharged 2005 0.321 Toyota Matrix 2003-2008^[83] 0.32 Mitsubishi RVR 2010^[84] 0.32 Buick Riviera 1995 0.32 BMW M3 Coupe 2005 0.32^[85] Daewoo Espero 1990 0.32 Dodge Avenger 1995 0.32 Ferrari California 2008 0.32 Chrysler 300C 2011-2014 0.32 Fiat Croma 1985-1996 0.32 Ford Taurus 1992-1995^[86] 0.32 Geo Metro (Sedan) 1995-1997^[47] 0.32 Seat Leon 2005-2011 0.32 Honda Accord (Coupe) 2002 0.32 Honda Ascot Innova (Sedan) 1992-1996 0.32 Honda Civic (Coupe) 1992-1995^[47] 0.32 Honda Civic (Hatchback DX) 1996-2000^[87] 0.32 Honda Civic (Sedan EX) 1996-2000^[88] 0.32 Honda NSX 1990 0.32 Hyundai Veloster 2012 0.32 Jaguar XJ (X350) 2006 0.32 Koenigsegg CCX 2006 0.32 Mazdaspeed3 2007 0.32 McLaren F1 1992 0.32 Mercedes-Benz 190E 2.5-16/2.3-16 1983-1990 0.32 Nissan 240SX Coupe 1995-1998^[89] 0.32 Nissan 300ZX 1989 0.32 Nissan Altima 1998-2001^[90] 0.32 Nissan Maxima 1997 0.32 Oldsmobile Aurora 1995-1999 0.32 Porsche 997 GT2 2008–2013 0.32 Peugeot 406 1995 0.32 Peugeot 806 1994 0.32 Saab Sonett II 1966-1969^[66] 0.32 Scion xB 2008 0.32 Suzuki Swift 1991 0.32 Tatra 600 1948-1952^[91] 0.32 Toyota Celica 1994 0.32 Toyota Celica 2000-2005^[92] 0.32 Toyota Supra (N/A with wing and turbo models) 1993 0.32 Toyota Supra (with factory turbo wing) 1987–1988 0.32 Toyota Tercel Sedan 1995-2000^[93] 0.32^[94] Toyota Corolla Hatchback (E210, US) 2019 0.32 Volkswagen Golf Mk3 1991 0.32 Volkswagen GTI Mk V 2006 0.32 Volvo V50 2004

Production cars (continued) Cd Automobile Calendar Year 0.315 Saturn SL1 1996-1999^[95] 0.31 Alfa Romeo 156 1997–2007 0.31 Audi A4 B5 1995 0.31 Audi A5 2011–2016 0.31 Audi A3 2014 0.31 BMW 7 Series 2009 0.31 Buick Park Avenue 1996 0.31 Cadillac CTS 2004 0.31 Cadillac CTS-V 2005 0.31 Citroën AX 1986 0.31 Citroën GS 1970 0.31 Eagle Vision 1995 0.31 Ford Focus sedan 2000-2004 0.31 Fiat Coupé 1995^[96] 0.31 Fiat Tipo 1988-1995 0.31 Ford Falcon 1995 0.31 Ford Thunderbird 1989-1997^[97] 0.31 Holden Commodore 1998 0.31 Honda Civic (Hatchback) 1992-1995^[47] 0.31 Honda Civic (Sedan) 2006 0.31 Infiniti G37 (Coupe) 2008–2015^[98] 0.31 Kia Rio (Sedan) 2001^[99] 0.31 Lamborghini Diablo 1990 0.31 Lexus LFA (wing retracted) 2010 0.31 Mazda MX-3 1990–1996 0.31 Mazda MX-6 1992–1997 0.31 Mazda RX-7 FC3S 1986 0.31 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2) 1993 0.31 Mazda RX-8 2004 0.31 Mazda2 (Hatchback) 2010-2014^[100] 0.31 Mazda3 (Hatchback) 2010-2013 0.31 Nissan Tiida / Versa 2004 0.31 Opel Tigra 1994-2000 0.31 Pagani Huayra 2012^[101] 0.31 Peugeot 307 2001 0.31 Peugeot 405 1987 0.31 Porsche 997 Turbo/GT3 2006 0.31 Renault 25 1984 0.31 Saab Sonett III 1970-1974^[66] 0.31 Saab 9-3 Viggen 2003^[66] 0.31 Saab 9-5 Wagon (2000-2010) 2003^[66] 0.31 Saturn SC2 2001 0.31 Scion xA 2004 0.31 Toyota Avalon 1995–2000 0.31 Toyota Corolla (E110) 1998-2002^[102] 0.31 Toyota Corolla (E210, UK) 2019^[103] 0.31 Toyota Paseo 1995-1999^[104] 0.31 Toyota RAV4 2006 0.31 Toyota Supra (N/A; without factory wing) 1993 0.31 Volkswagen GTI Mk IV 1997 0.31 Volkswagen Golf Mk6 2008-2012 0.31 Volvo S40 2nd generation 2003 0.308 Chevrolet Bolt 2016^[105] 0.308 Škoda Octavia RS^[citation needed] 2005 0.304 Ford Probe 1988-1992^[106] 0.30 Lotus Elan+2^[107] 1967-1974 0.30 Alfa Romeo 164 1988^[108] 0.30 Audi 100^[citation needed] 1983 0.30^[109] BMW 5 Series (E34) 1988 0.30 BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 335i ^[110] 2012 0.30^[85] Citroën XM 1989 0.30 Fiat Uno facelift^[citation needed] 1989-2000 0.30 Ford Taurus 1996-1999^[111]^[112] 0.30 Ford Focus Wagon^[citation needed] 2000-2004 0.30 Ford Focus ST^[citation needed] 2013–2018 0.30 Honda Accord Sedan^[citation needed] 2003, 2005–2007 0.30 Honda CRX DX/Si^[113] 1988 0.30 Honda NSX^[citation needed] 2002 0.30 Hyundai Sonata^[citation needed] 2006 0.30 Koenigsegg CCX^[citation needed] 2006 0.30 Mitsubishi Eclipse^[citation needed] 2000 0.30 Nissan 180SX^[citation needed] 1989 0.30 Nissan 300ZX^[citation needed] 1983 0.30 Nissan 350Z Coupe Base and Enthusiast models^[citation needed] 2003–2008 0.30 Nissan 370Z Coupe (0.29 with sport package) 2009^[114] 0.30 Peugeot 207^[115] 2006-2014 0.30 Renault 19 16V^[citation needed] 1991 0.30 Saab 92 1947^[66] 0.30 Seat Leon^[citation needed] 2012 0.30^[81] Toyota Camry (Sedan) 1996 0.30 Toyota Corolla (E120) 2003-2008^[116] 0.30 Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Hatchback) 2019^[117] 0.30 Toyota Sienna^[citation needed] 2003–2009 0.30 Volkswagen Bora mk4^[citation needed] 1999–2005 0.30^[a] Mercedes-Benz CLA 250 ^[118] 2013–2018 0.299 Cadillac ATS 2012 ^[119] 0.296^[120] Chevrolet Impala (I4) 2013 0.295 Ford Focus Mk.III hatchback ^[121] (0.274 sedan) 2011 0.291^[122] Toyota Avalon 2005 0.29 Subaru XT^[citation needed] 1985-1989 0.29 Alfa Romeo 155 1992^[123] 0.29 Alfa Romeo MiTo 2011^[124] 0.29 ^[125] Audi A4 sedan 2007 0.29 BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 328i ^[110] 2012 0.29^[126]^[b] BMW i3 2013 0.29^[85] Chevrolet Corvette 2005 0.29^[127] Chevrolet Cruze sedan 2016 0.29 Fiat Tipo 2015^[128] 0.29 Ford Escape 2010^[129] 0.29 Ford Focus C-Max 2003^[130] 0.29 Honda Accord Coupe 2003, 2005–2007^[131] 0.29^[132] Honda Accord Hybrid 2005, 2007 0.29 Honda CRX HF^[113] 1988 0.29 Kia Niro Hybrid/EV Compact SUV 2016^[133] 0.29 Lancia Dedra^[citation needed] 1990 0.29 ^[134] Lexus LS 400 1990 0.29^[135] Mazda3 (sedan) 2009 0.29 Mercedes-Benz C-Class Sportscoupe^[citation needed] 2001 0.29 Nissan Leaf 2010 ^[136] 0.29 Rover 75 1998 ^[137] 0.29 Saab 9-5 (1998 – 2009) 2003^[66] 0.29^[138]^[139] Toyota Corolla L/LE sedan (E170), (E210) 2013 (E170), 2019 (E210) 0.29 Toyota Platz 2000-2005^[140]^[141] 0.29^[142] Toyota Prius 2001 0.29^[143] Toyota Yaris (hatchback & sedan) 2006-2011 0.29^[144] Volvo C70 1998 0.29^[145] NIO ES8^[146] 2017 0.29^[147] Škoda Scala 2019–present 0.288^[148] Chrysler Concorde 1998–2001 0.286^[149] Perodua Bezza 2016 0.286^[150] Chevrolet Corvette C6 (coupe) 2005–2013 0.285^[127] Chevrolet Volt 2016 0.285^[151] Dodge Dart (PF) 2012 0.285^[152] Opel Astra K Hatchback 2015 0.284^[153] Volkswagen Passat CC 2008–2017 0.281^[154] Chevrolet Volt 2010-2015 0.28 Alfa Romeo Giulietta Sprint Speciale 1959^[155] 0.28^[156] Audi A2 1.4 TDI 2000 0.28^[85] Citroën C4 2004 0.28^[157] Fiat Croma Nuova 2005-2011 0.28^[158] Honda Civic Hybrid 2003-2005 0.28^[159] Honda Insight 2009-2014 0.28^[160] Hyundai Elantra 2011 0.28^[161] Hyundai Sonata (0.25 for the Hybrid) 2011-2013 0.28^[162]^[163] Lexus IS 2006–present 0.28^[164]^[165] Opel Omega (sedan) 1986–1993 0.28 Saab 9-3 SS 2003^[66] 0.28 Škoda Fabia IV 2021–present^[166] 0.28^[167] Rumpler Tropfenwagen 1921-1925 0.28^[168]^[169] Toyota Camry XV40, XV50 2006–2018 0.28 Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Saloon) 2019^[117] 0.28 Maserati Quattroporte VI 2013^[170] 0.28^[171] NIO ES6^[172] 2018 0.275 Ford Fusion 2013^[173] 0.274 Peugeot 207 Economique^[115] 2009 0.273^[174] Ford Focus Mk IV hatchback, (0.25 sedan) 2018 0.27^[175] BMW 5 Series (E39) 1996 0.27^[c] BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d ^[110] 2012 0.27^[176] Hyundai Elantra 2016 0.27^[177] Hyundai Sonata 2019 0.27 Mazda6 (sedan and hatchback)^[178] 2008 0.27^[179] Mercedes-Benz S Class (0.268 with Sport Package^[citation needed]) 1998–2005 0.27 Subaru BRZ and Toyota 86 2012^[180] 0.27^[181] Toyota Avalon (XX50) 2018 0.27^[182]^[d] Toyota Prius (XW60) LE 2023 0.27^[183] Volkswagen Jetta Mk7 2018 0.263^[184] NIO ES7^[185] 2022 0.26^[c] BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d EfficientDynamics ^[110] 2012 0.26 BMW 3 Series (E90) (0.26-0.30) 2009^[186] 0.26 BMW i8 2015^[187] 0.26^[188] Infiniti Q70 Hybrid / Nissan Fuga Hybrid (0.27 for ICE version) 2015 0.26 Jaguar XE^[189] 2014 0.26 Mazda3 (Sedan) 2012^[190] 0.26^[c] Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupe^[191] 2015–2018 0.26^[192] Nissan Altima (6th gen.) 2018 0.26^[193] Nissan Sylphy (B18) 2019 0.26 Opel Calibra 8-valve^[194] 1989 0.26^[c]^[195] Audi e-tron Sportback 2020 0.26^[196] NIO EC6^[197] 2020 0.25^[198] BMW iX 2020 0.25 (Manufacturer claim. Independent test measured 0.26.)^[199] Toyota Prius^[200] 2009-2015 0.25 Honda Insight^[201] 1999-2006 0.25 (w/air suspension) 0.26 (non-air suspension) Lexus LS430^[202] 2001-2006 0.249^[203] Škoda Octavia MkIV liftback 2020 0.24 Tesla Model X^[204] 2018 0.24^[205] Hyundai Ioniq 2016–2022 0.24^[206] Kia Optima Hybrid 2016 0.24^[c] Mercedes-Benz S 350 BlueTec^[207] 2013 0.24^[c] Mercedes-Benz C 220 BlueTec BlueEfficiency Sedan^[208] 2014–2016 0.24 Tesla Model S^[209] 2012 0.24 Toyota Prius^[210] 2016 0.24–0.30^[c]^[211] BMW i4 eDrive40 2021 0.236 Xpeng P7^[212] 2020 0.23^[213]^[c] Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW) 2015 0.23^[214]^[c] Alfa Romeo Giulia Advanced Efficiency 2016 0.23^[215]^[c] BMW 320d (G20) 2018 0.23^[216] Tesla Model 3 2017 0.22^[217]^[e] Porsche Taycan Turbo 2019 0.22^[218]^[c] BMW 5 series (G30) 520d EfficientDynamics 2017 0.22^[219]^[c] Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency Sedan 2013 0.212 (according to some sources: 1:5 model test)^[220]^[221]^[222] Tatra T77A 1935^[223] ^[224]^[225]^[226] 0.208^[227]^[228] NIO ET7^[229] 2021 0.208^[230] Tesla Model S^[231] 2021 0.20^[232]^[f] Mercedes-Benz EQS 2021 0.197^[233]^[g] Lucid Air 2022 0.19^[234] General Motors EV1 1996 0.19^[235] Volkswagen XL1 2013

Concept/experimental cars Cd Automobile Calendar Year 0.29 FSM Beskid Polish hatchback prototype 1983 0.27 Avion^[236] 1986 0.26 Alfa Romeo Disco Volante 1952 0.25 BMW Kamm-Coupé 1938 ^[237] 0.25 Dymaxion Car 1933 0.25 SmILE (an experimental car) 1996 0.23 Volvo ECC 1992 ^[238] 0.23 Pininfarina X (Morelli shape) 1960^[239] 0.22 BMW Vision EfficientDynamics Concept 2009 0.22 Citroën ECO 2000 Concept 1981^[240] 0.22 Aurel Persu Streamliner 1923^[241] 0.20 Opel Eco-Speedster 2002^[242] 0.20 Loremo Concept 2006 0.19 Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7 Concept 1954^[243] 0.19 Dodge Intrepid ESX Concept 1995 0.19 General Motors Ultralite 1992 0.19 Mercedes-Benz Bionic Concept^[244](based on the boxfish) 2005 0.170 Chrysler Ghia Dart 1955^[245] 0.170 Mercedes-Benz Vision EQXX 2022 (Cd figure measured in the Daimler aero-acoustic wind tunnel at a wind speed of 140 km/h) ^[246] 0.168 Daihatsu UFE-III Concept 2005^[247] 0.16 General Motors Precept Concept (5 seats)^[248] 2000 0.16 Edison2 Very Light Car, Automotive X Prize winner^[249] 2010 0.159 Volkswagen 1-litre car Concept 2002 0.157 Li-ion Motors Wave II, Automotive X Prize winner^[250] 2010 0.15 Schlörwagen^[251] 1939 0.15 Aptera 2 Series 2e Prototype 2011 0.15 Keris RV Nakoela Team (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype 2015 0.149-0.150 Urbee 2^[252] 2013 0.147 JCB Dieselmax land speed record holder 2006 0.14 Fiat Turbina Concept^[253] 1954 0.137 Ford Probe V Concept 1985 0.13 Aptera Sol Prototype 2021 ^[254] 0.125 Sunraycer, solar race car 1987 0.12 Reflex 1000, solar cycle 1996^[255] 0.12 Panhard CD LM64 1964 0.117 Summers Brothers Goldenrod Bonneville race car 1965 0.116 TUT Sunchaser 4^[256] 2022 0.08 Fortis Saxonia (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept 2007 0.072 Alérion Supermileage (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype 2013 0.07 Nuna, World Solar Challenge winner 2001–2007 0.0512 Ecorunner V (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype 2015^[257] 0.048 Ecorunner VI (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype 2016 0.045 Ecorunner 8 (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype 2018

Drag area

While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The product of drag coefficient and area – drag area – is represented as CdA (or C_xA), a multiplication of Cd value by area.

The term drag area derives from aerodynamics, where it is the product of some reference area (such as cross-sectional area, total surface area, or similar) and the drag coefficient. In 2003, Car and Driver magazine adopted this metric as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles.

The force F required to overcome drag is calculated with the drag equation: ${\displaystyle F={\tfrac {1}{2}}\times {\text{air density}}\times {\text{drag coefficient}}\times {\text{reference area}}\times {\text{speed}}^{2}}$  Therefore:${\displaystyle F={\tfrac {1}{2}}\times {\text{air density}}\times \mathbf {\text{drag area}} \times {\text{speed}}^{2}}$  Where the drag coefficient and reference area have been collapsed into the drag area term. This allows direct estimation of the drag force at a given speed for any vehicle for which only the drag area is known and therefore easier comparison. As drag area CdA is the fundamental value that determines power required for a given cruise speed it is a critical parameter for fuel consumption at a steady speed. This relation also allows an estimation of the new top speed of a car with a tuned engine:

${\displaystyle {\text{estimated top speed}}={\text{original top speed}}\times {\sqrt[{3}]{\frac {\text{new power}}{\text{original power}}}}}$ 

Or the power required for a target top speed:

${\displaystyle {\text{power required}}={\text{original power}}\times \left({\frac {\text{target speed}}{\text{original speed}}}\right)^{3}}$ 

Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8 sq ft (0.74 m²). Reported drag areas range from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.1 sq ft (0.47 m²) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.5 sq ft (2.46 m²). The drag area of a bicycle (and rider) is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m²).^[258]

Automobile examples of CdA^[259] CdA sqft CdA m2 Automobile model 5.2 sq ft 0.48 m^2 2019 Mercedes-Benz A 180 d (V177)^[260]^[c] 5.3 sq ft 0.49 m^2 2013 Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency^[261]^[c] 5.4 sq ft 0.50 m^2 1989 Opel Calibra (8 valve) 5.5 sq ft 0.51 m^2 2015 Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW)^[213]^[c] 5.52 sq ft 0.513 m^2 2019 Porsche Taycan Turbo^[217] 5.6 sq ft 0.52 m^2 2017 BMW 520d EfficientDynamics ^[262]^[c] 5.6 sq ft 0.52 m^2 1993 Mazda RX-7 FD (base model) ^[263] 5.70 sq ft 0.530 m^2 1985 Subaru Alcyone/XT/Vortex 5.71 sq ft 0.530 m^2 1990 Honda CR-X Si 5.74 sq ft 0.533 m^2 2002 Acura NSX 5.76 sq ft 0.535 m^2 1968 Toyota 2000GT 5.80 sq ft 0.539 m^2 1986 Toyota MR2 5.81 sq ft 0.540 m^2 1989 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSX 5.86 sq ft 0.544 m^2 2001 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 3L 5.88 sq ft 0.546 m^2 1990 Nissan 240SX / 200SX / 180SX 5.90 sq ft 0.548 m^2 2015 BMW i8^[187] 5.92 sq ft 0.550 m^2 1994 Porsche 911 Speedster 5.95 sq ft 0.553 m^2 1990 Mazda RX7 5.96 sq ft 0.554 m^2 1993 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2)^[263] 6.0 sq ft 0.56 m^2 2001 Honda Insight^[199] 6.00 sq ft 0.557 m^2 1992 Subaru SVX 6.00 sq ft 0.557 m^2 1970 Lamborghini Miura 6.05 sq ft 0.562 m^2 2012 Tesla Model S P85^[199] 6.08 sq ft 0.565 m^2 2008 Nissan GTR 6.08 sq ft 0.565 m^2 1989 Geo Metro^[47] 6.13 sq ft 0.569 m^2 1991 Acura NSX 6.17 sq ft 0.573 m^2 1995 Lamborghini Diablo 6.19 sq ft 0.575 m^2 1981 Citroën GSA X3 ^[71] 6.20 sq ft 0.576 m^2 2014 Toyota Prius^[199] 6.24 sq ft 0.580 m^2 2004 Toyota Prius 6.27 sq ft 0.583 m^2 1986 Porsche 911 Carrera 6.27 sq ft 0.583 m^2 1992 Chevrolet Corvette 6.35 sq ft 0.590 m^2 1999 Lotus Elise 6.37 sq ft 0.592 m^2 2000 Vauxhall VX220 N/A 6.40 sq ft 0.595 m^2 1990 Lotus Esprit 6.41 sq ft 0.596 m^2 2003 Smart Roadster Coupé 6.54 sq ft 0.608 m^2 1991 Saturn Sports Coupe 6.57 sq ft 0.610 m^2 1985 Chevrolet Corvette 6.63 sq ft 0.616 m^2 2001 Audi A2 6.66 sq ft 0.619 m^2 1996 Citroën Saxo 6.70 sq ft 0.622 m^2 2014 Chevrolet Volt^[199] 6.77 sq ft 0.629 m^2 1995 BMW M3 6.79 sq ft 0.631 m^2 1993 Toyota Corolla DX 6.80 sq ft 0.632 m^2 2007 BMW 335i Coupe 6.81 sq ft 0.633 m^2 1991 Subaru Legacy 6.89 sq ft 0.640 m^2^[264] 2019 Renault Clio V 6.90 sq ft 0.641 m^2 1993 Saturn Wagon 6.93 sq ft 0.644 m^2 1982 DMC DeLorean 6.94 sq ft 0.645 m^2 2003 Smart Roadster 6.96 sq ft 0.647 m^2 1988 Porsche 944 S 7.00 sq ft 0.650 m^2 2013 Mercedes-Benz CLA250^[199] 7.02 sq ft 0.652 m^2 1992 BMW 325I 7.04 sq ft 0.654 m^2 1991 Honda Civic EX 7.06 sq ft 0.656 m^2 2004 Vauxhall VX220 Turbo 7.10 sq ft 0.660 m^2 1995 Saab 900 7.11 sq ft 0.661 m^2 1991 Ford Thunderbird LX 7.13 sq ft 0.662 m^2 1970 Citroën SM^[71] 7.14 sq ft 0.663 m^2 1995 Subaru Legacy L 7.20 sq ft 0.669 m^2 1995 Nissan Maxima GLE 7.34 sq ft 0.682 m^2 2001 Honda Civic 7.39 sq ft 0.687 m^2 1994 Honda Accord EX 7.4 sq ft 0.69 m^2 2018 BMW X1 sDrive18i ^[265]^[c] 7.48 sq ft 0.695 m^2 1993 Chevrolet Camaro Z28 7.57 sq ft 0.703 m^2 1992 Toyota Camry 7.63 sq ft 0.709 m^2 1974 Citroën CX^[71] 7.69 sq ft 0.714 m^2 1994 Chrysler LHS 7.72 sq ft 0.717 m^2 1993 Subaru Impreza 7.80 sq ft 0.725 m^2 2012 Nissan Leaf SL^[199] 8.02 sq ft 0.745 m^2 2005 Bugatti Veyron 8.1 sq ft 0.75 m^2 2016 Renault Zoe^[266] 8.70 sq ft 0.808 m^2 1990 Volvo 740 Turbo 8.70 sq ft 0.808 m^2 1992 Ford Crown Victoria 8.71 sq ft 0.809 m^2 1991 Buick LeSabre Limited 8.79 sq ft 0.817 m^2 1956 Citroën DS Spécial ^[71] 9.54 sq ft 0.886 m^2 1992 Chevrolet Caprice Wagon 9.6 sq ft 0.89 m^2 2010 Chrysler PT Cruiser 9.95 sq ft 0.924 m^2 2016 Chrysler Pacifica^[267] 10.7 sq ft 0.99 m^2 1992 Chevrolet Blazer 11.6 sq ft 1.08 m^2 2005 Ford Escape Hybrid 11.7 sq ft 1.09 m^2 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee 12.2 sq ft 1.13 m^2 1949 Nash Airflyte 13.0 sq ft 1.21 m^2 2019 Ram 1500^[268] 13.1 sq ft 1.22 m^2 2021 Jeep Wagoneer (WS)^[269] 16.8 sq ft 1.56 m^2 2006 Hummer H3 17 sq ft 1.6 m^2 2013 Mercedes-Benz G-Class^[270] 17.4 sq ft 1.62 m^2 1995 Land Rover Discovery 26.5 sq ft 2.46 m^2 2003 Hummer H2

Limited production cars CdA sqft CdA m2 Automobile model 3.00 sq ft 0.279 m^2 2011 Volkswagen XL1 3.95 sq ft 0.367 m^2 1996 GM EV1

Concept/experimental cars CdA sqft CdA m2 Automobile model 0.21 sq ft 0.020 m^2 Pac-car II^[271] 2.04 sq ft 0.190 m^2 2011 Aptera 2 Series^[272] 2.10 sq ft 0.195 m^2 2013 Urbee 2^[273] 2.50 sq ft 0.232 m^2 1986 Twike^[274] 2.54 sq ft 0.236 m^2 2002 Opel Eco-Speedster ^[275] 2.69 sq ft 0.250 m^2 2009 Loremo 2.78 sq ft 0.258 m^2 2010 Edison2 Very Light Car^[276] 3.27 sq ft 0.304 m^2 1987 Renault VESTA II [fr]^[277] 4.72 sq ft 0.439 m^2 2014 Volkswagen XL Sport^[278] 5.00 sq ft 0.465 m^2 2005 Mercedes-Benz Bionic^[279]

See also

• Automotive aerodynamics
• Drag (physics)
• Drag equation
• Paul Jaray

Notes

1. North American market
2. 0.30 with range extender
3. European market
4. w/ 17-inch wheels
5. in Range mode in combination with a low level and closed air intake flaps
6. w/ 19-inch AMG wheel/tire combination in "Sport" driving mode
7. w/ 19-inch wheel/tire combination

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External links

• Further 500 drag coefficients