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Diplomacy

Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of states (such as leaders and diplomats) intended to influence events in the international system.[1][2]

Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom), Franklin D. Roosevelt (President of the United States) and Joseph Stalin (General Secretary of the Soviet Union) at the Yalta Conference, 1945

Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign policy which represents the broader goals and strategies that guide a state's interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties, agreements, alliances, and other manifestations of international relations are usually the result of diplomatic negotiations and processes. Diplomats may also help shape a state by advising government officials.

Modern diplomatic methods, practices, and principles originated largely from 17th-century European custom. Beginning in the early 20th century, diplomacy became professionalized; the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, ratified by most of the world's sovereign states, provides a framework for diplomatic procedures, methods, and conduct. Most diplomacy is now conducted by accredited officials, such as envoys and ambassadors, through a dedicated foreign affairs office. Diplomats operate through diplomatic missions, most commonly consulates and embassies, and rely on a number of support staff; the term diplomat is thus sometimes applied broadly to diplomatic and consular personnel and foreign ministry officials.[3]

Etymology edit

The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate ("diplomat" or "diplomatist"), based on the ancient Greek diplōma, which roughly means "an object folded in two".[4] This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege; prior to the invention of the envelope, folding a document served to protect the privacy of its content. The term was later applied to all official documents, such as those containing agreements between governments, and thus became identified with international relations. This established history has in recent years been criticized by scholars pointing out how the term originates in the political context of the French Revolution. [5][6][additional citation(s) needed]

History edit

 
Ger van Elk, Symmetry of Diplomacy, 1975, Groninger Museum
 
The Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty, between the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire of Anatolia

Western Asia edit

Some of the earliest known diplomatic records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC. Peace treaties were concluded between the Mesopotamian city-states of Lagash and Umma around approximately 2100 BC. Following the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC during the nineteenth dynasty, the pharaoh of Egypt and the ruler of the Hittite Empire created one of the first known international peace treaties, which survives in stone tablet fragments, now generally called the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty.[citation needed]

The ancient Greek city-states on some occasions dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues, such as war and peace or commercial relations, but did not have diplomatic representatives regularly posted in each other's territory. However, some of the functions given to modern diplomatic representatives were fulfilled by a proxenos, a citizen of the host city who had friendly relations with another city, often through familial ties. In times of peace, diplomacy was even conducted with non-Hellenistic rivals such as the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, through it was ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon. Alexander was also adept at diplomacy, realizing that the conquest of foreign cultures would be better achieved by having his Macedonian and Greek subjects intermingle and intermarry with native populations. For instance, Alexander took as his wife a Sogdian woman of Bactria, Roxana, after the siege of the Sogdian Rock, in order to placate the rebelling populace. Diplomacy remained a necessary tool of statecraft for the great Hellenistic states that succeeded Alexander's empire, such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire, which fought several wars in the Near East and often negotiated peace treaties through marriage alliances.[citation needed]

Ottoman Empire edit

 
A French ambassador in Ottoman dress, painted by Antoine de Favray, 1766, Pera Museum, Istanbul

Relations with the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states, to which the Ottoman government was known as the Sublime Porte.[7] The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities, and more and more upon the perpetuation of good relations with the Ottomans.[7] Interactions between various merchants, diplomats and clergymen hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft. Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was originally a negotiator, evolved into a persona that represented an autonomous state in all aspects of political affairs. It became evident that all other sovereigns felt the need to accommodate themselves diplomatically, due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire.[7] One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the early modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture.[citation needed]

East Asia edit

One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th-century BC military strategist Sun Tzu (d. 496 BC), author of The Art of War. He lived during a time in which rival states were starting to pay less attention to traditional respects of tutelage to the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) figurehead monarchs while each vied for power and total conquest. However, a great deal of diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state, and the idealized role of the "persuader/diplomat" developed.[8]

From the Battle of Baideng (200 BC) to the Battle of Mayi (133 BC), the Han dynasty was forced to uphold a marriage alliance and pay an exorbitant amount of tribute (in silk, cloth, grain, and other foodstuffs) to the powerful northern nomadic Xiongnu that had been consolidated by Modu Shanyu. After the Xiongnu sent word to Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) that they controlled areas stretching from Manchuria to the Tarim Basin oasis city-states, a treaty was drafted in 162 BC proclaiming that everything north of the Great Wall belong to nomads' lands, while everything south of it would be reserved for Han Chinese. The treaty was renewed no less than nine times, but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders. That was until the far-flung campaigns of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) which shattered the unity of the Xiongnu and allowed Han to conquer the Western Regions; under Wu, in 104 BC the Han armies ventured as far Fergana in Central Asia to battle the Yuezhi who had conquered Hellenistic Greek areas.[citation needed]

 
Portraits of Periodical Offering, a 6th-century Chinese painting portraying various emissaries; ambassadors depicted in the painting ranging from those of Hephthalites, Persia to Langkasuka, Baekje(part of the modern Korea), Qiuci, and Wo (Japan)

The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) looked to the Chinese capital of Chang'an as the hub of civilization and emulated its central bureaucracy as the model of governance. The Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period, although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse. After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763, the Tang dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia and the Tarim Basin. After several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades, the Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841.[citation needed]

In the 11th century during the Song dynasty (960–1279), there were shrewd ambassadors such as Shen Kuo and Su Song who achieved diplomatic success with the Liao dynasty, the often hostile Khitan neighbor to the north. Both diplomats secured the rightful borders of the Song dynasty through knowledge of cartography and dredging up old court archives. There was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia dynasty to the northwest of Song China (centered in modern-day Shaanxi). After warring with the Lý dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077, Song and Lý made a peace agreement in 1082 to exchange the respective lands they had captured from each other during the war.[citation needed]

Long before the Tang and Song dynasties, the Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia, India, and Persia, starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century. Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration. Since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD), the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on maritime missions into the Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Arabia, East Africa, and Egypt. Chinese maritime activity was increased dramatically during the commercialized period of the Song dynasty, with new nautical technologies, many more private ship owners, and an increasing amount of economic investors in overseas ventures.[citation needed]

During the Mongol Empire (1206–1294) the Mongols created something similar to today's diplomatic passport called paiza. The paiza were in three different types (golden, silver, and copper) depending on the envoy's level of importance. With the paiza, there came authority that the envoy can ask for food, transport, place to stay from any city, village, or clan within the empire with no difficulties.[citation needed]

In the 17th century, the Qing dynasty concluded a series of treaties with Czarist Russia, beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689. This was followed up by the Aigun Treaty and the Convention of Peking in the mid-19th century.[citation needed]

As European power spread around the world in the 18th and 19th centuries so too did its diplomatic model, and Asian countries adopted syncretic or European diplomatic systems. For example, as part of diplomatic negotiations with the West over control of land and trade in China in the 19th century after the First Opium War, the Chinese diplomat Qiying gifted intimate portraits of himself to representatives from Italy, England, the United States, and France.[9]

Ancient India edit

 
India's diplomatic personnel

Ancient India, with its kingdoms and dynasties, had a long tradition of diplomacy. The oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra, is attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), who was the principal adviser to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC. It incorporates a theory of diplomacy, of how in a situation of mutually contesting kingdoms, the wise king builds alliances and tries to checkmate his adversaries. The envoys sent at the time to the courts of other kingdoms tended to reside for extended periods of time, and Arthashastra contains advice on the deportment of the envoy, including the trenchant suggestion that "he should sleep alone". The highest morality for the king is that his kingdom should prosper.[10]

New analysis of Arthashastra brings out that hidden inside the 6,000 aphorisms of prose (sutras) are pioneering political and philosophic concepts. It covers the internal and external spheres of statecraft, politics and administration. The normative element is the political unification of the geopolitical and cultural subcontinent of India. This work comprehensively studies state governance; it urges non-injury to living creatures, or malice, as well as compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, and uprightness. It presents a rajmandala (grouping of states), a model that places the home state surrounded by twelve competing entities which can either be potential adversaries or latent allies, depending on how relations with them are managed. This is the essence of realpolitik. It also offers four upaya (policy approaches): conciliation, gifts, rupture or dissent, and force. It counsels that war is the last resort, as its outcome is always uncertain. This is the first expression of the raison d’etat doctrine, as also of humanitarian law; that conquered people must be treated fairly, and assimilated.[citation needed]

Europe edit

Byzantine Empire edit

The key challenge to the Byzantine Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its sundry neighbors, including the Georgians, Iberians, the Germanic peoples, the Bulgars, the Slavs, the Armenians, the Huns, the Avars, the Franks, the Lombards, and the Arabs, that embodied and so maintained its imperial status. All these neighbors lacked a key resource that Byzantium had taken over from Rome, namely a formalized legal structure. When they set about forging formal political institutions, they were dependent on the empire. Whereas classical writers are fond of making a sharp distinction between peace and war, for the Byzantines diplomacy was a form of war by other means. With a regular army of 120,000–140,000 men after the losses of the 7th century,[11][12] the empire's security depended on activist diplomacy.[citation needed]

 
Omurtag, ruler of Bulgaria, sends a delegation to the Byzantine emperor Michael II (Madrid Skylitzes, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid).

Byzantium's "Bureau of Barbarians" was the first foreign intelligence agency, gathering information on the empire's rivals from every imaginable source.[13] While on the surface a protocol office—its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators—it clearly had a security function as well. On Strategy, from the 6th century, offers advice about foreign embassies: "[Envoys] who are sent to us should be received honourably and generously, for everyone holds envoys in high esteem. Their attendants, however, should be kept under surveillance to keep them from obtaining any information by asking questions of our people."[14]

Medieval and early modern Europe edit

In Europe, early modern diplomacy's origins are often traced to the states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, with the first embassies being established in the 13th century.[15] Milan played a leading role, especially under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centres of diplomacy from the 14th century onwards. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the head of state.[citation needed]

Modernity edit

 
French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord is considered one of the most skilled diplomats of all time.

From Italy, the practice was spread across Europe. Milan was the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455. However, Milan refused to host French representatives, fearing they would conduct espionage and intervene in its internal affairs. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics the need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of St. James's (i.e. England) in 1487. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became customary. The Holy Roman Emperor, however, did not regularly send permanent legates, as they could not represent the interests of all the German princes (who were in theory all subordinate to the Emperor, but in practice each independent).

Between 1500 and 1700 rules of modern diplomacy were further developed.[16] French replaced Latin from about 1715. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation. In Rome, the most prized posting for a Catholic ambassador, the French and Spanish representatives would have a retinue of up to a hundred. Even in smaller posts, ambassadors were very expensive. Smaller states would send and receive envoys, who were a rung below ambassador. Somewhere between the two was the position of minister plenipotentiary.

Diplomacy was a complex affair, even more so than now. The ambassadors from each state were ranked by complex levels of precedence that were much disputed. States were normally ranked by the title of the sovereign; for Catholic nations the emissary from the Vatican was paramount, then those from the kingdoms, then those from duchies and principalities. Representatives from republics were ranked the lowest (which often angered the leaders of the numerous German, Scandinavian and Italian republics). Determining precedence between two kingdoms depended on a number of factors that often fluctuated, leading to near-constant squabbling.

 
The First Geneva Convention (1864). Geneva (Switzerland) is the city that hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world.[17]

Ambassadors were often nobles with little foreign experience and no expectation of a career in diplomacy. They were supported by their embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on longer assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking officials about the host country. Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees, including some dedicated to espionage. The need for skilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates of universities, and this led to a great increase in the study of international law, French, and history at universities throughout Europe.

 
Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of Vienna

At the same time, permanent foreign ministries began to be established in almost all European states to coordinate embassies and their staffs. These ministries were still far from their modern form, and many of them had extraneous internal responsibilities. Britain had two departments with frequently overlapping powers until 1782. They were also far smaller than they are currently. France, which boasted the largest foreign affairs department, had only some 70 full-time employees in the 1780s.

The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to Eastern Europe and Russia, arriving by the early 18th century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state, and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France.

After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank. Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but persisted for over a century until after World War II, when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between that time, figures such as the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy.

Diplomats and historians often refer to a foreign ministry by its address: the Ballhausplatz (Vienna), the Quai d'Orsay (Paris), the Wilhelmstrasse (Berlin); Itamaraty (Brasília); and Foggy Bottom (Washington, D.C.). For the Russian foreign ministry, it was the Choristers' Bridge (Saint Petersburg) until 1917, while "Consulta" referred to the Italian foreign ministry, based in the Palazzo della Consulta (Rome) from 1874 to 1922.[18][19]

Immunity edit

The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed, underpinning the modern concept of diplomatic immunity. While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of honour. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights.

Diplomatic rights were established in the mid-17th century in Europe and have spread throughout the world. These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which protects diplomats from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission. If a diplomat does commit a serious crime while in a host country he or she may be declared as persona non grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their homeland.

Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched. The mechanism for this is the so-called "diplomatic bag" (or, in some countries, the "diplomatic pouch"). While radio and digital communication have become more standard for embassies, diplomatic pouches are still quite common and some countries, including the United States, declare entire shipping containers as diplomatic pouches to bring sensitive material (often building supplies) into a country.[20]

In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, as well as in some cases when the host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy.

Espionage edit

Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies. For instance, the job of military attachés includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows. There are also deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main task is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring.

The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in diplomacy. Arms-control treaties would be impossible without the power of reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy, everything from trade agreements to border disputes.

Resolution of problems edit

Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic issues and disputes.

Arbitration and mediation edit

 
Brazilian President Prudente de Morais shakes hands with King Carlos I of Portugal during the re-establishment of diplomatic relations between Brazil and Portugal after talks mediated by Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, 16 March 1895.

Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific question or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history, there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law and justice.[citation needed]

Sometimes these took the form of formal arbitrations and mediations. In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue, and to come some sort of ruling based on international law.

In the modern era, much of this work is often carried out by the International Court of Justice at The Hague, or other formal commissions, agencies and tribunals, working under the United Nations. Below are some examples.

Conferences edit

 
Anton von Werner, Congress of Berlin (1881): final meeting at the Reich Chancellery on 13 July 1878

Other times, resolutions were sought through the convening of international conferences. In such cases, there are fewer ground rules, and fewer formal applications of international law. However, participants are expected to guide themselves through principles of international fairness, logic, and protocol.[21]

Some examples of these formal conferences are:

  • Congress of Vienna (1815) – After Napoleon was defeated, there were many diplomatic questions waiting to be resolved. This included the shape of the political map of Europe, the disposition of political and nationalist claims of various ethnic groups and nationalities wishing to have some political autonomy, and the resolution of various claims by various European powers.
  • The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78, the meeting's aim was to reorganize conditions in the Balkans.

Negotiations edit

 
Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords: Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar El Sadat

Sometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle a specific dispute or specific issue between several nations which are parties to a dispute. These are similar to the conferences mentioned above, as there are technically no established rules or procedures. However, there are general principles and precedents which help define a course for such proceedings.[21]

Some examples are:

Small states edit

 
Czech (originally Czechoslovak) Embassy in Berlin

Small state diplomacy is receiving increasing attention in diplomatic studies and international relations. Small states are particularly affected by developments which are determined beyond their borders such as climate change, water security and shifts in the global economy. Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. These factors mean that small states have strong incentives to support international cooperation. But with limited resources at their disposal, conducting effective diplomacy poses unique challenges for small states.[22][23]

Types edit

There are a variety of diplomatic categories and diplomatic strategies employed by organizations and governments to achieve their aims, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.

Appeasement edit

Appeasement is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation; because of its failure to prevent World War 2, appeasement is not considered a legitimate tool of modern diplomacy.[citation needed]

Counterinsurgency edit

Counterinsurgency diplomacy, or expeditionary diplomacy, developed by diplomats deployed to civil-military stabilization efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, employs diplomats at tactical and operational levels, outside traditional embassy environments and often alongside military or peacekeeping forces. Counterinsurgency diplomacy may provide political environment advice to local commanders, interact with local leaders, and facilitate the governance efforts, functions and reach of a host government.[24]

Debt-trap edit

Debt-trap diplomacy is carried out in bilateral relations, with a powerful lending country seeking to saddle a borrowing nation with enormous debt so as to increase its leverage over it.[citation needed]

Economic edit

Economic diplomacy is the use of aid or other types of economic policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda.[citation needed]

Gunboat edit

Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military power as a means of intimidation to influence others. Since it is inherently coercive, it typically lies near the edge between peace and war, and is usually exercised in the context of imperialism or hegemony.[25] An emblematic example is the Don Pacifico Incident in 1850, in which the United Kingdom blockaded the Greek port of Piraeus in retaliation for the harming of a British subject and the failure of Greek government to provide him with restitution.

Hostage edit

Hostage diplomacy is the taking of hostages by a state or quasi-state actor to fulfill diplomatic goals. It is a type of asymmetric diplomacy often used by weaker states to pressure stronger ones. Hostage diplomacy has been practiced from prehistory to the present day.[26][27]

Humanitarian edit

Humanitarian diplomacy is the set of activities undertaken by various actors with governments, (para)military organizations, or personalities in order to intervene or push intervention in a context where humanity is in danger.[28] According to Antonio De Lauri, a research professor at the Chr. Michelsen Institute, humanitarian diplomacy "ranges from negotiating the presence of humanitarian organizations to negotiating access to civilian populations in need of protection. It involves monitoring assistance programs, promoting respect for international law, and engaging in advocacy in support of broader humanitarian goals".[29]

Migration edit

Migration diplomacy is the use of human migration in a state's foreign policy.[30] American political scientist Myron Weiner argued that international migration is intricately linked to states' international relations.[31] More recently, Kelly Greenhill has identified how states may employ 'weapons of mass migration' against target states in their foreign relations.[32] Migration diplomacy may involve the use of refugees,[33][34] labor migrants,[35][36] or diasporas[37] in states' pursuit of international diplomacy goals. In the context of the Syrian Civil War, Syrian refugees were used in the context of Jordanian, Lebanese, and Turkish migration diplomacy.[38][27]

Nuclear edit

 
The ministers of foreign affairs of the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, France, China, the European Union and Iran negotiating in Lausanne for a Comprehensive agreement on the Iranian nuclear programme (30 March 2015).

Nuclear diplomacy is the area of diplomacy related to preventing nuclear proliferation and nuclear war. One of the most well-known (and most controversial) philosophies of nuclear diplomacy is mutually assured destruction (MAD).[39][40]

Preventive edit

Preventive diplomacy is carried out through quiet means (as opposed to "gun-boat diplomacy", which is backed by the threat of force, or "public diplomacy", which makes use of publicity). It is also understood that circumstances may exist in which the consensual use of force (notably preventive deployment) might be welcomed by parties to a conflict with a view to achieving the stabilization necessary for diplomacy and related political processes to proceed. This is to be distinguished from the use of "persuasion", "suasion", "influence", and other non-coercive approaches explored below.

Preventive diplomacy, in the view of one expert, is "the range of peaceful dispute resolution approaches mentioned in Article 33 of the UN Charter [on the pacific settlement of disputes] when applied before a dispute crosses the threshold to armed conflict." It may take many forms, with different means employed. One form of diplomacy which may be brought to bear to prevent violent conflict (or to prevent its recurrence) is "quiet diplomacy". When one speaks of the practice of quiet diplomacy, definitional clarity is largely absent. In part this is due to a lack of any comprehensive assessment of exactly what types of engagement qualify, and how such engagements are pursued. On the one hand, a survey of the literature reveals no precise understanding or terminology on the subject. On the other hand, concepts are neither clear nor discrete in practice. Multiple definitions are often invoked simultaneously by theorists, and the activities themselves often mix and overlap in practice.[41]

Public edit

Public diplomacy is the exercise of influence through communication with the general public in another nation, rather than attempting to influence the nation's government directly. This communication may take the form of propaganda, or more benign forms such as citizen diplomacy, individual interactions between average citizens of two or more nations. Technological advances and the advent of digital diplomacy now allow instant communication with foreign citizens, and methods such as Facebook diplomacy and Twitter diplomacy are increasingly used by world leaders and diplomats.[23]

Quiet edit

Also known as the "softly softly" approach, quiet diplomacy is the attempt to influence the behaviour of another state through secret negotiations or by refraining from taking a specific action.[42] This method is often employed by states that lack alternative means to influence the target government, or that seek to avoid certain outcomes. For example, South Africa is described as engaging in quiet diplomacy with neighboring Zimbabwe to avoid appearing as "bullying" and subsequently engendering a hostile response. This approach can also be employed by more powerful states: U.S. President George W. Bush's nonattendance at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development constituted a form of quiet diplomacy, in response to the lack of UN support for the U.S.' proposed invasion of Iraq.[citation needed]

Science edit

Science diplomacy[43] is the use of scientific collaborations among nations to address common problems and to build constructive international partnerships. Many experts and groups use a variety of definitions for science diplomacy. However, science diplomacy has become an umbrella term to describe a number of formal or informal technical, research-based, academic or engineering exchanges, with notable examples including CERN, the International Space Station, and ITER.

Soft power edit

Soft power, sometimes called "hearts and minds diplomacy", as defined by Joseph Nye, is the cultivation of relationships, respect, or even admiration from others in order to gain influence, as opposed to more coercive approaches. Often and incorrectly confused with the practice of official diplomacy, soft power refers to non-state, culturally attractive factors that may predispose people to sympathize with a foreign culture based on affinity for its products, such as the American entertainment industry, schools and music.[44] A country's soft power can come from three resources: its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when they are seen as legitimate and having moral authority).[citation needed] A particular example of soft power is the use of giant panda bears by China as a diplomatic gift, a practice known as panda diplomacy.

City edit

City diplomacy refers to cities using institutions and processes to engage relations with other actors on an international stage, with the aim of representing themselves and their interests to one another.[45] Especially today, city administrations and networks are increasingly active in the realm of transnationally relevant questions and issues ranging from the climate crisis to migration and the promotion of smart technology. As such, cities and city networks may seek to address and re-shape national and sub-national conflicts, support their peers in the achievement of sustainable development, and achieve certain levels of regional integration and solidarity among each other.[46] Whereas diplomacy pursued by nation-states is often said to be disconnected from the citizenry, city diplomacy fundamentally rests on its proximity to the latter and seeks to leverage these ties "to build international strategies integrating both their values and interests."[47]

Training edit

 
The Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation at 53/2 Ostozhenka Street, Moscow

Most countries provide professional training for their diplomats and maintain institutions specifically for that purpose. Private institutions also exist as do establishments associated with organisations like the European Union and the United Nations.

See also edit

Notes and references edit

  1. ^ Trager, Robert F. (2016). "The Diplomacy of War and Peace". Annual Review of Political Science. 19 (1): 205–228. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051214-100534. ISSN 1094-2939.
  2. ^ Ronald Peter Barston, Modern Diplomacy, Pearson Education, 2006, p. 1
  3. ^ "The Diplomats" in Jay Winter, ed. The Cambridge History of the First World War: Volume II: The State (2014) vol 2 p 68.
  4. ^ "diplomacy | Nature, Purpose, History, & Practice". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
  5. ^ Leira, Halvard. “A Conceptual History of Diplomacy,” in The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy, ed. Costas M. Constantinou, Pauline Kerr, and Paul Sharp (London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2016).
  6. ^ Stagnell, Alexander (2020). Diplomacy and Ideology: From the French Revolution to the Digital Age. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780367897796.
  7. ^ a b c Goffman, Daniel. "Negotiating with the Renaissance State: The Ottoman Empire and the New Diplomacy." In The Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire. Eds. Virginia Aksan and Daniel Goffman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 61–74.
  8. ^ Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., eds. (1999). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge University Press. p. 587. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. Retrieved 1 September 2011. The writings that preserve information about the political history of the [Warring States] period [...] define a set of idealized roles that constitute the Warring States polity: the monarch, the reforming minister, the military commander, the persuader/diplomat, and the scholar.
  9. ^ Koon, Yeewan (2012). "The Face of Diplomacy in 19th-Century China: Qiying's Portrait Gifts". In Johnson, Kendall (ed.). Narratives of Free Trade: The Commercial Cultures of Early US-China Relations. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 131–148. ISBN 978-9888083541.
  10. ^ See Cristian Violatti, "Arthashastra" (2014)
  11. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2002). The Great Armies of Antiquity. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-275-97809-9.
  12. ^ Haldon, John (1999). Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204. London: UCL Press. p. 101. ISBN 1-85728-495-X.
  13. ^ Antonucci, Michael (February 1993). "War by Other Means: The Legacy of Byzantium". History Today. 43 (2): 11–13.
  14. ^ Dennis 1985, Anonymous, Byzantine Military Treatise on Strategy, para. 43, p. 125
  15. ^ Historical discontinuity between diplomatic practice of the ancient and medieval worlds and modern diplomacy has been questioned; see, for instance, Pierre Chaplais, English Diplomatic Practice in the Middle Ages (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003), p. 1 online.
  16. ^ Gaston Zeller, "French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting." in The New Cambridge Modern History (1961) 5:198–221
  17. ^ (in French) François Modoux, "La Suisse engagera 300 millions pour rénover le Palais des Nations", Le Temps, Friday 28 June 2013, page 9.
  18. ^ David Std Stevenson, "The Diplomats" in Jay Winter, ed. The Cambridge History of the First World War: Volume II: The State (2014) vol 2 p 68.
  19. ^ Apresentação Itamaraty, (in Portuguese) Retrieved 8 November 2021
  20. ^ "Diplomatic Pouches". www.state.gov. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  21. ^ a b Fahim Younus, Mohammad (2010). Diplomacy, The Only Legitimate Way of Conducting International Relations. Lulu. pp. 45–47. ISBN 9781446697061.
  22. ^ Corgan, Michael (12 August 2008). "Small State Diplomacy". e-International Relations.
  23. ^ a b Tutt, A. (2013), E-Diplomacy Capacities within the EU-27: Small States and Social Media. 23 May 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2015. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  24. ^ Green, Dan. "Counterinsurgency Diplomacy: Political Advisors at the Operational and Tactical levels", Military Review, May–June 2007. 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ Rowlands, K. (2012). "Decided Preponderance at Sea": Naval Diplomacy in Strategic Thought. Naval War College Review, 65(4), 5–5.
  26. ^ Mark, Chi-Kwan (2009). "Hostage Diplomacy: Britain, China, and the Politics of Negotiation, 1967–1969". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 20 (3): 473–493. doi:10.1080/09592290903293803. S2CID 154979218.
  27. ^ a b Rezaian, Jason. "Iran's hostage factory". The Washington Post. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  28. ^ Rousseau, Elise; Sommo Pende, Achille (2020). Humanitarian diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan.
  29. ^ Lauri, Antonio De (2018). "Humanitarian Diplomacy: A New Research Agenda". Cmi Brief. 2018 (4).
  30. ^ Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2017). "Migration diplomacy in the Global South: cooperation, coercion and issue linkage in Gaddafi's Libya". Third World Quarterly. 38 (10): 2367–2385. doi:10.1080/01436597.2017.1350102. S2CID 158073635.
  31. ^ Weiner, Myron (1985). "On International Migration and International Relations". Population and Development Review. 11 (3): 441–455. doi:10.2307/1973247. JSTOR 1973247.
  32. ^ Greenhill, Kelly M. (2010). Weapons of mass migration : forced displacement, coercion, and foreign policy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801458668. OCLC 726824355.
  33. ^ Teitelbaum, Michael S. (1984). "Immigration, refugees, and foreign policy". International Organization. 38 (3): 429–450. doi:10.1017/S0020818300026801. ISSN 1531-5088. PMID 12266111. S2CID 2601576.
  34. ^ Greenhill, Kelly M. (September 2002). "Engineered Migration and the Use of Refugees as Political Weapons: A Case Study of the 1994 Cuban Balseros Crisis". International Migration. 40 (4): 39–74. doi:10.1111/1468-2435.00205. ISSN 0020-7985.
  35. ^ Tsourapas, Gerasimos (June 2018). "Labor Migrants as Political Leverage: Migration Interdependence and Coercion in the Mediterranean". International Studies Quarterly. 62 (2): 383–395. doi:10.1093/isq/sqx088.
  36. ^ Norman, Kelsey P. (6 January 2020). "Migration Diplomacy and Policy Liberalization in Morocco and Turkey". International Migration Review. 54 (4): 1158–1183. doi:10.1177/0197918319895271. ISSN 0197-9183. S2CID 212810467.
  37. ^ Shain, Yossi (1994). "Ethnic Diasporas and U.S. Foreign Policy". Political Science Quarterly. 109 (5): 811–841. doi:10.2307/2152533. JSTOR 2152533.
  38. ^ Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2019). "The Syrian Refugee Crisis and Foreign Policy Decision-Making in Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey". Journal of Global Security Studies. 4 (4): 464–481. doi:10.1093/jogss/ogz016.
  39. ^ Mutual Assured Destruction; Col. Alan J. Parrington, USAF, Mutually Assured Destruction Revisited, Strategic Doctrine in Question 2015-06-20 at the Wayback Machine, Airpower Journal, Winter 1997.
  40. ^ Jervis, Robert (2002). "Mutual Assured Destruction". Foreign Policy (133): 40–42. doi:10.2307/3183553. ISSN 0015-7228. JSTOR 3183553.
  41. ^ Collins, Craig; Packer, John (2006). "Options and Techniques for Quiet Diplomacy" (PDF). Edita Stockholm: 10.
  42. ^ Kuseni Dlamini, "Is Quiet Diplomacy an Effective Conflict Resolution Strategy?", SA Yearbook of International Affairs, 2002/03, pp. 171–72.
  43. ^ "Diplomacy". www.diplomacy.edu. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  44. ^ Nye, Joseph (2006). "Think Again: Soft Power". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
  45. ^ "City Diplomacy: the expanding role of City diplomacy in International Politics" (PDF).
  46. ^ Musch, A. (2008). City diplomacy : the role of local government in conflict prevention, peace-building, post-conflict reconstruction. VNG International. ISBN 978-90-804757-4-8. OCLC 1012533034.
  47. ^ Kihlgren Grandi, Lorenzo (2020). City Diplomacy. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-60717-3. OCLC 1226702196.

Bibliography edit

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  • Francois de Callieres,The Art of Diplomacy(ed. Karl W Schweizer and M.Keens-Soper)1983
  • Cunningham, George. Journey to Become a Diplomat: With a Guide to Careers in World Affairs FPA Global Vision Books 2005, ISBN 0-87124-212-5
  • Dennis, George T. (1985). Three Byzantine Military Treatises (Volume 9). Washington, District of Columbia: Dumbarton Oaks, Research Library and Collection. ISBN 9780884021407.
  • Dorman, Shawn, ed. Inside a U.S. Embassy: How the Foreign Service Works for America by American Foreign Service Association, Second edition February 2003, ISBN 0-9649488-2-6
  • Hayne, M. B. The French Foreign Office and the Origins of the First World War, 1898–1914 (1993);
  • Hill, Henry Bertram. The Political Testament of Cardinal Richeleiu: The Significant Chapters and Supporting Selections (1964)
  • Holmes, Marcus. 2018. Face-to-Face Diplomacy: Social Neuroscience and International Relations. Cambridge University Press.
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  • Kissinger, Henry. A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the Problem of Peace: 1812–1822 (1999)
  • Henry Kissinger. Diplomacy (1999)
  • Jovan Kurbalija and Valentin Katrandjiev, Multistakeholder Diplomacy: Challenges and Opportunities. ISBN 978-99932-53-16-7
  • Kurbalija J. and Slavik H. eds. Language and Diplomacy DiploProjects, Mediterranean Academy of Diplomatic Studies, Malta, 2001, ISBN 99909-55-15-8; papers by experts.
  • Macalister-Smith Peter, Schwietzke, Joachim, ed., Diplomatic Conferences and Congresses. A Bibliographical Compendium of State Practice 1642 to 1919 W. Neugebauer, Graz, Feldkirch 2017 ISBN 978-3-85376-325-4
  • MacMillan, Margaret. Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (2003).
  • Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-25570-5
  • Maulucci Jr., Thomas W. Adenauer's Foreign Office: West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich (2012).
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  • Nicolson, Sir Harold George. The Evolution of Diplomatic Method (1977)
  • Otte, Thomas G. The Foreign Office Mind: The Making of British Foreign Policy, 1865–1914 (2011).
  • Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Diplomacy" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). pp. 294–300.
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  • Rivère de Carles, Nathalie, and Duclos, Nathalie, Forms of Diplomacy (16th–21st c.), Toulouse, Presses Universitaires du Midi, 2015. ISBN 978-2-8107-0424-8. A study of alternative forms of diplomacy and essays on cultural diplomacy by Lucien Bély et al.
  • Ernest Satow. A Guide to Diplomatic Practice by Longmans, Green & Co. London & New York, 1917. A standard reference work used in many embassies across the world (though not British ones). In its fifth edition (1998) ISBN 0-582-50109-1
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External links edit

diplomacy, textual, analysis, historic, documents, diplomatics, other, uses, disambiguation, comprises, spoken, written, communication, representatives, states, such, leaders, diplomats, intended, influence, events, international, system, winston, churchill, p. For the textual analysis of historic documents see Diplomatics For other uses see Diplomacy disambiguation Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of states such as leaders and diplomats intended to influence events in the international system 1 2 Winston Churchill Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Franklin D Roosevelt President of the United States and Joseph Stalin General Secretary of the Soviet Union at the Yalta Conference 1945Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign policy which represents the broader goals and strategies that guide a state s interactions with the rest of the world International treaties agreements alliances and other manifestations of international relations are usually the result of diplomatic negotiations and processes Diplomats may also help shape a state by advising government officials Modern diplomatic methods practices and principles originated largely from 17th century European custom Beginning in the early 20th century diplomacy became professionalized the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations ratified by most of the world s sovereign states provides a framework for diplomatic procedures methods and conduct Most diplomacy is now conducted by accredited officials such as envoys and ambassadors through a dedicated foreign affairs office Diplomats operate through diplomatic missions most commonly consulates and embassies and rely on a number of support staff the term diplomat is thus sometimes applied broadly to diplomatic and consular personnel and foreign ministry officials 3 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Western Asia 2 1 1 Ottoman Empire 2 1 2 East Asia 2 1 3 Ancient India 2 2 Europe 2 2 1 Byzantine Empire 2 2 2 Medieval and early modern Europe 2 3 Modernity 3 Immunity 4 Espionage 5 Resolution of problems 5 1 Arbitration and mediation 5 2 Conferences 5 3 Negotiations 6 Small states 7 Types 7 1 Appeasement 7 2 Counterinsurgency 7 3 Debt trap 7 4 Economic 7 5 Gunboat 7 6 Hostage 7 7 Humanitarian 7 8 Migration 7 9 Nuclear 7 10 Preventive 7 11 Public 7 12 Quiet 7 13 Science 7 14 Soft power 7 15 City 8 Training 9 See also 10 Notes and references 11 Bibliography 12 External linksEtymology editThe term diplomacy is derived from the 18th century French term diplomate diplomat or diplomatist based on the ancient Greek diplōma which roughly means an object folded in two 4 This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege prior to the invention of the envelope folding a document served to protect the privacy of its content The term was later applied to all official documents such as those containing agreements between governments and thus became identified with international relations This established history has in recent years been criticized by scholars pointing out how the term originates in the political context of the French Revolution 5 6 additional citation s needed History editSee also Diplomatic history nbsp Ger van Elk Symmetry of Diplomacy 1975 Groninger Museum nbsp The Egyptian Hittite peace treaty between the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire of AnatoliaWestern Asia edit Some of the earliest known diplomatic records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC Peace treaties were concluded between the Mesopotamian city states of Lagash and Umma around approximately 2100 BC Following the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC during the nineteenth dynasty the pharaoh of Egypt and the ruler of the Hittite Empire created one of the first known international peace treaties which survives in stone tablet fragments now generally called the Egyptian Hittite peace treaty citation needed The ancient Greek city states on some occasions dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues such as war and peace or commercial relations but did not have diplomatic representatives regularly posted in each other s territory However some of the functions given to modern diplomatic representatives were fulfilled by a proxenos a citizen of the host city who had friendly relations with another city often through familial ties In times of peace diplomacy was even conducted with non Hellenistic rivals such as the Achaemenid Empire of Persia through it was ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon Alexander was also adept at diplomacy realizing that the conquest of foreign cultures would be better achieved by having his Macedonian and Greek subjects intermingle and intermarry with native populations For instance Alexander took as his wife a Sogdian woman of Bactria Roxana after the siege of the Sogdian Rock in order to placate the rebelling populace Diplomacy remained a necessary tool of statecraft for the great Hellenistic states that succeeded Alexander s empire such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire which fought several wars in the Near East and often negotiated peace treaties through marriage alliances citation needed Ottoman Empire edit Further information Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire nbsp A French ambassador in Ottoman dress painted by Antoine de Favray 1766 Pera Museum IstanbulRelations with the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states to which the Ottoman government was known as the Sublime Porte 7 The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities and more and more upon the perpetuation of good relations with the Ottomans 7 Interactions between various merchants diplomats and clergymen hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat which was originally a negotiator evolved into a persona that represented an autonomous state in all aspects of political affairs It became evident that all other sovereigns felt the need to accommodate themselves diplomatically due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire 7 One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the early modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture citation needed East Asia edit Main article Foreign relations of Imperial China Further information Category Chinese diplomats Heqin Haijin Sino Roman relations Sino Indian relations Europeans in Medieval China Jesuit China missions Nanban trade Luso Chinese agreement 1554 History of Macau Macartney Embassy and Islam in China One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th century BC military strategist Sun Tzu d 496 BC author of The Art of War He lived during a time in which rival states were starting to pay less attention to traditional respects of tutelage to the Zhou dynasty c 1050 256 BC figurehead monarchs while each vied for power and total conquest However a great deal of diplomacy in establishing allies bartering land and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state and the idealized role of the persuader diplomat developed 8 From the Battle of Baideng 200 BC to the Battle of Mayi 133 BC the Han dynasty was forced to uphold a marriage alliance and pay an exorbitant amount of tribute in silk cloth grain and other foodstuffs to the powerful northern nomadic Xiongnu that had been consolidated by Modu Shanyu After the Xiongnu sent word to Emperor Wen of Han r 180 157 that they controlled areas stretching from Manchuria to the Tarim Basin oasis city states a treaty was drafted in 162 BC proclaiming that everything north of the Great Wall belong to nomads lands while everything south of it would be reserved for Han Chinese The treaty was renewed no less than nine times but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders That was until the far flung campaigns of Emperor Wu of Han r 141 87 BC which shattered the unity of the Xiongnu and allowed Han to conquer the Western Regions under Wu in 104 BC the Han armies ventured as far Fergana in Central Asia to battle the Yuezhi who had conquered Hellenistic Greek areas citation needed nbsp Portraits of Periodical Offering a 6th century Chinese painting portraying various emissaries ambassadors depicted in the painting ranging from those of Hephthalites Persia to Langkasuka Baekje part of the modern Korea Qiuci and Wo Japan The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang dynasty 618 907 AD looked to the Chinese capital of Chang an as the hub of civilization and emulated its central bureaucracy as the model of governance The Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763 the Tang dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia and the Tarim Basin After several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades the Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841 citation needed In the 11th century during the Song dynasty 960 1279 there were shrewd ambassadors such as Shen Kuo and Su Song who achieved diplomatic success with the Liao dynasty the often hostile Khitan neighbor to the north Both diplomats secured the rightful borders of the Song dynasty through knowledge of cartography and dredging up old court archives There was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia dynasty to the northwest of Song China centered in modern day Shaanxi After warring with the Ly dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077 Song and Ly made a peace agreement in 1082 to exchange the respective lands they had captured from each other during the war citation needed Long before the Tang and Song dynasties the Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia India and Persia starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration Since the Tang dynasty 618 907 AD the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on maritime missions into the Indian Ocean to India Persia Arabia East Africa and Egypt Chinese maritime activity was increased dramatically during the commercialized period of the Song dynasty with new nautical technologies many more private ship owners and an increasing amount of economic investors in overseas ventures citation needed During the Mongol Empire 1206 1294 the Mongols created something similar to today s diplomatic passport called paiza The paiza were in three different types golden silver and copper depending on the envoy s level of importance With the paiza there came authority that the envoy can ask for food transport place to stay from any city village or clan within the empire with no difficulties citation needed In the 17th century the Qing dynasty concluded a series of treaties with Czarist Russia beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 This was followed up by the Aigun Treaty and the Convention of Peking in the mid 19th century citation needed As European power spread around the world in the 18th and 19th centuries so too did its diplomatic model and Asian countries adopted syncretic or European diplomatic systems For example as part of diplomatic negotiations with the West over control of land and trade in China in the 19th century after the First Opium War the Chinese diplomat Qiying gifted intimate portraits of himself to representatives from Italy England the United States and France 9 Ancient India edit nbsp India s diplomatic personnelAncient India with its kingdoms and dynasties had a long tradition of diplomacy The oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy Arthashastra is attributed to Kautilya also known as Chanakya who was the principal adviser to Chandragupta Maurya the founder of the Maurya dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC It incorporates a theory of diplomacy of how in a situation of mutually contesting kingdoms the wise king builds alliances and tries to checkmate his adversaries The envoys sent at the time to the courts of other kingdoms tended to reside for extended periods of time and Arthashastra contains advice on the deportment of the envoy including the trenchant suggestion that he should sleep alone The highest morality for the king is that his kingdom should prosper 10 New analysis of Arthashastra brings out that hidden inside the 6 000 aphorisms of prose sutras are pioneering political and philosophic concepts It covers the internal and external spheres of statecraft politics and administration The normative element is the political unification of the geopolitical and cultural subcontinent of India This work comprehensively studies state governance it urges non injury to living creatures or malice as well as compassion forbearance truthfulness and uprightness It presents a rajmandala grouping of states a model that places the home state surrounded by twelve competing entities which can either be potential adversaries or latent allies depending on how relations with them are managed This is the essence of realpolitik It also offers four upaya policy approaches conciliation gifts rupture or dissent and force It counsels that war is the last resort as its outcome is always uncertain This is the first expression of the raison d etat doctrine as also of humanitarian law that conquered people must be treated fairly and assimilated citation needed Europe edit Byzantine Empire edit Main article Byzantine diplomacy The key challenge to the Byzantine Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its sundry neighbors including the Georgians Iberians the Germanic peoples the Bulgars the Slavs the Armenians the Huns the Avars the Franks the Lombards and the Arabs that embodied and so maintained its imperial status All these neighbors lacked a key resource that Byzantium had taken over from Rome namely a formalized legal structure When they set about forging formal political institutions they were dependent on the empire Whereas classical writers are fond of making a sharp distinction between peace and war for the Byzantines diplomacy was a form of war by other means With a regular army of 120 000 140 000 men after the losses of the 7th century 11 12 the empire s security depended on activist diplomacy citation needed nbsp Omurtag ruler of Bulgaria sends a delegation to the Byzantine emperor Michael II Madrid Skylitzes Biblioteca Nacional de Espana Madrid Byzantium s Bureau of Barbarians was the first foreign intelligence agency gathering information on the empire s rivals from every imaginable source 13 While on the surface a protocol office its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance and it kept all the official translators it clearly had a security function as well On Strategy from the 6th century offers advice about foreign embassies Envoys who are sent to us should be received honourably and generously for everyone holds envoys in high esteem Their attendants however should be kept under surveillance to keep them from obtaining any information by asking questions of our people 14 Medieval and early modern Europe edit Further information Category Medieval diplomats Niccolo Machiavelli and The Prince In Europe early modern diplomacy s origins are often traced to the states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance with the first embassies being established in the 13th century 15 Milan played a leading role especially under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centres of diplomacy from the 14th century onwards It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began such as the presentation of an ambassador s credentials to the head of state citation needed Modernity edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message nbsp French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand Perigord is considered one of the most skilled diplomats of all time From Italy the practice was spread across Europe Milan was the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455 However Milan refused to host French representatives fearing they would conduct espionage and intervene in its internal affairs As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics the need to accept emissaries was recognized Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives Spain was the first to send a permanent representative it appointed an ambassador to the Court of St James s i e England in 1487 By the late 16th century permanent missions became customary The Holy Roman Emperor however did not regularly send permanent legates as they could not represent the interests of all the German princes who were in theory all subordinate to the Emperor but in practice each independent Between 1500 and 1700 rules of modern diplomacy were further developed 16 French replaced Latin from about 1715 The top rank of representatives was an ambassador At that time an ambassador was a nobleman the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he was delegated to Strict standards developed for ambassadors requiring they have large residences host lavish parties and play an important role in the court life of their host nation In Rome the most prized posting for a Catholic ambassador the French and Spanish representatives would have a retinue of up to a hundred Even in smaller posts ambassadors were very expensive Smaller states would send and receive envoys who were a rung below ambassador Somewhere between the two was the position of minister plenipotentiary Diplomacy was a complex affair even more so than now The ambassadors from each state were ranked by complex levels of precedence that were much disputed States were normally ranked by the title of the sovereign for Catholic nations the emissary from the Vatican was paramount then those from the kingdoms then those from duchies and principalities Representatives from republics were ranked the lowest which often angered the leaders of the numerous German Scandinavian and Italian republics Determining precedence between two kingdoms depended on a number of factors that often fluctuated leading to near constant squabbling nbsp The First Geneva Convention 1864 Geneva Switzerland is the city that hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world 17 Ambassadors were often nobles with little foreign experience and no expectation of a career in diplomacy They were supported by their embassy staff These professionals would be sent on longer assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher ranking officials about the host country Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees including some dedicated to espionage The need for skilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates of universities and this led to a great increase in the study of international law French and history at universities throughout Europe nbsp Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of ViennaAt the same time permanent foreign ministries began to be established in almost all European states to coordinate embassies and their staffs These ministries were still far from their modern form and many of them had extraneous internal responsibilities Britain had two departments with frequently overlapping powers until 1782 They were also far smaller than they are currently France which boasted the largest foreign affairs department had only some 70 full time employees in the 1780s The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to Eastern Europe and Russia arriving by the early 18th century The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state and of those conquered by revolutionary armies Ranks of precedence were abolished Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France After the fall of Napoleon the Congress of Vienna of 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank Disputes on precedence among nations and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used were first addressed at the Congress of Aix la Chapelle in 1818 but persisted for over a century until after World War II when the rank of ambassador became the norm In between that time figures such as the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy Diplomats and historians often refer to a foreign ministry by its address the Ballhausplatz Vienna the Quai d Orsay Paris the Wilhelmstrasse Berlin Itamaraty Brasilia and Foggy Bottom Washington D C For the Russian foreign ministry it was the Choristers Bridge Saint Petersburg until 1917 while Consulta referred to the Italian foreign ministry based in the Palazzo della Consulta Rome from 1874 to 1922 18 19 Immunity editMain article Diplomatic immunity This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2012 Learn how and when to remove this template message The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed underpinning the modern concept of diplomatic immunity While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed this is normally viewed as a great breach of honour Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights Diplomatic rights were established in the mid 17th century in Europe and have spread throughout the world These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which protects diplomats from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission If a diplomat does commit a serious crime while in a host country he or she may be declared as persona non grata unwanted person Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their homeland Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct and diplomats have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched The mechanism for this is the so called diplomatic bag or in some countries the diplomatic pouch While radio and digital communication have become more standard for embassies diplomatic pouches are still quite common and some countries including the United States declare entire shipping containers as diplomatic pouches to bring sensitive material often building supplies into a country 20 In times of hostility diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety as well as in some cases when the host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country In both cases lower level employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy Espionage editThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2010 Learn how and when to remove this template message Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies For instance the job of military attaches includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned They do not try to hide this role and as such are only invited to events allowed by their hosts such as military parades or air shows There are also deep cover spies operating in many embassies These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy but their main task is to illegally gather intelligence usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies For the most part spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition If discovered these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy but for the most part counter intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in diplomacy Arms control treaties would be impossible without the power of reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy everything from trade agreements to border disputes Resolution of problems editThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2010 Learn how and when to remove this template message Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic issues and disputes Arbitration and mediation edit nbsp Brazilian President Prudente de Morais shakes hands with King Carlos I of Portugal during the re establishment of diplomatic relations between Brazil and Portugal after talks mediated by Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom 16 March 1895 Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific question or point of contention in need of resolution For most of history there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings They were generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law and justice citation needed Sometimes these took the form of formal arbitrations and mediations In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue and to come some sort of ruling based on international law In the modern era much of this work is often carried out by the International Court of Justice at The Hague or other formal commissions agencies and tribunals working under the United Nations Below are some examples The Hay Herbert Treaty was enacted after the United States and Britain submitted a dispute to international mediation about the Canada U S border Conferences edit nbsp Anton von Werner Congress of Berlin 1881 final meeting at the Reich Chancellery on 13 July 1878Other times resolutions were sought through the convening of international conferences In such cases there are fewer ground rules and fewer formal applications of international law However participants are expected to guide themselves through principles of international fairness logic and protocol 21 Some examples of these formal conferences are Congress of Vienna 1815 After Napoleon was defeated there were many diplomatic questions waiting to be resolved This included the shape of the political map of Europe the disposition of political and nationalist claims of various ethnic groups and nationalities wishing to have some political autonomy and the resolution of various claims by various European powers The Congress of Berlin 13 June 13 July 1878 was a meeting of the European Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire s leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878 In the wake of the Russo Turkish War 1877 78 the meeting s aim was to reorganize conditions in the Balkans Negotiations edit nbsp Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords Menachem Begin Jimmy Carter Anwar El SadatSometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle a specific dispute or specific issue between several nations which are parties to a dispute These are similar to the conferences mentioned above as there are technically no established rules or procedures However there are general principles and precedents which help define a course for such proceedings 21 Some examples are Camp David Accords Convened in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter of the United States at Camp David to reach an agreement between Prime Minister Mechaem Begin of Israel and President Anwar Sadat of Egypt After weeks of negotiation agreement was reached and the accords were signed later leading directly to the Egypt Israel peace treaty of 1979 Treaty of Portsmouth Enacted after President Theodore Roosevelt brought together the delegates from Russia and Japan to settle the Russo Japanese War Roosevelt s personal intervention settled the conflict and caused him to win the Nobel Peace Prize Small states edit nbsp Czech originally Czechoslovak Embassy in BerlinSmall state diplomacy is receiving increasing attention in diplomatic studies and international relations Small states are particularly affected by developments which are determined beyond their borders such as climate change water security and shifts in the global economy Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena These factors mean that small states have strong incentives to support international cooperation But with limited resources at their disposal conducting effective diplomacy poses unique challenges for small states 22 23 Types editThere are a variety of diplomatic categories and diplomatic strategies employed by organizations and governments to achieve their aims each with its own advantages and disadvantages Appeasement edit Main article Appeasement Appeasement is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation because of its failure to prevent World War 2 appeasement is not considered a legitimate tool of modern diplomacy citation needed Counterinsurgency edit Counterinsurgency diplomacy or expeditionary diplomacy developed by diplomats deployed to civil military stabilization efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan employs diplomats at tactical and operational levels outside traditional embassy environments and often alongside military or peacekeeping forces Counterinsurgency diplomacy may provide political environment advice to local commanders interact with local leaders and facilitate the governance efforts functions and reach of a host government 24 Debt trap edit Main article Debt trap diplomacy Debt trap diplomacy is carried out in bilateral relations with a powerful lending country seeking to saddle a borrowing nation with enormous debt so as to increase its leverage over it citation needed Economic edit Main article Economic diplomacy Economic diplomacy is the use of aid or other types of economic policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda citation needed Gunboat edit Main article Gunboat diplomacy Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military power as a means of intimidation to influence others Since it is inherently coercive it typically lies near the edge between peace and war and is usually exercised in the context of imperialism or hegemony 25 An emblematic example is the Don Pacifico Incident in 1850 in which the United Kingdom blockaded the Greek port of Piraeus in retaliation for the harming of a British subject and the failure of Greek government to provide him with restitution Hostage edit Main article Hostage diplomacy Hostage diplomacy is the taking of hostages by a state or quasi state actor to fulfill diplomatic goals It is a type of asymmetric diplomacy often used by weaker states to pressure stronger ones Hostage diplomacy has been practiced from prehistory to the present day 26 27 Humanitarian edit Humanitarian diplomacy is the set of activities undertaken by various actors with governments para military organizations or personalities in order to intervene or push intervention in a context where humanity is in danger 28 According to Antonio De Lauri a research professor at the Chr Michelsen Institute humanitarian diplomacy ranges from negotiating the presence of humanitarian organizations to negotiating access to civilian populations in need of protection It involves monitoring assistance programs promoting respect for international law and engaging in advocacy in support of broader humanitarian goals 29 Migration edit Migration diplomacy is the use of human migration in a state s foreign policy 30 American political scientist Myron Weiner argued that international migration is intricately linked to states international relations 31 More recently Kelly Greenhill has identified how states may employ weapons of mass migration against target states in their foreign relations 32 Migration diplomacy may involve the use of refugees 33 34 labor migrants 35 36 or diasporas 37 in states pursuit of international diplomacy goals In the context of the Syrian Civil War Syrian refugees were used in the context of Jordanian Lebanese and Turkish migration diplomacy 38 27 Nuclear edit nbsp The ministers of foreign affairs of the United States the United Kingdom Russia Germany France China the European Union and Iran negotiating in Lausanne for a Comprehensive agreement on the Iranian nuclear programme 30 March 2015 Nuclear diplomacy is the area of diplomacy related to preventing nuclear proliferation and nuclear war One of the most well known and most controversial philosophies of nuclear diplomacy is mutually assured destruction MAD 39 40 Preventive edit Main article Preventive diplomacy Preventive diplomacy is carried out through quiet means as opposed to gun boat diplomacy which is backed by the threat of force or public diplomacy which makes use of publicity It is also understood that circumstances may exist in which the consensual use of force notably preventive deployment might be welcomed by parties to a conflict with a view to achieving the stabilization necessary for diplomacy and related political processes to proceed This is to be distinguished from the use of persuasion suasion influence and other non coercive approaches explored below Preventive diplomacy in the view of one expert is the range of peaceful dispute resolution approaches mentioned in Article 33 of the UN Charter on the pacific settlement of disputes when applied before a dispute crosses the threshold to armed conflict It may take many forms with different means employed One form of diplomacy which may be brought to bear to prevent violent conflict or to prevent its recurrence is quiet diplomacy When one speaks of the practice of quiet diplomacy definitional clarity is largely absent In part this is due to a lack of any comprehensive assessment of exactly what types of engagement qualify and how such engagements are pursued On the one hand a survey of the literature reveals no precise understanding or terminology on the subject On the other hand concepts are neither clear nor discrete in practice Multiple definitions are often invoked simultaneously by theorists and the activities themselves often mix and overlap in practice 41 Public edit Main article Public diplomacy Public diplomacy is the exercise of influence through communication with the general public in another nation rather than attempting to influence the nation s government directly This communication may take the form of propaganda or more benign forms such as citizen diplomacy individual interactions between average citizens of two or more nations Technological advances and the advent of digital diplomacy now allow instant communication with foreign citizens and methods such as Facebook diplomacy and Twitter diplomacy are increasingly used by world leaders and diplomats 23 Quiet edit Also known as the softly softly approach quiet diplomacy is the attempt to influence the behaviour of another state through secret negotiations or by refraining from taking a specific action 42 This method is often employed by states that lack alternative means to influence the target government or that seek to avoid certain outcomes For example South Africa is described as engaging in quiet diplomacy with neighboring Zimbabwe to avoid appearing as bullying and subsequently engendering a hostile response This approach can also be employed by more powerful states U S President George W Bush s nonattendance at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development constituted a form of quiet diplomacy in response to the lack of UN support for the U S proposed invasion of Iraq citation needed Science edit Main article Science diplomacy Science diplomacy 43 is the use of scientific collaborations among nations to address common problems and to build constructive international partnerships Many experts and groups use a variety of definitions for science diplomacy However science diplomacy has become an umbrella term to describe a number of formal or informal technical research based academic or engineering exchanges with notable examples including CERN the International Space Station and ITER Soft power edit Main article Soft power Soft power sometimes called hearts and minds diplomacy as defined by Joseph Nye is the cultivation of relationships respect or even admiration from others in order to gain influence as opposed to more coercive approaches Often and incorrectly confused with the practice of official diplomacy soft power refers to non state culturally attractive factors that may predispose people to sympathize with a foreign culture based on affinity for its products such as the American entertainment industry schools and music 44 A country s soft power can come from three resources its culture in places where it is attractive to others its political values when it lives up to them at home and abroad and its foreign policies when they are seen as legitimate and having moral authority citation needed A particular example of soft power is the use of giant panda bears by China as a diplomatic gift a practice known as panda diplomacy City edit City diplomacy refers to cities using institutions and processes to engage relations with other actors on an international stage with the aim of representing themselves and their interests to one another 45 Especially today city administrations and networks are increasingly active in the realm of transnationally relevant questions and issues ranging from the climate crisis to migration and the promotion of smart technology As such cities and city networks may seek to address and re shape national and sub national conflicts support their peers in the achievement of sustainable development and achieve certain levels of regional integration and solidarity among each other 46 Whereas diplomacy pursued by nation states is often said to be disconnected from the citizenry city diplomacy fundamentally rests on its proximity to the latter and seeks to leverage these ties to build international strategies integrating both their values and interests 47 Training editMain article List of diplomatic training institutions nbsp The Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation at 53 2 Ostozhenka Street MoscowMost countries provide professional training for their diplomats and maintain institutions specifically for that purpose Private institutions also exist as do establishments associated with organisations like the European Union and the United Nations See also edit nbsp Politics portalCitizen diplomacy Cricket diplomacy Commercial diplomacy Cowboy diplomacy Cultural diplomacy Digital diplomacy Diplomacy Monitor Diplomatic capital Diplomatic flag Diplomatic gift Diplomatic law Diplomatic passport Diplomatic rank Diplomatic recognition Energy diplomacy Foreign minister Foreign policy analysis Foreign policy doctrine List of peace activists Panda diplomacy Paradiplomacy Peace makers Peacemaking Preventive diplomacy Protocol diplomacy Shuttle diplomacy Track II diplomacyNotes and references edit Trager Robert F 2016 The Diplomacy of War and Peace Annual Review of Political Science 19 1 205 228 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 051214 100534 ISSN 1094 2939 Ronald Peter Barston Modern Diplomacy Pearson Education 2006 p 1 The Diplomats in Jay Winter ed The Cambridge History of the First World War Volume II The State 2014 vol 2 p 68 diplomacy Nature Purpose History amp Practice Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 25 June 2020 Leira Halvard A Conceptual History of Diplomacy in The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy ed Costas M Constantinou Pauline Kerr and Paul Sharp London SAGE Publications Ltd 2016 Stagnell Alexander 2020 Diplomacy and Ideology From the French Revolution to the Digital Age London Routledge ISBN 9780367897796 a b c Goffman Daniel Negotiating with the Renaissance State The Ottoman Empire and the New Diplomacy In The Early Modern Ottomans Remapping the Empire Eds Virginia Aksan and Daniel Goffman Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 61 74 Loewe Michael Shaughnessy Edward L eds 1999 The Cambridge History of Ancient China from the origins of civilization to 221 B C Cambridge University Press p 587 ISBN 978 0 521 47030 8 Retrieved 1 September 2011 The writings that preserve information about the political history of the Warring States period define a set of idealized roles that constitute the Warring States polity the monarch the reforming minister the military commander the persuader diplomat and the scholar Koon Yeewan 2012 The Face of Diplomacy in 19th Century China Qiying s Portrait Gifts In Johnson Kendall ed Narratives of Free Trade The Commercial Cultures of Early US China Relations Hong Kong University Press pp 131 148 ISBN 978 9888083541 See Cristian Violatti Arthashastra 2014 Gabriel Richard A 2002 The Great Armies of Antiquity Westport Connecticut Greenwood Publishing Group p 281 ISBN 978 0 275 97809 9 Haldon John 1999 Warfare State and Society in the Byzantine World 565 1204 London UCL Press p 101 ISBN 1 85728 495 X Antonucci Michael February 1993 War by Other Means The Legacy of Byzantium History Today 43 2 11 13 Dennis 1985 Anonymous Byzantine Military Treatise on Strategy para 43 p 125 Historical discontinuity between diplomatic practice of the ancient and medieval worlds and modern diplomacy has been questioned see for instance Pierre Chaplais English Diplomatic Practice in the Middle Ages Continuum International Publishing Group 2003 p 1 online Gaston Zeller French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting in The New Cambridge Modern History 1961 5 198 221 in French Francois Modoux La Suisse engagera 300 millions pour renover le Palais des Nations Le Temps Friday 28 June 2013 page 9 David Std Stevenson The Diplomats in Jay Winter ed The Cambridge History of the First World War Volume II The State 2014 vol 2 p 68 Apresentacao Itamaraty in Portuguese Retrieved 8 November 2021 Diplomatic Pouches www state gov Retrieved 12 December 2017 a b Fahim Younus Mohammad 2010 Diplomacy The Only Legitimate Way of Conducting International Relations Lulu pp 45 47 ISBN 9781446697061 Corgan Michael 12 August 2008 Small State Diplomacy e International Relations a b Tutt A 2013 E Diplomacy Capacities within the EU 27 Small States and Social Media 23 May 2014 Retrieved 17 September 2015 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a website ignored help Green Dan Counterinsurgency Diplomacy Political Advisors at the Operational and Tactical levels Military Review May June 2007 Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Rowlands K 2012 Decided Preponderance at Sea Naval Diplomacy in Strategic Thought Naval War College Review 65 4 5 5 Mark Chi Kwan 2009 Hostage Diplomacy Britain China and the Politics of Negotiation 1967 1969 Diplomacy amp Statecraft 20 3 473 493 doi 10 1080 09592290903293803 S2CID 154979218 a b Rezaian Jason Iran s hostage factory The Washington Post Retrieved 16 December 2019 Rousseau Elise Sommo Pende Achille 2020 Humanitarian diplomacy Palgrave Macmillan Lauri Antonio De 2018 Humanitarian Diplomacy A New Research Agenda Cmi Brief 2018 4 Tsourapas Gerasimos 2017 Migration diplomacy in the Global South cooperation coercion and issue linkage in Gaddafi s Libya Third World Quarterly 38 10 2367 2385 doi 10 1080 01436597 2017 1350102 S2CID 158073635 Weiner Myron 1985 On International Migration and International Relations Population and Development Review 11 3 441 455 doi 10 2307 1973247 JSTOR 1973247 Greenhill Kelly M 2010 Weapons of mass migration forced displacement coercion and foreign policy Ithaca N Y Cornell University Press ISBN 9780801458668 OCLC 726824355 Teitelbaum Michael S 1984 Immigration refugees and foreign policy International Organization 38 3 429 450 doi 10 1017 S0020818300026801 ISSN 1531 5088 PMID 12266111 S2CID 2601576 Greenhill Kelly M September 2002 Engineered Migration and the Use of Refugees as Political Weapons A Case Study of the 1994 Cuban Balseros Crisis International Migration 40 4 39 74 doi 10 1111 1468 2435 00205 ISSN 0020 7985 Tsourapas Gerasimos June 2018 Labor Migrants as Political Leverage Migration Interdependence and Coercion in the Mediterranean International Studies Quarterly 62 2 383 395 doi 10 1093 isq sqx088 Norman Kelsey P 6 January 2020 Migration Diplomacy and Policy Liberalization in Morocco and Turkey International Migration Review 54 4 1158 1183 doi 10 1177 0197918319895271 ISSN 0197 9183 S2CID 212810467 Shain Yossi 1994 Ethnic Diasporas and U S Foreign Policy Political Science Quarterly 109 5 811 841 doi 10 2307 2152533 JSTOR 2152533 Tsourapas Gerasimos 2019 The Syrian Refugee Crisis and Foreign Policy Decision Making in Jordan Lebanon and Turkey Journal of Global Security Studies 4 4 464 481 doi 10 1093 jogss ogz016 Mutual Assured Destruction Col Alan J Parrington USAF Mutually Assured Destruction Revisited Strategic Doctrine in Question Archived 2015 06 20 at the Wayback Machine Airpower Journal Winter 1997 Jervis Robert 2002 Mutual Assured Destruction Foreign Policy 133 40 42 doi 10 2307 3183553 ISSN 0015 7228 JSTOR 3183553 Collins Craig Packer John 2006 Options and Techniques for Quiet Diplomacy PDF Edita Stockholm 10 Kuseni Dlamini Is Quiet Diplomacy an Effective Conflict Resolution Strategy SA Yearbook of International Affairs 2002 03 pp 171 72 Diplomacy www diplomacy edu Retrieved 2 February 2023 Nye Joseph 2006 Think Again Soft Power Foreign Policy Retrieved 7 August 2018 City Diplomacy the expanding role of City diplomacy in International Politics PDF Musch A 2008 City diplomacy the role of local government in conflict prevention peace building post conflict reconstruction VNG International ISBN 978 90 804757 4 8 OCLC 1012533034 Kihlgren Grandi Lorenzo 2020 City Diplomacy Springer ISBN 978 3 030 60717 3 OCLC 1226702196 Bibliography editBlack Jeremy A History of Diplomacy U of Chicago Press 2010 ISBN 978 1 86189 696 4 Berridge G R Diplomacy Theory amp Practice 3rd edition Palgrave Basingstoke 2005 ISBN 9783030859305 Francois de Callieres The Art of Diplomacy ed Karl W Schweizer and M Keens Soper 1983 Cunningham George Journey to Become a Diplomat With a Guide to Careers in World Affairs FPA Global Vision Books 2005 ISBN 0 87124 212 5 Dennis George T 1985 Three Byzantine Military Treatises Volume 9 Washington District of Columbia Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection ISBN 9780884021407 Dorman Shawn ed Inside a U S Embassy How the Foreign Service Works for America by American Foreign Service Association Second edition February 2003 ISBN 0 9649488 2 6 Hayne M B The French Foreign Office and the Origins of the First World War 1898 1914 1993 Hill Henry Bertram The Political Testament of Cardinal Richeleiu The Significant Chapters and Supporting Selections 1964 Holmes Marcus 2018 Face to Face Diplomacy Social Neuroscience and International Relations Cambridge University Press Jackson Peter Tradition and adaptation the social universe of the French Foreign Ministry in the era of the First World War French History 24 2010 164 96 Kissinger Henry A World Restored Metternich Castlereagh and the Problem of Peace 1812 1822 1999 Henry Kissinger Diplomacy 1999 Jovan Kurbalija and Valentin Katrandjiev Multistakeholder Diplomacy Challenges and Opportunities ISBN 978 99932 53 16 7 Kurbalija J and Slavik H eds Language and Diplomacy DiploProjects Mediterranean Academy of Diplomatic Studies Malta 2001 ISBN 99909 55 15 8 papers by experts Macalister Smith Peter Schwietzke Joachim ed Diplomatic Conferences and Congresses A Bibliographical Compendium of State Practice 1642 to 1919 W Neugebauer Graz Feldkirch 2017 ISBN 978 3 85376 325 4 MacMillan Margaret Paris 1919 Six Months That Changed the World 2003 Garrett Mattingly Renaissance Diplomacy Dover Publications ISBN 978 0 486 25570 5 Maulucci Jr Thomas W Adenauer s Foreign Office West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich 2012 Nicolson Sir Harold George Diplomacy 1988 Nicolson Sir Harold George The Congress of Vienna A Study in Allied Unity 1812 1822 2001 Nicolson Sir Harold George The Evolution of Diplomatic Method 1977 Otte Thomas G The Foreign Office Mind The Making of British Foreign Policy 1865 1914 2011 Phillips Walter Alison 1911 Diplomacy Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 8 11th ed pp 294 300 Rana Kishan S and Jovan Kurbalija eds Foreign Ministries Managing Diplomatic Networks and Optimizing Value DiploFoundation 2007 ISBN 978 99932 53 16 7 Rana Kishan S The 21st Century Ambassador Plenipotentiary to Chief Executive DiploFoundation 2004 ISBN 99909 55 18 2 Rivere de Carles Nathalie and Duclos Nathalie Forms of Diplomacy 16th 21st c Toulouse Presses Universitaires du Midi 2015 ISBN 978 2 8107 0424 8 A study of alternative forms of diplomacy and essays on cultural diplomacy by Lucien Bely et al Ernest Satow A Guide to Diplomatic Practice by Longmans Green amp Co London amp New York 1917 A standard reference work used in many embassies across the world though not British ones In its fifth edition 1998 ISBN 0 582 50109 1 Seldon Anthony Foreign Office 2000 history of the British ministry and its headquarters building Steiner Zara S The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy 1898 1914 1969 on Britain Stevenson David The Diplomats in Jay Winter ed The Cambridge History of the First World War Volume II The State 2014 vol 2 ch 3 pp 66 90 Trager R 2017 Diplomacy Communication and the Origins of International Order Cambridge University Press Fredrik Wesslau The Political Adviser s Handbook 2013 ISBN 978 91 979688 7 4 Wicquefort Abraham de The Embassador and His Functions 1716 English edition Wright Jonathan The Ambassadors From Ancient Greece to the Nation State 2006 ISBN 978 00 071734 3 3External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diplomacy nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Diplomacy nbsp Wikidata has the property nbsp diplomatic relation P530 see uses Foreign Affairs Manual and associated Handbooks the Foreign Affairs Manual and related handbooks of the United States Department of State Frontline Diplomacy The Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training American diplomats describe their careers on the American Memory website at the Library of Congress Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Diplomacy amp oldid 1194162612, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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