Demand-responsive transport

Demand-responsive transport (DRT), also known as demand-responsive transit, demand-responsive service,^[1] is a type of transportation where routes and schedules are flexible to meet the demand of the service.

Demand-responsive bus service of the Oxford Bus Company in 2018. This service specifically in the image above provides MicroTransit.

There are different variations of DRT which include Dial-a-Ride^[2] transit (sometimes DART or TeleBus),^[3] flexible transport services^[4] or Microtransit,^[5] and even in some cases Non-Emergency Medical Transport (NEMT)^[5] can be considered a type of DRT.

DRT is a form of shared private or quasi-public transport for groups traveling where vehicles alter their routes each journey based on particular transport demand without using a fixed route or timetabled journeys.^[6] These vehicles typically pick-up and drop-off passengers in locations according to passengers needs and can include taxis, buses or other vehicles.^[7][8] Passengers can typically summon the service with a mobile phone app or by telephone; telephone is particularly relevant to older users who may not be conversant with technology.^[9]

One of the most widespread types of demand-responsive transport (DRT) is to provide a public transport service in areas of low passenger demand where a regular bus service is not considered to be financially viable, such as rural and peri-urban areas.^[10] Services may also be provided for particular types of passengers. One example is the paratransit programs for people with a disability. The provision of public transport in this manner emphasizes one of its functions as a social service rather than creating a viable movement network.^[11][12][13]

Definition

 

DRT and other kinds of transport

DRT can be used to refer to many different types of transport. When taxicabs were first introduced to many cities, they were hailed as an innovative form of DRT. They are still referred to as DRT in some jurisdictions around the world as their very nature is to take people from point-to-point based on their needs.^[14][15][6]

More recently, DRT generally refers to a type of public transport. They are distinct from fixed-route services as they do not always operate to a specific timetable or route.^[16] While specific operations vary widely, generally a particular area is designated for service by DRT. Once a certain number of people have requested a trip, the most efficient route will then be calculated depending on the origins and destinations of passengers.

Share taxis are another form of DRT. They are usually operated on an ad hoc basis but also do not have fixed routes or times and change their route and frequency depending on demand.^[17]

Some DRT systems operate as a service that can deviate from a fixed route. These operate along a fixed alignment or path at specific times but may deviate to collect or drop off passengers who have requested the deviation.^[1][18]

Comparison of demand-responsiveness by type

Demand-responsive transport is a broad term that encompasses many different iterations of transportation, there are differences between them although there are a few similarities as well.

• Fully flexible route, fully flexible schedule, no booking – car, bike, foot

Shared vehicle

While taxis and hackney carriages are often used as interchangeable terms, there is a distinction. In the United Kingdom, regulations define hackney carriages as a vehicle allowed to roam the streets looking for passengers to pickup. On the other hand, private hire vehicles (minicabs) are only allowed to pickup people who have booked a ride in advance.

• Fully flexible route, fully flexible schedule, booking – Minicab

Minicabs typically require booking.

• Fully flexible route, fully flexible schedule, no booking – Hackney Carriage

Hackney carriages typically can be hailed from the street.

Versions of Shared Transport:

• Ridesharing - Ridesharing examples include Uber where rides must be prebooked, drivers typically use their personal vehicle and anybody with a license who registers for the program can become a driver.

• Carsharing - Carsharing examples include Evo where small cars can be rented quickly for short term and driven by the customer themself. It differs from traditional car rental due to the fast paced nature of the system, and that the cars do not need to be returned to a rental depot after usage.

• Carpooling / Vanpooling - Carpooling typically has one fixed pickup zone and one fixed drop off zone, typically two rides per day (morning ride to office area, evening ride to residential area). While anybody can carpool, some municipal agencies offer the services.

Shared journey

• highly flexible route, highly flexible schedule, mobile booking – Microtransit / Flexible Transport / On-Demand Transit

Microtransit bus systems, also known as flexible transport, have a highly flexible route and schedule, are constantly subject to change. They require booking in advance. Large vans are typically used for this sort of bus service. This should not be confused with micromobility, which refers to bicycles and scooters.

This sort of on-demand transit is a newer innovation than traditional dial-a-ride buses, which allows for greater flexibility and organization. Dynamic schedules are changed in real-time, and drivers are able to take more direct routes than traditional dial-a-ride buses.^[19]

• some degree of flexible route or schedule, no booking – Taxibus / Share Taxi

Taxibus systems are found in former Soviet Countries. They do not require booking. These buses typically do not leave until either the bus has all seats filled, or if the bus has met the maximum wait time allowance. Because of this, taxibuses typically are not as fast as other systems.

• some degree of flexible route or schedule, booking – Paratransit / Community Transport

Paratransit bus services are typically designed to help people with mobility issues, who may be handicapped or suffer from physical disabilities. These services often are used to transport the elderly.

• some degree of flexible route or schedule, booking – Telebus / Dial-a-ride bus

Telebus services have a scheduled route and are similar to Microtransit, the difference being that Telebus services are a bit more rigid in their routes with fixed ranges for pickup and dropoff.

• fixed route and fixed schedule, no booking – Dollar Vans

Dollar Vans refer to bus systems which function very similar to regular transit, the main difference being they are fully run by private companies as opposed to public transit.

• fixed route, flexible schedule, no booking – Personal Rapid Transit

Personal Rapid Transit is a newer innovation which consists of small Podcars that are autonomous and attached to a track/rail system. They usually only carry a small amount of people (four) and allow the passenger to select a drop-off terminal. These podcars may require payment before usage. There is only a small number of these in the world, mainly in Europe. These services should be differentiated from RoboTaxi services such as Waymo, in that RoboTaxis use regular vehicles not limited by rails or terminals, and are thus fully flexible in terms of route.

Conventional Buses

• fixed route and fixed schedule, no booking – Public Transit

Public Transit is the standard system of transit, common in most urban areas with a highly fixed schedule and route, carrying a large amount of passengers and usually only deviating from schedule when there are unplanned delays (such as due to traffic).

• fixed route, fixed schedule, no booking - Shuttle Bus

Shuttle Bus services typically go back and forth between two points, such as from an airport to a hotel. The vehicle used is often a minicoach, utilizing a cutaway chassis.

• flexible route, flexible schedule, pre-booking mandatory - Charter Bus

Charter Bus services are often used by long distance travelers, there are two common types of this service. The first type is when a large group (either a travel group from a travel agency or a school group) will rent a driver to take them to various destinations at different times along their trip. The group stays together and the bus will not leave until everybody has returned from their outing. The driver is often rented for the full duration of the trip and is mostly available for much of the day, but not during night hours. The driver may need to wait at certain destinations when the group is away for a short outing, such as a mall. The second version of Charter Bus services more closely resemble long distance shuttle bus, where a ride can be booked between two nearby cities as a replacement for other means of travel (train/plane).

• fixed route, fixed schedule, mixed booking - Sightseeing Bus

Sightseeing buses typically operate around a slow circular route in a city for tourists. While some may require booking, others may operate by a hop on / hop off service, allowing passengers to board and get off wherever they would like.

• fixed route, fixed schedule, booking - School Bus

School Buses, which are common in North America, may require parents to book ahead of a school semester, where a bus would later then pickup and drop off students to their school and back, either at designated stops or directly to houses.

Operation

DRT services are restricted to a defined operating zone, within which journeys must start and finish. Journeys may be completely free form, or following skeleton routes and schedules,^[10] varied as required, with users given a specified pick-up point and a time window for collection.^[10] Some DRT systems may have defined termini, at one or both ends of a route, such as an urban centre, airport or transport interchange, for onward connections.

DRT systems require passengers to request a journey in advance. They may do this by booking with a central dispatcher^[10][16] who determines the journey options available given the user's location and destination. Increasingly, the booking is via an app, which provides the interface to software that creates a schedule in real time; adjusting the schedule to accept (or reject) bookings as they come in. This provides an instant decision for the potential user, but at the cost of efficiency: each individual travel need is considered individually, potentially resulting in higher levels of idle time (when the schedule has gaps that are too short to allow an additional journey to be added) and "dead mileage" (driving empty between one drop-off and the next pickup) than might be expected from a schedule built by an experienced human operator.

DRT systems take advantage of fleet telematics technology in the form of vehicle location systems, scheduling and dispatching software and hand-held/in vehicle computing.^[10][20]

Vehicles used for DRT services are typically small minibuses sufficient for low ridership, which allow the service to provide as near a door-to-door service as practical by using narrower residential streets.^[10] In some cases taxicabs are hired by the DRT provider to serve their routes on request.

DRT schemes may be fully or partially funded by the local transit authority, with operators selected by public tendering or other methods. Other schemes may be partially or fully self-funded as community centred not for profit social enterprises (such as a community interest company in the UK). They may also be provided by private companies for commercial reasons; some conventional bus operating companies have set up DRT-style airport bus services, which compete with larger private hire airport shuttle companies.^{[citation needed]}

Health and environmental effects

DRT can potentially reduce the number of vehicles on the road, and hence pollution and congestion, if many people are persuaded to use it instead of private cars or taxis.^[9]

For a model of a hypothetical large-scale demand-responsive public transport system for the Helsinki metropolitan area, simulation results published in 2005 demonstrated that "in an urban area with one million inhabitants, trip aggregation could reduce the health, environmental, and other detrimental impacts of car traffic typically by 50–70%, and if implemented could attract about half of the car passengers, and within a broad operational range would require no public subsidies".^[21]

Licensing

DRT schemes may require new or amended legislation, or special dispensation, to operate, as they do not meet the traditional licensing model of authorised bus transport providers or licensed taxicab operators. The status has caused controversy between bus and taxi operators when the DRT service picks up passengers without pre-booking, due to the licensing issues.^[22][23] Issues may also arise surrounding tax and fuel subsidy for DRT services.

Effectiveness

Ridership on DRT services is usually quite low (less than ten passengers per hour), but DRT can provide coverage effectively.^[24][25]

Analysis of the Yorbus DRT scheme in a rural area of the UK showed very little combination of individual travel needs. Of the 35% of operating hours when the vehicles were carrying passengers, there was just one passenger (or a couple travelling together) for 74% of the time, and two passengers (or couples travelling together) for a further 20% of the time. The 15-seat minibuses could have been replaced by small taxis without capacity problems for 97% of the operating hours.^[26]

List of current DRT systems by country

Since the mid-2010s several DRT projects started up but failed.

In the US several DRT operators appeared and promptly failed, due to either lack of customers or health and safety issues. 2019 trials in London found that "satisfaction was really high"; users scored the service at 4.8/5 and praised ease of use, safety, cleanliness and accessibility. But low take-up, misunderstandings about who the service was for, and safety concerns about unlit stops—together with problems due to the covid pandemic from 2020—caused the trials to fail.^[9]

Lukas Foljanty, a shared-mobility enthusiast and market expert, keeps track of the different DRT schemes around the world and thinks a tipping point may have been reached in 2022. There were at least 450 schemes around the world, and in 2021 fifty-four new projects started within a three-month period.^[9]

David Carnero of Europe-wide DRT technology company Padam said that successful DRT requires subsidies, must be delivered at scale, and must be part of an integrated, rather than competitive, transport policy.^[9]

Australia

• CoastConnect, first-mile / last-mile demand-responsive transport service in Woy Woy, New South Wales,^[27] operated by Community Transport Central Coast Limited and Liftango
• Kan-go, demand-responsive transport service in Hervey Bay, Queensland^[28] and Toowoomba, Queensland^[29]
• SmartLink, demand-responsive transport service in Blue Mountains.^[30]
• Skybus hotel transfer service in Melbourne, Victoria.^[31]
• Telebus in Melbourne, Victoria providing demand-responsive bus services to some outer suburbs of the metropolitan area since the 1970s.^[32][33]
• Flexiride in Melbourne, Victoria replaced Telebus services in 2021^[34]

Austria

• RufbusLinie 326 Leopoldschlag – Summerau – Freistadt^[35]
• W3 Shuttle ^[36]

Belgium

• Belbus — has been working since 1991 in the Flemish Region

Canada

• Belleville, Ontario – BT Let's Go, operated by Belleville Transit, replaces fixed route night bus services with an on-demand transit service. This provides stop-to-stop scheduled pick-ups and drop-offs requested by riders through a web-based application. Buses are dynamically routed to riders in real-time by an autonomous algorithm.^[37][38]
• Cobourg, Ontario – operated by Cobourg Transit, it plans to be a complete replacement of fixed route bus transit service, and will require residents to book a stop in advance. It is undergoing a pilot right now, and is scheduled to be fully implemented with the town's WHEELS transit service and replace fixed route transit on June 14, 2021.^[39]
• Edmonton, Alberta – Edmonton Transit Service offers On Demand Transit in designated areas not served by scheduled routes.^[40]
• Guelph, Ontario – Works in addition to fixed route service.^[41]
• Niagara Falls, Ontario – TransCab Service, operated by Niagara Falls Transit,^[42] provides service to the Montrose Junction section of the city during the daytime and early evening.
• Toronto, Ontario — Wheel-Trans
• Winnipeg, Manitoba – WT On-Request, operated by Winnipeg Transit, replaces regular fixed transit route service in three neighbourhoods during low-use hours and provides door-to-door transit service in one inner-city neighbourhood during daytime hours.^[43]

Czech Republic

Main article: cs:poptávková doprava

• Radiobus – has operated across the country since 2004. Since 2011, it has been part of the general public transport system to supplement the existing system during times of low demand. It uses fixed timetables, but vehicles only operate when called by passenger.^[44]
• DHD – has operated since 2003. Its primary purpose was for collecting workers from sparsely-populated rural areas. DHD provides bookings and administrative support; however, the buses themselves are operated by several local transport companies.^[45]

Denmark

• Fynbus — provides door-to-door DRT service on the island of Funen

Finland

Main article: fi:kutsuohjattu joukkoliikenne

• Akaa – Akaakyyti^[46]
• Inkoo – Inkyyti ^[47]
• Jakobstad – Vippari^[48]
• Porvoo – Kyläkyyti^[49]
• Riihimäki – R-kyyti^[50]

Germany

• Berlin – Allygator Shuttle,^[51] Clevershuttle, BerlKönig
• Braunschweig, Lower Saxony – Anruflinien-Taxi (ALT) and Anruflinien-Bus (ALB) ^[52]
• Cologne – AnrufLinienFahrt (ALF), an on-demand minibus service that operates in predominantly rural areas of the city.^[53]
• Dresden – Anruf-Linien-Bus Verkehrsgesellschaft Meißen^[54]
• Duisburg – myBUS^[55]
• Elbe-Elster – Anruf-Linienbus, a DRT bus service operated by the regional public transport authority in Herzberg, Sonnewalde, Umland and Finsterwalde^[56]
• Freyung, Bavaria – FreyFahrt^[57]
• Hamburg – MOIA (Volkswagen AG#Mobilitätsdienstleistungen ^[de])
• Munich – IsarTiger
• Rostock – REBUS = Regional Bus Rostock
• Districts of Tirschenreuth, Neustadt an der Waldnaab and Schwandorf – Baxi, a mix between taxis and buses taking passengers from stops to any destination within the districts.^[58][59][60]

Hong Kong

Red minibuses which serve non-franchised routes across the country, depending on routes, allow passengers to reserve their seats by phone such that operators and drivers are able to know where passengers are and how many there are in deploying their vehicles.^[61][62]

Iceland

Public transport authority in the Icelandic capital of Reykjavik and the surrounding municipalities. Manages public bus transport and disabled transport, but does not have its own vehicles. About 1,300 enquiries and thousand trips a day. Uses 60 vehicles and 10–20 more for school transport for children with special needs.^[63]

Ireland

A network of over 1,000 demand responsive transport routes are provided across rural Ireland under the TFI Local Link brand. Many of these routes are once a week services which operate a door-to-door pickup from a rural area into a nearby large town, where people can access shopping and other services, followed by a return service a few hours later with a door-to-door drop off back to the same rural area. Other routes include daily return services to/from colleges or employment centres, weekend evening services to/from a night-time activity centre, weekly services to attend Mass, feeder services to connect with scheduled bus and train services, and services on off-shore islands to connect with ferry departures and arrivals.^[64]

Services are managed by 15 regional TFI Local Link offices across the country on behalf of the National Transport Authority (NTA), and usually require prebooking by phoning the relevant office in advance. As of June 2023, there are no real-time app-based demand responsive transport services operating in Ireland, but in April 2023 the NTA informed suppliers that they intended "to procure a trial of and, if successful a roll out of, Smart Demand Responsive Transport services (SDRT), using app based products to secure services and routing algorithms to match vehicles with capacity to users".^[65]

Italy

Following some pioneering DRT schemes implemented in the 1980s, a second wave of systems were launched from the mid-1990s. There are now DRT schemes in urban and peri-urban areas as well as in rural communities. Operated by both public transport companies and private service providers, the DRT schemes are offered either as intermediate collective transport services for generic users or as schemes for specific user groups. DRT schemes operate in major cities including Rome, Milan, Genoa, Florence, and in several mid- to small-size towns including Alessandria, Aosta, Cremona, Livorno, Mantova, Parma, Empoli, Siena, and Sarzana.

• AllôBus and AllôNuit, demand-responsive transport service in Aosta/Aoste
• DrinBus, demand-responsive transport service in Genoa^[66]
• PersonalBus, demand-responsive transport service in Florence
• ProntoBus, demand-responsive transport service in Livorno and Sarzana
• EccoBus, demand-responsive transport service in Alessandria
• StradiBus, demand-responsive transport service in Cremona
• Radiobus, demand-responsive transport service in Milan

Japan

Main article: ja:デマンドバス

More than 200 of the 1,700 local governments in Japan have introduced DRT public transport services.

Luxembourg

• Flexibus – several Flexibus services operate in different parts of the country. The system operates on the basis of passengers calling a central point from which optimal routes for the vehicles are calculated.^[67]
• Kussbus – private door-to-door bus service primarily for commuter purposes.^[68]

New Zealand

• MyWay in Timaru, a replacement of the usual bus service with demand-responsive transport service.^[69]

Poland

The first ever demand-responsive transport scheme in Poland – called Tele-Bus – has been operated since 2007 in Krakow by MPK, the local public transport company (see also Tramways in Krakow).^[70][71]

Russia

• "Po puti", or "On the Way", is the first-ever demand-responsive transport scheme in Russia.^[72] Launched on October 1, 2021^[73] and operated by Mosgortrans, it serves two zones in NAO and TAO, Moscow (both often referred to as "ТиНАО"^[74][75] in Russian). Zone 1 includes Filimonkovskoye, Sosenskoye, Desyonovskoye and Voskresenskoye Settlements with the Prokshino metro station. Zone 2a, introduced on November 1, 2021, includes Ryazanovskoye Settlement with the Silikatnaya railway station, Line D2. Starting from December 24, 2021, the Shcherbinka railway station, also D2, was added to zone 2a, whereas zone 1 was expanded by adding more blocks of Filimonkovskoye Settlement and southern areas of Desyonovskoye Settlement.^[76] Further enlargement is announced.^[73]

Sweden

Regional transport authority in Västra Götaland in southwestern Sweden is responsible for all public transport and for transport offers to citizens with special needs. This is an example of DRT used for people with special needs (paratransit).^[77]

Switzerland

DRT services have operated in some sparsely populated areas (under 100 p/km²) since 1995. PostBus Switzerland Ltd, the national post company, has operated a DRT service called PubliCar, formerly also Casa Car.^[78]

United Kingdom

Some DRT schemes were operating under the UK bus-operating regulations of 1986, allowed by having core start and finish points and a published schedule.^[79] Regulations concerning bus service registration and application of bus-operating grants for England and Wales were amended in 2004 to allow registration of fully flexible pre-booked DRT services.^[79] Some services, such as LinkUp, only pick up passengers at 'meeting points', but can set down at the passenger's destination.

The Greenwich Association of the Disabled had earlier developed a prototype service, GAD-About, which offered pre-booked door-to-door transport for its members, inspired by similar minibus usage in church and youth clubs. That was then cloned as an easily scalable module, under the aegis of London Transport, to become the Dial-a-Ride service launched as part the general services of Transport for London (TfL), rather than as a bus service.

Examples of UK schemes include:

• WESTlink, a service in Bristol, Bath, South Gloucestershire and Somerset operated by the West of England Combined Authority [1]
• ArrivaClick (Kent,^[80] Watford^[81] and Speke^[82])
• Connect2Wiltshire (Wiltshire)
• Fflecsi, (Wales), DRT services implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic with app provided by ViaVan, and co-ordinated by Transport for Wales.
• CallConnect (Lincolnshire)
• LinkUp (Tyne & Wear) (Closed 2011)
• London Dial-a-Ride
• Nippy Bus (Somerset)

United States

 

Dial-a-Ride in New Jersey, 1974

 

Minibuses operating on SafeRides, an overnight demand-responsive service operated by the Champaign-Urbana Mass Transit District in Champaign and Urbana, Illinois

The large majority of 1,500 rural systems in the US provide demand-response service; there are also about 400 urban DRT systems.^[83]

California

• Demand-Responsive Van Service,^[16]
• Demand-Response Shuttle, Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge^[16]
• Demand-Responsive Transit, Redwood National and State Parks^[16]

Colorado

• Call-n-Ride service, Regional Transportation District, Denver^[84]

Florida

• Flex Service, Votran, New Smyrna Beach^[85]
• NeighborLink, Lynx, Central Florida^[86]
• SNAP, UF Transportation and Parking Services, Gainesville^[87]

Illinois

• Call-n-Ride, Pace Bus, Chicago metropolitan area^[88]
• Safe Rides, Champaign-Urbana Mass Transit District, Champaign-Urbana metropolitan area (evening and overnight service only)

Maryland

• Ride On Flex, Ride On, Montgomery County^[89]

New York

• Access-A-Ride, Metropolitan Transportation Authority, New York City
• Bee-Line Paratransit, Bee-Line Bus System, Westchester County

North Carolina

• Dial-A-Ride, GWTA, Goldsboro^[90]
• Flex Service, Greenway Transit, Taylorsville & Burke County. Hybrid of fixed & on-demand.
• Night Shuttle, Tar River Transit, Rocky Mount^[91]
• Qualla Community Resident Transportation, Cherokee Transit, Jackson County. Hybrid of fixed & on-demand.^[92]
• Rural General Public Service, MTS, Charlotte metropolitan area^[93]
• Trailblazer Routes, BCMM, Asheville metropolitan area. Hybrid of fixed & on-demand.^[94]

Pennsylvania

• Flex Connect, Ponono Pony, Monroe County. Only designated stops.^[95]

South Carolina

• Tel-A-Ride, CARTA, Charleston^[96]

Tennessee

• Ready!, MATA, Memphis
• Groove, Memphis

Texas

• GoLink, DART, Dallas area^[97]

Virginia

• Care and Care Plus, GRTC, Greater Richmond Region^[98]

Washington State

• Zone Service^[99] and Flex Service,^[100] Whatcom Transportation Authority, Whatcom County
• Dial-a-Ride Transit, Community Transit, Snohomish County^[101]
• Metro Access, King County Metro, King County^[102]
• Finley Service, Ben Franklin Transit, Tri-Cities, Washington^[103]

Washington, DC

• MetroAccess, WMATA, Washington, DC

See also

• Hail and ride
• Microtransit
• Open data
• Paratransit
• Share taxi
• Route assignment
• Wardrop equilibrium

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