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Ab urbe condita (Livy)

The work called Ab urbe condita (English: From the Founding of the City), sometimes referred to as Ab urbe condita libri (Books from the Founding of the City),[a] is a monumental history of ancient Rome, written in Latin between 27 and 9 BC by Livy, a Roman historian.[b] The work covers the period from the legends concerning the arrival of Aeneas and the refugees from the fall of Troy, to the city's founding in 753 BC, the expulsion of the Kings in 509 BC, and down to Livy's own time, during the reign of the emperor Augustus.[c][d] The last event covered by Livy is the death of Drusus in 9 BC.[2] 35 of 142 books, about a quarter of the work, are still extant.[4] The surviving books deal with the events down to 293 BC (books 1–10), and from 219 to 166 BC (books 21–45).

Stories from Livy I.4, on an altar panel from Ostia. Father Tiber looks on at the lower right while the national lupa (wolf) nourishes Romulus and Remus, founders of Rome. The herders are about to find them. One of their goats can be seen. Small animals denote the wildness of the place. The national aquila (eagle) is portrayed.

Contents edit

Corpus edit

The History of Rome originally comprised 142 "books", 35 of which—Books 1–10 with the Preface and Books 21–45—still exist in reasonably complete form.[2] Damage to a manuscript of the 5th century resulted in large gaps (lacunae) in Books 41 and 43–45 (small lacunae exist elsewhere); that is, the material is not covered in any source of Livy's text.[5]

A fragmentary palimpsest of the 91st book was discovered in the Vatican Library in 1772, containing about a thousand words (roughly three paragraphs), and several papyrus fragments of previously unknown material, much smaller, have been found in Egypt since 1900, most recently about 40 words from Book 11, unearthed in 1986.[6]

Some passages are nevertheless known thanks to quotes from ancient authors, the most famous being on the death of Cicero, quoted by Seneca the Elder.

Abridgements edit

 
Fragment of P. Oxy. 668, with Epitome of Livy XLVII–XLVIII

Livy was abridged, in antiquity, to an epitome, which survives for Book 1, but was itself abridged in the fourth century into the so-called Periochae, which is simply a list of contents. The Periochae survive for the entire work, except for books 136 and 137.[7]

In Oxyrhynchus, a similar summary of books 37–40, 47–55, and only small fragments of 88 was found on a roll of papyrus that is now in the British Museum classified as P.Oxy.IV 0668.[8] There is another fragment, named P.Oxy.XI 1379, which represents a passage from the first book (I, 6) and that shows a high level of correctness.[9] However, the Oxyrhynchus Epitome is damaged and incomplete.

Chronology edit

The entire work covers the following periods:[2][10]

Books 1–5 – The legendary founding of Rome (including the landing of Aeneas in Italy and the founding of the city by Romulus), the period of the kings, and the early republic down to its conquest by the Gauls in 390 BC.[e]

Books 6–10 – Wars with the Aequi, Volsci, Etruscans, and Samnites, down to 292 BC.

Books 11–20 – The period from 292 to 218, including the First Punic War (lost).

Books 21–30 – The Second Punic War, from 218 to 202.

Books 31–45 – The Macedonian and other eastern wars from 201 to 167.

Books 46 to 142 are all lost:

Books 46–70 – The period from 167 to the outbreak of the Social War in 91.

Books 71–90 – The civil wars between Marius and Sulla, to the death of Sulla in 78.

Books 91–108 – From 78 BC through the end of the Gallic War, in 50.

Books 109–116 – From the Civil War to the death of Caesar (49–44).

Books 117–133 – The wars of the triumvirs down to the death of Antonius (44–30).

Books 134–142 – The rule of Augustus down to the death of Drusus (9).

Table of contents edit

Book number Status Years covered Main events covered
1 Complete Down to 510 BC Foundation myths: Aeneas, Ascanius, Romulus and Remus, Rape of the Sabine women; history of the Roman Kingdom, expulsion of Tarquinus Superbus.
2 Complete 509–468 BC Foundation of the Republic by Brutus, wars against Tarquinius Superbus and Porsena, Secession of the Plebs, Volscian Wars.
3 Complete 467–446 BC The Decemvirate.
4 Complete 445–404 BC Conflict of the Orders, murder of Spurius Maelius by Ahala, war against the Fidenates.
5 Complete 403–387 BC War against Veii, Sack of Rome by Brennus.
6 Complete 387–366 BC Story of Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, Leges Liciniae Sextiae.
7 Complete 366–342 BC Stories of Titus Manlius Torquatus and Marcus Valerius Corvus, First Samnite War.
8 Complete 341–322 BC First Samnite War, Latin War.
9 Complete 321–304 BC Second Samnite War, defeat of the Caudine Forks, alternate history with Alexander the Great defeated by Rome.
10 Complete 303–293 BC Third Samnite War, sacrifice of Publius Decius Mus.
11 Fragments[f] 292–287 BC Third Samnite War, plague in Rome, Secession of the Plebs.
12 Lost 284–280 BC War against the Senones, Pyrrhic War, campaigns against the Samnites and Italians, betrayal of Decius Vibullius at Rhegium.
13 Lost 280–278 BC Pyrrhic War, treaty with Carthage, campaigns against Italic peoples.
14 Lost 278–272 BC Pyrrhic War, treaty with Ptolemy II, Carthage breaks the treaty with Rome, campaigns against Italic peoples.
15 Lost 272–267 BC Rome recovers Tarentum and Rhegium. The Picentes, Umbrians and Sallentini submit.
16 Quotes[g] 264–263 BC First Punic War, first gladiatorial games.
17 Lost 260–256 BC First Punic War
18 Quote[h] 255 BC First Punic War
19 Quote[i] 251–241 BC First Punic War
20 Lost 237–220 BC Wars against the Faliscans, Sardinians, Corsicans, Illyrians, Gauls, Insubres, and Istrians.
21 Complete 219–218 BC Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia.
22 Complete 217–216 BC Second Punic War, defeats of the Lake Trasimene and Cannae.
23 Complete 216–215 BC Second Punic War.
24 Complete 215–213 BC Second Punic War, First Macedonian War.
25 Complete 213–212 BC Second Punic War, fall of Syracuse.
26 Complete 211–210 BC Second Punic War, First Macedonian War. Source for The Continence of Scipio.
27 Complete 210–207 BC Second Punic War, First Macedonian War.
28 Complete 207–205 BC Second Punic War, First Macedonian War.
29 Complete 205–204 BC Second Punic War, revolt of Indibilis and Mandonius.
30 Complete 203–201 BC Second Punic War, Battle of Zama.
31 Complete 201–199 BC Second Macedonian War.
32 Complete 198–197 BC Second Macedonian War.
33 Complete 197–195 BC Second Macedonian War, Battle of Cynoscephalae.
34 Complete 195–194 BC Lex Oppia repealed, victory of Cato in Hispania, War against Nabis, triumphs of Cato and Flamininus.
35 Complete 193–192 BC Campaign against the Ligurians, discussion between Scipio Africanus and Hannibal, affairs of Greece, talks with Antiochus III, who then invades Greece.
36 Complete 191 BC Roman-Seleucid War, Battle of Thermopylae.
37 Complete 190–188 BC Roman-Seleucid War.
38 Complete 188 BC Operations in Greece, campaign against the Galatians, Treaty of Apamea, trial and exile of Scipio Africanus.
39 Complete 187–181 BC The Bacchanalia, causes of the Third Macedonian War, deaths of Scipio Africanus and Hannibal.
40 Complete 184–179 BC Perseus kills his brother Demetrius, and inherits the kingdom of Macedon. Campaign against the Ligurians.
41 Almost complete 179–174 BC Campaigns against the Ligurians, Histrians, Sardinians and Celtiberians; Perseus' activities in Greece.
42 Complete 173–171 BC Third Macedonian War.
43 Almost complete 171–169 BC Third Macedonian War.
44 Almost complete 169–168 BC Third Macedonian War, Battle of Pydna.
45 Almost complete 168–166 BC Third Macedonian War, capture of Perseus, Sixth Syrian War, triumph of Aemilius Paullus.
46 Lost 165–160 BC Eumenes II's visit to Rome, campaigns in North Italy, embassies to Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII, and Ariarathes V, death of Paullus Aemilius, the Pomptine Marshes are drained.
47 Lost 160–154 BC Division of Egypt between Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII, support of Ariarathes V against Demetrius I, campaigns against the Dalmatians and Ligurians.
48 Lost 154–150 BC Origin of the Third Punic War, death of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Second Celtiberian War, Lusitanian War.
49 Lost 149 BC Third Punic War, Lusitanian War, Fourth Macedonian War.
50 Lost 149–147 BC Prusias II of Bithynia is killed by his son Nicomedes II, death of Massinissa, Third Punic War, Scipio Aemilianus elected consul, Fourth Macedonian War.
51 Lost 147–146 BC Third Punic War, destruction of Carthage, Achaean War.
52 Lost 146–145 BC Achaean War, Lusitanian War, war between Alexander Balas and Demetrius II.
53 Lost 143 BC Lusitanian War.
54 Lost 141–139 BC Numantine War, Lusitanian War, death of Viriathus.
55 Lost 138–137 BC Numantine War, murder of Antiochus VI by Diodotus Tryphon.
56 Lost 136–134 BC Numantine War, First Servile War.
57 Lost 133 BC Numantine War, campaign of Scipio Aemilianus.
58 Lost 133 BC Reforms of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, his death; First Servile War.
59 Lost 133–129 BC Numantine War, victory of Scipio Aemilianus; First Servile War, revolt of Eumenes III of Pergamon, war between Antiochus VII and Phraates II, crisis in Egypt, riots in Rome in the aftermath of Tiberius Gracchus' reforms.
60 Lost 126–123 BC Reforms of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, Quintus Caecilius Metellus' campaign in the Balearic Islands.
61 Lost 122–120 BC War against the Gauls, victory of Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus against Bituitus, death of Gaius Gracchus.
62 Lost 118–117 BC Affairs of Numidia, with a civil war started by Jugurtha.
63 Lost 114–112 BC Campaigns against the Scordiscians in Thrace, beginning of the Cimbrian War.
64 Lost 112–110 BC Jugurthine War.
65 Lost 109–107 BC Jugurthine War, Cimbrian War.
66 Lost 106 BC Jugurthine War.
67 Lost 105–104 BC Cimbrian War, Marius' triumph and successive consulships.
68 Lost 103–100 BC Cimbrian War.
69 Lost 100 BC Reforms of Saturninus and Glaucia, their deaths.
70 Lost 97–91 BC Campaign against the Celtiberians, Ptolemy Apion bequeaths his kingdom, Sulla reinstates Ariobarzanes in his kingdom, reforms of Marcus Livius Drusus.
71 Lost 91 BC Drusus is murdered, Social War.
72 Lost 91 BC Social War.
73 Lost 90 BC Social War.
74 Lost 89–88 BC Social War.
75 Lost 88 BC Social War.
76 Lost 89–88 BC Social War, Mithridates conquers Cappadocia and Bithynia.
77 Lost 88 BC Sulla's march on Rome, First Mithridatic War.
78 Lost 88 BC First Mithridatic War.
79 Lost 87 BC Bellum Octavianum.
80 Lost 87–86 BC Citizenship given to Italian allies, Bellum Octavianum, death of Marius.
81 Lost 87–86 BC First Mithridatic War, Sulla takes Athens.
82 Lost 86 BC First Mithridatic War, battles of Chaeronea and Orchomenus, Valerius Flaccus is murdered by Flavius Fimbria.
83 Lost 86–84 BC First Mithridatic War, Sulla's civil war.
84 Lost 84 BC Sulla's civil war, death of Cinna.
85 Lost 83 BC Sulla's civil war.
86 Lost 83–82 BC Sulla's civil war, Second Mithridatic War.
87 Lost 82 BC Sulla's civil war.
88 Lost 82 BC Sulla's civil war, Battle of the Colline Gate, death of Marius the Younger.
89 Lost 82–81 BC Sulla's civil war, death of Carbo, Sulla's proscriptions and reforms, Pompey's first triumph.
90 Lost 78 BC Death of Sulla, uprising of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Sertorian War.
91 Fragment[16] 77 BC Sertorian War.
92 Lost 76 BC Sertorian War, campaign of Gaius Scribonius Curio against the Dardanians.
93 Lost 76–75 BC Publius Servilius conquers Isauria, Third Mithridatic War, Sertorian War.
94 Lost 74 BC Third Mithridatic War, Sertorian War.
95 Lost 74–73 BC War of Gaius Scribonius Curio against the Dardanians, Third Servile War, Third Mithridatic War.
96 Lost 73–72 BC Third Servile War, Sertorian War.
97 Lost 71–70 BC Third Servile War, campaign of Marcus Antonius Creticus in Crete, Third Mithridatic War, Crassus and Pompey become consuls.
98 Lost 70–69 BC Third Mithridatic War, campaign of Quintus Caecillius Metellus in Crete.
99 Lost 68–67 BC Third Mithridatic War, Pompey's expedition against the Cilician pirates, campaign of Quintus Caecillius Metellus in Crete.
100 Lost 66 BC Third Mithridatic War, wars in Armenia.
101 Lost 66–65 BC Third Mithridatic War, Catilinarian conspiracy.
102 Lost 64–63 BC Third Mithridatic War, death of Mithridates, Pompey takes Jerusalem, Catilinarian conspiracy.
103 Lost 62–58 BC Catilinarian conspiracy, Publius Clodius Pulcher goes over to the plebeians, First Triumvirate, Gallic Wars.
104 Lost 58–56 BC Gallic Wars, Cicero returns from exile.
105 Lost 56–54 BC Cato's attempt to obstruct the Triumvirate, Gallic Wars, first Crossing of the Rhine.
106 Lost 54–53 BC Gallic Wars, Battle of Carrhae, death of Crassus.
107 Lost 53–52 BC Gallic Wars, murder of Clodius by Milo, Pompey elected sole consul, revolt of Vercingetorix.
108 Lost 52–50 BC Gallic Wars, Battle of Alesia, victory of Gaius Cassius Longinus against the Parthians.
109 Lost 50–49 BC Caesar's Civil War, Crossing of the Rubicon.
110 Lost 49–48 BC Caesar's Civil War.
111 Quote[17] 48 BC Caesar's Civil War (Battle of Pharsalus).
112 Quote[j] 48 BC Caesar's Civil War.
113 Lost 47 BC Caesar's Civil War.
114 Lost 46 BC Caesar's Civil War.
115 Lost 46 BC Caesar's Civil War.
116 Lost 45–44 BC Caesar's Civil War, assassination of Caesar.
117 Lost 44 BC Octavian arrives in Italy, Antony disrupts the allotment of provinces, preparations for war on multiple sides.
118 Lost 44 BC Brutus takes the army of Publius Vatinius in Greece, Octavian builds an army, Antony besieges Modena.
119 Lost 44–43 BC Publius Cornelius Dolabella is declared enemy of the state, Battle of Mutina, Octavian becomes consul at 19.
120 Quote[k] 43 BC Second Triumvirate, proscriptions, death of Cicero.
121 Lost 43 BC Cassius besieges Dolabella in Laodicea, who commits suicide; Brutus executes Gaius Antonius.
122 Lost 43 BC Brutus' campaign in Thrace.
123 Lost 42 BC Sicilian revolt by Sextus Pompey, Liberators' Civil War.
124 Lost 42 BC Battle of Philippi.
125 Lost 41 BC Perusine War.
126 Lost 41–40 BC Perusine War.
127 Lost 40–39 BC Pompeian–Parthian invasion, Pact of Misenum.
128 Lost 38–37 BC Sicilian revolt, Antony's Parthian War, Siege of Jerusalem.
129 Lost 36 BC Sicilian Revolt, Battle of Naulochus, Octavian defeats Lepidus.
130 Lost 36 BC Antony's Parthian War.
131 Lost 35–34 BC Sextus Pompey is captured and executed by Antony, Octavian's campaigns in Illyria, Antony's conquest of Armenia, Donations of Alexandria.
132 Lost 34–31 BC Antony's Civil War: Battle of Actium.
133 Lost 30–28 BC Antony's Civil War: suicides of Antony and Cleopatra; conspiracy of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Minor.
134 Lost 27 BC Octavian becomes Augustus, census in the three Gauls, campaign of Marcus Licinius Crassus against the Basterni and Moesians.
135 Lost 25 BC Campaigns of Marcus Crassus against the Thracians, and of Augustus in Hispania.
136 Lost Missing in the Periochae.
137 Lost Missing in the Periochae.
138 Lost 15–12 BC Tiberius and Drusus conquers Raetia, death of Agrippa, Drusus makes a census in Gaul.
139 Lost 12 BC Drusus' campaign in Germania, Imperial cult at Lugdunum.
140 Lost 11 BC Conquest of Thracia, Drusus' campaign in Germania, death of Octavia.
141 Lost 10 BC Drusus' campaign in Germania.
142 Lost 9 BC Death of Drusus.

Style edit

Livy wrote in a mixture of annual chronology and narrative. This emerged from his decision to organise his narrative on a year-by-year scheme with regular announcements of elections of "consuls, prodigies, temple dedications, triumphs, and the like". This kind of year-by-year list of events is termed "annalistic history". Livy employed annalistic features to associate his history with the dominant traditional of Roman history, which was to write these annalistic chronicles; in so doing, he "imbued his history with an aura of continuity and stability" along with "pontifical authority".[20]

The first and third decades (see below) of Livy's work are written so well that Livy has become a sine qua non of curricula in Golden Age Latin. Some have argued that subsequently the quality of his writing began to decline, and that he becomes repetitious and wordy. Of the 91st book Barthold Georg Niebuhr says "repetitions are here so frequent in the small compass of four pages and the prolixity so great, that we should hardly believe it to belong to Livy...." Niebuhr accounts for the decline by supposing "the writer has grown old and become loquacious...",[21] going so far as to conjecture that the later books were lost because copyists refused to copy such low-quality work.[22]

However, Livy also employed repetitive and formulaic wording in description of repetitive military affairs, described by Ogilvie as "mechanical and careless". Modern readers, however, view Livy's repetitive prose more positively at least in performance of prayers, blessings, and public religious rituals.[23]

A digression in Book 9, Sections 17–19, suggests that the Romans would have beaten Alexander the Great if he had lived longer and had turned west to attack the Romans, making this digression one of the oldest known written alternate history scenarios.[24]

Publication edit

 
Ab Urbe condita, 1714

The first five books were published between 27 and 25 BC. The first date mentioned is the year Augustus received that eponymous title: twice in the first five books Livy uses it.[25] For the second date, Livy lists the closings of the temple of Janus but omits that of 25 (it had not happened yet).[26]

Livy continued to work on the History for much of the rest of his life, publishing new material by popular demand. This explains why the work falls naturally into 12 packets, mainly groups of 10 books, or decades, sometimes of 5 books (pentads or pentades) and the rest without any packet order. The scheme of dividing it entirely into decades is a later innovation of copyists.[27]

The second pentad did not come out until 9 or after, some 16 years after the first pentad. In Book IX Livy states that the Cimminian Forest was more impassable than the German had been recently, referring to the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest) first opened by Drusus and Ahenobarbus.[28] One can only presume that in the interval Livy's first pentad had been such a success that he had to yield to the demand for more.

Manuscripts edit

There is no uniform system of classifying and naming manuscripts. Often the relationship of one manuscript (MS) to another remains unknown or changes as perceptions of the handwriting change. Livy's release of chapters by packet diachronically encouraged copyists to copy by decade. Each decade has its own conventions, which do not necessarily respect the conventions of any other decade. A family of MSS descend through copying from the same MSS (typically lost). MSS vary widely; to produce an emendation or a printed edition was and is a major task. Usually variant readings are given in footnotes.

First decade edit

All of the manuscripts (except one) of the first ten books (first decade) of Ab urbe condita, which were copied through the Middle Ages and were used in the first printed editions, are derived from a single recension commissioned by Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, consul, AD 391.[29] A recension is made by comparing extant manuscripts and producing a new version, an emendation, based on the text that seems best to the editor. The latter then "subscribed" to the new MS by noting on it that he had emended it.

Symmachus, probably using the authority of his office, commissioned Tascius Victorianus to emend the first decade. Books I–IX bear the subscription Victorianus emendabam dominis Symmachis, "I Victorianus emended (this) by the authority of Symmachus." Books VI–VIII include another subscription preceding it, that of Symmachus' son-in-law, Nicomachus Flavianus, and Books III–V were also emended by Flavianus' son, Appius Nicomachus Dexter, who says he used his relative Clementianus' copy.[30] This recension and family of descendant MSS is called the Nicomachean, after two of the subscribers. From it several MSS descend (incomplete list):[31][32]

Nicomachean Family of MSS
Identifying
Letter
Location & Number Name Date
V Veronensis rescriptus 10th century
H Harleianus 10th century
E Einsiedlensis 10th century
F Paris 5724 Floriacensis 10th century
P Paris 5725 Parisiensis 9th/10th century
M Mediceus-Laurentianus 10th/11th century
U Upsaliensis 10th/11th century
R Vaticanus 3329 Romanus 11th century
O Bodleianus 20631 Oxoniensis 11th century
D Florentinus-Marcianus Dominicanus 12th century
A Agennensis
Petrarch's copy
12th–14th century
 
Ab urbe condita, 1493

Epigraphists go on to identify several hands and lines of descent. A second family of the first decade consists of the Verona Palimpsest, reconstructed and published by Theodore Mommsen, 1868; hence the Veronensis MSS. It includes 60 leaves of Livy fragments covering Books III-VI. The handwriting style is dated to the 4th century, only a few centuries after Livy.[33]

During the Middle Ages, there were constant rumours that the complete books of the History of Livy lay hidden in the library of a Danish or German Monastery. One individual even affirmed under oath in the court of Martin V that he had seen the whole work, written in Lombardic script, in a monastery in Denmark. All of these rumours were later found to be unsubstantiated.[34]

Veracity edit

 
An illumination in a manuscript of Ab urbe condita, in the French translation of Pierre Bersuire. The manuscript belonged to king Charles V of France. The illumination shows mythical scenes concerning the foundation of Rome and previous mythical history. Paris, Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, Ms. 777, fol. 7r.

The orthodox view is that "Livy was a very poor historian indeed, whether by ancient or modern standards".[35] This is rooted in a few major reasons. He did "no primary research", relying "exclusively on earlier histories". His understanding of those sources was poor: with Livy relating the same event twice on multiple occasions.[35] Moreover, "there are clear signs that his Greek was not good enough to understand properly one of his major sources, the Greek historian Polybius",[35] which he followed closely for events in the east in books 31 to 45.[36]

Livy also did not intend to produce a history in terms of cataloguing and understanding the past, but rather, in terms of preserving a "memory ... [that] equips the reader with a sense of wrong and right as determined or exemplified by the actions of one's predecessors".[37] Moreover, the work was also written "under the shadow of the new emperor"[38] with the goal of supporting "the idea that the Augustan principate was the culmination of Roman history".[39]

While other sources have attempted to rehabilitate Livy's history in terms of its literary quality (for example, DS Levene's Livy on the Hannibalic War),[40] this is not a defence of the history's historicity.[41] Modern criticism of Livy also goes into the "inaccuracy of his battle accounts, the vagueness of his geography, ... the excessive partiality shown to one or [an]other of his 'heroes', and in general the highly rhetorical nature of not only his speeches but also of his dramatic narrations".[42]

However, judgement on Livy's whole work ought to be withheld insofar as only the first third of Ab urbe condita survives; the portions of Livy that survive, heavily relying on an uncritical repetition of earlier sources, may not be the same approach he took for later periods of the republic or his own time, where he would have needed "to do his own research using contemporary testimonies from eyewitnesses[,] the records of the senate and the assemblies[, and records of the] speeches of the great orators".[43]

Historicity edit

The details of Livy's History vary from the legendary and mythical stories at the beginning[44] to detailed accounts of real events toward the end. Livy, in his preface on discussing the early history of Rome, noted the difficulties of interpreting or reconciling the sources in his own day:

So many chronological errors, magistrates appearing differently in different authors, suggest ... you cannot tell which consuls came after which or what belonged [to] any one year...[45]

It is not easy to prefer one thing over the other or one author over another. I think that the tradition has been contaminated... since various families have fraudulently arrogated to themselves the repute of deeds and offices. As a result, both individuals' deeds and the public records of events have certainly been thrown into confusion. Nor is there any writer contemporary with those times who could serve as a reliable standard.[46]

Livy too recognised that the early years of Rome were profoundly ahistorical, saying "the traditions of what happened prior to the foundation of the city or whilst it was being built, are more fitted to adorn the creations of the poet than the authentic records of the historian".[47] The first book has been one of the most significant sources of the various accounts of the traditional legend of Romulus and Remus.[48] However, when comparing Livy's account of the kingdom to that of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, his scepticism is better evident, as he omitted "many stories which seemed rather improbable to him".[49] And in general, the early parts of the books are important accounts of early Rome surviving from antiquity.[50]

But while Livy did recognise "the higher reliability of older contemporary authors compared to younger ones", he did little to ensure that his history was internally consistent or follow his own insights on unreliability regularly, preferring the story of his chosen choice without changes, "even if he afterward detected capital errors".[51]

Livy's treatment of his own sources was more in terms of arranging material and synthesising a narrative rather than engaging in original research into official documents; in doing so, he "did little more than [trying] to reconcile discrepancies in his sources by using arguments from probability".[52] However, Livy did not substantially grapple with the possibility that annalists knew how to invent probable stories.[51] Furthermore, rarely did Livy provide the names of his sources, especially in the long passages where he followed one major source with infrequent comparisons to other sources to correct errors.[53] Fortunately, Livy's goal in telling existing narratives with "better style and arrangement" means he seemingly did not introduce into his history "invented episodes of exaggerations".[49]

Livy's sources edit

Livy's work "came at the end of a long line of historians ... conventionally known as the 'annalistic tradition'".[54] Where he relied on these sources (along with other narrative sources available in his day) his principle was similar to that of Herodotus': "tell what he had been told".[49]

Roman historiography goes back to Quintus Fabius Pictor who wrote c. 200 BC, heavily influenced by Greek historiographical canons and methods. Other annalists included Quintus Ennius, Marcius Porcius Cato the censor, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi, Lucius Cassius Hemina, Gnaeus Gellius, Vennonius, Valerius Antias, Licinius Macer, Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius, and Quintus Aelius Tubero.[55] The last three annalists (operating in the first century BC) are, however, "widely believed to have been less scrupulous than their second-century predecessors", supplying stories about the archaic period "from their own imaginations".[56] However, as to certain elements of his narrative, Livy may have relied on "unscrupulous annalists" who "did not hesitate to invent a series of face-saving victories".[57]

Livy, did not use the libri lintei or the annales maximi kept by the pontifex maximus; nor did he "walk around in Rome, or elsewhere, to discover inscriptions or other new documents".[58] The difficulties of using the senate's own archives, documented in speeches by Cicero, "hint... at the possibilities of falsifying evidence" and the poor transmission of authoritative historical records.[43]

Later influences edit

Machiavelli edit

Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, Discourses on Livy, is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome.

Translations edit

The first complete rendering of Ab urbe condita into English was Philemon Holland's translation published in 1600. According to Considine, "it was a work of great importance, presented in a grand folio volume of 1,458 pages, and dedicated to [Queen Elizabeth I]".[59]

A notable translation of Livy titled History of Rome was made by B.O. Foster in 1919 for the Loeb Classical Library. A partial translation by Aubrey de Sélincourt was printed in 1960–1965 for Penguin Classics.[60][61]

The version of Livy available on Wikisource is that from the 1905 translation of Reverend Canon Roberts for Everyman's Library.[62]

Notes edit

  1. ^ Livy himself called his history the Annales, but this title has not been used by modern scholars, who usually refer to it simply as the History of Rome, or History of Rome from the Founding of the City, or in Latin, Ab urbe condita (From the Founding of the City or Since the Founding of the City). As with other Latin works, the number of books is frequently appended to the title, hence the occasional rendering Ab urbe condita libri CXLII (From the Founding of the City in 142 Books).[1][2]
  2. ^ Various indications point to the period from 27 to 20 BC as that during which the first decade was written. In the first book (XIX. 3) the emperor is called Augustus, a title which he was granted by the Roman Senate early in 27, and in IX. 18 the omission of all reference to the restoration, in 20, of the standards taken at Carrhae seems to justify the inference that the passage was written before that date. In the epitome of book LIX, there is a reference to a law of Augustus which was passed in 18.[3]
  3. ^ Livy uses the chronology of Varro, one of his predecessors, whose chronology was the most widely accepted in antiquity, and remains in general use today, although scholars continue to debate the dating of specific events, including the founding of Rome itself.
  4. ^ In Roman times, it was customary to date events according to the consuls of each year, rather than assigning each year a numerical name; so while it was possible to date events by reference to the founding of Rome, this was rarely done. For instance, the consuls of 439 BC were Agrippa Menenius Lanatus and Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus, so that year would typically be referred to as "the consulship of Agrippa Menenius and Titus Quinctius", rather than "the year three hundred and fifteen". From this custom, the consuls who began each year are sometimes referred to as the eponymous magistrates of that year; that is, the magistrates after whom the year was named.
  5. ^ This is the traditional date, but some uncertainty exists with regard to four years during the Samnite Wars for which no consuls are named in any source, and for which no elections were supposedly held; this has led some scholars to conclude that the Gallic sack of Rome occurred in or about 386 BC, although this also creates an unexplained (and undated) gap before the event.[11]
  6. ^ Two small fragments discovered in 1986 in Egypt.[6]
  7. ^ Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii Aeneidem Commentarii 1.366, 1.738.[12]
  8. ^ "I should also mention the snake that Livy talks about in such detail and with such style. He says that in Africa, near the river Bagradas, there was a snake so huge that it was able to prevent the army of Atilius Regulus from using the river. It snatched up many soldiers in its huge mouth... Livy notes that the hide of the beast was sent to our city and measured 120 feet."[13][14]
  9. ^ Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii Aeneidem Commentarii 6.198.[15]
  10. ^ Seneca the Younger, De Tranquillitate Animi 9.5.[18]
  11. ^ Seneca the Elder, Suasoriae 6.17.[19]

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ Livy, XLIII. 13.
  2. ^ a b c d   Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Livius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. II. p. 790.
  3. ^ Pelham 1911.
  4. ^ Foster (1874), p. xvi.
  5. ^ Hardwick 2003, p. 23.
  6. ^ a b Gabrielli 2003, pp. 247–259.
  7. ^ "Livy: the Periochae". www.livius.org. from the original on August 9, 2014. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
  8. ^ "T. LIVI PERIOCHARUM FRAGMENTA OXYRHYNCHI REPERTA". www.attalus.org. from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
  9. ^ The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, part XI, London, 1915, pagg. 188-89.
  10. ^ The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, ed. By M.C. Howatson. Oxford, 1989, p. 326.
  11. ^ Broughton 1951, pp. xi, 94–96, 141, 148, 149, 163, 164, 171.
  12. ^ McDevitte 1862, p. 2213.
  13. ^ Valerius Maximus (2004). Memorable deeds and sayings: one thousand tales from ancient Rome. Translated by Walker, Henry. Indianapolis: Hackett. 1.8.ext.19. ISBN 0-87220-675-0. OCLC 53231884.
  14. ^ McDevitte 1862, pp. 2213–14.
  15. ^ McDevitte 1862, p. 2214.
  16. ^ McDevitte 1862, pp. 2215–17.
  17. ^ McDevitte 1862, p. 2219. Citing Plutarch, Caesar 47.
  18. ^ McDevitte 1862, p. 2219.
  19. ^ McDevitte 1862, pp. 2220, 2221.
  20. ^ Hahn 2015, p. 92.
  21. ^ Niebuhr, ed. Schmitz, 1844 The History of Rome vol. I. p.56
  22. ^ Nieburh, ed. Schmitz, 1844 The History of Rome vol. I. p.57
  23. ^ Hahn 2015, p. 93.
  24. ^ Dozois, Gardner; Schmidt, Stanley, eds. (1998). Roads Not Taken: Tales of Alternate History. New York: Del Rey. pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-0-345-42194-4.
  25. ^ Foster (1874), p. xi, citing Livy I.19 and IV.20.
  26. ^ Foster (1874), p. xi, citing Livy I.19.
  27. ^ Foster (1874), pp xv–xvi.
  28. ^ Niebuhr (1844), p. 39, citing Livy IX.36.
  29. ^ Hedrick, Charles W. (2000). History and Silence: Purge and Rehabilitation of Memory in Late Antiquity. University of Texas Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0-292-73121-9.
  30. ^ Foster (1874), pp. xxxii–xxxvi
  31. ^ Hall, Frederick William (1913). A companion to classical texts. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 246–247.
  32. ^ Kraus (1994), p. 30
  33. ^ Foster (1874), p. xxxii.
  34. ^ Clark, Albert C (1921-06-01). "The Reappearance of the Texts of the Classics". The Library. S4-II (1): 13–42. doi:10.1093/library/s4-II.1.13.
  35. ^ a b c Beard 2013, p. 76.
  36. ^ Briscoe 2012, p. 852.
  37. ^ Gowing 2005, p. 23.
  38. ^ Gowing 2005, p. 21.
  39. ^ Gowing 2005, p. 154. Emphasis in original.
  40. ^ Beard 2013, p. 77.
  41. ^ Beard 2013, pp. 77–78.
  42. ^ Walsh, PG (1958). "The Negligent Historian: 'Howlers' in Livy". Greece & Rome. 5 (1): 83–88. doi:10.1017/S0017383500015047. ISSN 1477-4550. S2CID 162297822.
  43. ^ a b von Ungern-Sternberg 2015, p. 170.
  44. ^ Cornell 1995, p. 16.
  45. ^ Holloway 2008, pp. 124–25. Citing Livy, 2.21.4.
  46. ^ Forsythe 2005, p. 77.
  47. ^ Livy 1905, 1 pr 6.
  48. ^ Tennant, PMW (1988). (PDF). Acta Classica. XXXI: 81–93. ISSN 0065-1141. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  49. ^ a b c von Ungern-Sternberg 2015, p. 171.
  50. ^ Forsythe 2005, p. 59.
  51. ^ a b von Ungern-Sternberg 2015, p. 168.
  52. ^ Forsythe 2005, p. 66.
  53. ^ von Ungern-Sternberg 2015, pp. 167–68.
  54. ^ Cornell 1995, p. 5.
  55. ^ Cornell 1995, pp. 5–6.
  56. ^ Cornell 1995, p. 6. Cornell is amenable to the position that these late annalists relied on other now-lost works rather than invention.
  57. ^ Cornell 1986, p. 74.
  58. ^ von Ungern-Sternberg 2015, p. 169.
  59. ^ Considine 2004.
  60. ^ Livy (1960). The Early History of Rome: Books I–V of the History of Rome from its Foundation. Penguin Classics. Translated by de Sélincourt, Aubrey. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
  61. ^ Livy (1965). The War with Hannibal: Books XXI–XXX of the History of Rome from its Foundation. Penguin Classics. Translated by de Sélincourt, Aubrey. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
  62. ^ Livy 1905.

Sources edit

  • Beard, Mary (2013). Confronting the classics: traditions, adventures, and innovations (1st ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-87140-716-0. OCLC 843228659.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Briscoe, John (2012). "Livy". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford classical dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 852–53. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. OCLC 959667246.
  • Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon (1951). The magistrates of the Roman republic. Vol. 1. New York: American Philological Association.
  • Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon (1952). The magistrates of the Roman republic. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association.
  • Considine, John (2004). "Holland, Philemon (1552–1637)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/13535. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  • Cornell, Tim (1986). "The Formation of the Historical Tradition of Early Rome". In Moxon, IS; Smart, JD; Woodman, Anthony John (eds.). Past Perspectives: Studies in Greek and Roman Historical Writing. Cambridge: University Press. p. 74.
  • Cornell, T. (1995). The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). Routledge history of the ancient world. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7.
  • Forsythe, Gary (2005). A critical history of early Rome: from prehistory to the first Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94029-1. OCLC 70728478.
  • Foster, B.O. (2008) [1874]. Livy. Trollope Press.
  • Gabrielli, C. (2003). "Lucius Postumius Megellus at Gabii: A New Fragment of Livy". The Classical Quarterly. Cambridge University Press. 53 (1): 247–259. doi:10.1093/cq/53.1.247. hdl:2158/431091. ISSN 1471-6844. JSTOR 3556494.
  • Gowing, Alain M (2005). Empire and Memory: The Representation of the Roman Republic in Imperial Culture. Roman Literature and its Contexts. Cambridge: University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511610592. ISBN 978-0-521-83622-7.
  • Hahn, Frances Hickson (2015). "Livy's liturgical order". In Mineo, Bernard (ed.). A companion to Livy. Wiley. pp. 90–101. ISBN 978-1-118-30128-9.
  • Hardwick, L. (2003). Reception Studies. Greece & Rome: New surveys in the classics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852865-4 – via Classical Association (Great Britain).
  • Holloway, R Ross (2008). "Who Were the "Tribuni Militum Consulari Potestate?"". L'Antiquité Classique. 77: 107–125. doi:10.3406/antiq.2008.3716. ISSN 0770-2817. JSTOR 41812945. from the original on 2022-02-26. Retrieved 2022-03-02.
  • Livy (1905) [1st century AD]. History of Rome . Translated by Roberts, Canon – via Wikisource.
  • McDevitte, William A (1862). "Fragments of the History of Livy". History of Rome. London: HG Bohn.
  • Niebuhr, Barthold Georg (1844). The History of Rome. Vol. 3. Smith, William (Translator): Schmitz, Leonhard (Translator). Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.
  • Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). "Livy" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 817–823.
  • Seeley, J.R. (1881). Livy, Book I, with Introduction, Historical Examination and Notes (3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • von Ungern-Sternberg, Jürgen (2015). "Livy and the annalistic tradition". In Mineo, Bernard (ed.). A companion to Livy. Wiley. pp. 167–177. ISBN 978-1-118-30128-9.

Further reading edit

  • Briscoe, John
    • A Commentary on Livy Books XXXI-XXXIII. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1973.
    • A Commentary on Livy Books XXXIV-XXXVII. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1981.
    • A Commentary on Livy Books XXXVIII-XL. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008.
  • Burck, Erich (1934). Die Erzählungskunst des T. Livius. Problemata; Forschungen zur klassischen Philologie, Heft 11 (in German). Berlin: Weidmann.
  • Chaplin, Jane (2001). Livy's Exemplary History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815274-3.
  • Feldherr, Andrew (1998). Spectacle and Society in Livy's History. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21027-1.
  • Jaeger, Mary (1997). Livy's Written Rome. University of Michigan Press. ASIN B000S73SBI.
  • Lipovsky, James (1984). A Historiographical Study of Livy: Books VI-X. New Hampshire: Ayer Company. ASIN B0006YIJN0.
  • Luce, T. James (1977). Livy: The Composition of his History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03552-9.
  • Mackail, J. W. (2008). Latin Literature. BiblioLife. ISBN 978-0-554-32199-8.
  • Miles, Gary B. (1995). Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8426-1.
  • Oakley, S. P. (2008). A Commentary on Livy, Books VI-X. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923785-2.
  • Ogilvie, R. M. (1965). A Commentary on Livy Books 1 to 5. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ASIN B0000CMI9B.
  • Radice, Betty (1982). Rome and Italy: Books VI-X of the History of Rome from its Foundation. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044388-2.
  • Walsh, P. G. (1996) [1967]. Livy, his historical aims and methods. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 9781853991301.

External links edit

Primary sources edit

  • Livius, T. "Ab Urbe Condita Libri" (in Latin). The Latin Library. Retrieved 13 August 2009.
  • Livius, Titus (1823). The History of Rome... in Six Volumes. Baker, George (Translator). New York: Peter A. Mesier et al; The Online Library of Liberty. Retrieved 4 February 2010.
  • Livius, Titus (2004) [1904]. "Books I-III". Roman History. Freese, John Henry (Translator); Church, Alfred John (Translator); Brodribb, William Jackson (Translator); Osborne, Duffield (Contributor). Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on July 9, 2007. Retrieved 13 August 2009.
  • Livius, Titus (1853). The History of Rome by Titus Livius: The First Eight Books. Spillan, D. (Translator). London: Henry G. Bohn.
  • Livius, Titus (1868). The History of Rome by Titus Livius: Books Nine to Twenty-Six. Spillan, D. (Translator); Edmonds, Cyrus (Translator).
  • Livius, Titus (2004) [1850]. The History of Rome by Titus Livius: Books Twenty-Seven to Thirty-Six. Edmunds, Cyrus (Translator).
  • Livius (Livy), Titus. "Book XLVI". In McDevitte, William A. (ed.). The History of Rome by Titus Livius, with the epitomes and fragments of the lost books, literally translated, with notes and illustrations. London, Medford: George Bell and Sons, Tufts University: the Perseus Digital Library.
  • Livy. Lendering, Jona (ed.). "The Periochae". Livius. Retrieved 2022-03-08.
  •   From the Foundation of the City public domain audiobook at LibriVox
  •   The History of Rome Volume 4 public domain audiobook at LibriVox

Secondary sources edit

  • Hasselbarth, Hermann (1889). Historisch-kritische Untersuchungen zur dritten Dekade des Livius (in German). Halle, San Francisco: Verlag der Büchhandlung des Waisenhauses, Internet Archive.
  • Nissen, Heinrich (2001) [1863]. Kritische Untersuchungen über die Quellen der vierten und fünften Dekade des Livius (in German). Berlin, San Francisco: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, Internet Archive.
  • Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (2007). "Outline of Early Books of Livy". University of Vermont. Retrieved 13 August 2009.

urbe, condita, livy, reckoning, time, from, traditional, founding, rome, urbe, condita, work, called, urbe, condita, english, from, founding, city, sometimes, referred, urbe, condita, libri, books, from, founding, city, monumental, history, ancient, rome, writ. For the reckoning of time from the traditional founding of Rome AUC see Ab urbe condita The work called Ab urbe condita English From the Founding of the City sometimes referred to as Ab urbe condita libri Books from the Founding of the City a is a monumental history of ancient Rome written in Latin between 27 and 9 BC by Livy a Roman historian b The work covers the period from the legends concerning the arrival of Aeneas and the refugees from the fall of Troy to the city s founding in 753 BC the expulsion of the Kings in 509 BC and down to Livy s own time during the reign of the emperor Augustus c d The last event covered by Livy is the death of Drusus in 9 BC 2 35 of 142 books about a quarter of the work are still extant 4 The surviving books deal with the events down to 293 BC books 1 10 and from 219 to 166 BC books 21 45 Stories from Livy I 4 on an altar panel from Ostia Father Tiber looks on at the lower right while the national lupa wolf nourishes Romulus and Remus founders of Rome The herders are about to find them One of their goats can be seen Small animals denote the wildness of the place The national aquila eagle is portrayed Contents 1 Contents 1 1 Corpus 1 2 Abridgements 1 3 Chronology 1 4 Table of contents 2 Style 3 Publication 4 Manuscripts 4 1 First decade 5 Veracity 5 1 Historicity 5 2 Livy s sources 6 Later influences 6 1 Machiavelli 6 2 Translations 7 Notes 8 References 8 1 Citations 8 2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links 10 1 Primary sources 10 2 Secondary sourcesContents editCorpus edit The History of Rome originally comprised 142 books 35 of which Books 1 10 with the Preface and Books 21 45 still exist in reasonably complete form 2 Damage to a manuscript of the 5th century resulted in large gaps lacunae in Books 41 and 43 45 small lacunae exist elsewhere that is the material is not covered in any source of Livy s text 5 A fragmentary palimpsest of the 91st book was discovered in the Vatican Library in 1772 containing about a thousand words roughly three paragraphs and several papyrus fragments of previously unknown material much smaller have been found in Egypt since 1900 most recently about 40 words from Book 11 unearthed in 1986 6 Some passages are nevertheless known thanks to quotes from ancient authors the most famous being on the death of Cicero quoted by Seneca the Elder Abridgements edit nbsp Fragment of P Oxy 668 with Epitome of Livy XLVII XLVIIILivy was abridged in antiquity to an epitome which survives for Book 1 but was itself abridged in the fourth century into the so called Periochae which is simply a list of contents The Periochae survive for the entire work except for books 136 and 137 7 In Oxyrhynchus a similar summary of books 37 40 47 55 and only small fragments of 88 was found on a roll of papyrus that is now in the British Museum classified as P Oxy IV 0668 8 There is another fragment named P Oxy XI 1379 which represents a passage from the first book I 6 and that shows a high level of correctness 9 However the Oxyrhynchus Epitome is damaged and incomplete Chronology edit The entire work covers the following periods 2 10 Books 1 5 The legendary founding of Rome including the landing of Aeneas in Italy and the founding of the city by Romulus the period of the kings and the early republic down to its conquest by the Gauls in 390 BC e Books 6 10 Wars with the Aequi Volsci Etruscans and Samnites down to 292 BC Books 11 20 The period from 292 to 218 including the First Punic War lost Books 21 30 The Second Punic War from 218 to 202 Books 31 45 The Macedonian and other eastern wars from 201 to 167 Books 46 to 142 are all lost Books 46 70 The period from 167 to the outbreak of the Social War in 91 Books 71 90 The civil wars between Marius and Sulla to the death of Sulla in 78 Books 91 108 From 78 BC through the end of the Gallic War in 50 Books 109 116 From the Civil War to the death of Caesar 49 44 Books 117 133 The wars of the triumvirs down to the death of Antonius 44 30 Books 134 142 The rule of Augustus down to the death of Drusus 9 Table of contents edit Book number Status Years covered Main events covered1 Complete Down to 510 BC Foundation myths Aeneas Ascanius Romulus and Remus Rape of the Sabine women history of the Roman Kingdom expulsion of Tarquinus Superbus 2 Complete 509 468 BC Foundation of the Republic by Brutus wars against Tarquinius Superbus and Porsena Secession of the Plebs Volscian Wars 3 Complete 467 446 BC The Decemvirate 4 Complete 445 404 BC Conflict of the Orders murder of Spurius Maelius by Ahala war against the Fidenates 5 Complete 403 387 BC War against Veii Sack of Rome by Brennus 6 Complete 387 366 BC Story of Marcus Manlius Capitolinus Leges Liciniae Sextiae 7 Complete 366 342 BC Stories of Titus Manlius Torquatus and Marcus Valerius Corvus First Samnite War 8 Complete 341 322 BC First Samnite War Latin War 9 Complete 321 304 BC Second Samnite War defeat of the Caudine Forks alternate history with Alexander the Great defeated by Rome 10 Complete 303 293 BC Third Samnite War sacrifice of Publius Decius Mus 11 Fragments f 292 287 BC Third Samnite War plague in Rome Secession of the Plebs 12 Lost 284 280 BC War against the Senones Pyrrhic War campaigns against the Samnites and Italians betrayal of Decius Vibullius at Rhegium 13 Lost 280 278 BC Pyrrhic War treaty with Carthage campaigns against Italic peoples 14 Lost 278 272 BC Pyrrhic War treaty with Ptolemy II Carthage breaks the treaty with Rome campaigns against Italic peoples 15 Lost 272 267 BC Rome recovers Tarentum and Rhegium The Picentes Umbrians and Sallentini submit 16 Quotes g 264 263 BC First Punic War first gladiatorial games 17 Lost 260 256 BC First Punic War18 Quote h 255 BC First Punic War19 Quote i 251 241 BC First Punic War20 Lost 237 220 BC Wars against the Faliscans Sardinians Corsicans Illyrians Gauls Insubres and Istrians 21 Complete 219 218 BC Second Punic War Battle of the Trebia 22 Complete 217 216 BC Second Punic War defeats of the Lake Trasimene and Cannae 23 Complete 216 215 BC Second Punic War 24 Complete 215 213 BC Second Punic War First Macedonian War 25 Complete 213 212 BC Second Punic War fall of Syracuse 26 Complete 211 210 BC Second Punic War First Macedonian War Source for The Continence of Scipio 27 Complete 210 207 BC Second Punic War First Macedonian War 28 Complete 207 205 BC Second Punic War First Macedonian War 29 Complete 205 204 BC Second Punic War revolt of Indibilis and Mandonius 30 Complete 203 201 BC Second Punic War Battle of Zama 31 Complete 201 199 BC Second Macedonian War 32 Complete 198 197 BC Second Macedonian War 33 Complete 197 195 BC Second Macedonian War Battle of Cynoscephalae 34 Complete 195 194 BC Lex Oppia repealed victory of Cato in Hispania War against Nabis triumphs of Cato and Flamininus 35 Complete 193 192 BC Campaign against the Ligurians discussion between Scipio Africanus and Hannibal affairs of Greece talks with Antiochus III who then invades Greece 36 Complete 191 BC Roman Seleucid War Battle of Thermopylae 37 Complete 190 188 BC Roman Seleucid War 38 Complete 188 BC Operations in Greece campaign against the Galatians Treaty of Apamea trial and exile of Scipio Africanus 39 Complete 187 181 BC The Bacchanalia causes of the Third Macedonian War deaths of Scipio Africanus and Hannibal 40 Complete 184 179 BC Perseus kills his brother Demetrius and inherits the kingdom of Macedon Campaign against the Ligurians 41 Almost complete 179 174 BC Campaigns against the Ligurians Histrians Sardinians and Celtiberians Perseus activities in Greece 42 Complete 173 171 BC Third Macedonian War 43 Almost complete 171 169 BC Third Macedonian War 44 Almost complete 169 168 BC Third Macedonian War Battle of Pydna 45 Almost complete 168 166 BC Third Macedonian War capture of Perseus Sixth Syrian War triumph of Aemilius Paullus 46 Lost 165 160 BC Eumenes II s visit to Rome campaigns in North Italy embassies to Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII and Ariarathes V death of Paullus Aemilius the Pomptine Marshes are drained 47 Lost 160 154 BC Division of Egypt between Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII support of Ariarathes V against Demetrius I campaigns against the Dalmatians and Ligurians 48 Lost 154 150 BC Origin of the Third Punic War death of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Second Celtiberian War Lusitanian War 49 Lost 149 BC Third Punic War Lusitanian War Fourth Macedonian War 50 Lost 149 147 BC Prusias II of Bithynia is killed by his son Nicomedes II death of Massinissa Third Punic War Scipio Aemilianus elected consul Fourth Macedonian War 51 Lost 147 146 BC Third Punic War destruction of Carthage Achaean War 52 Lost 146 145 BC Achaean War Lusitanian War war between Alexander Balas and Demetrius II 53 Lost 143 BC Lusitanian War 54 Lost 141 139 BC Numantine War Lusitanian War death of Viriathus 55 Lost 138 137 BC Numantine War murder of Antiochus VI by Diodotus Tryphon 56 Lost 136 134 BC Numantine War First Servile War 57 Lost 133 BC Numantine War campaign of Scipio Aemilianus 58 Lost 133 BC Reforms of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus his death First Servile War 59 Lost 133 129 BC Numantine War victory of Scipio Aemilianus First Servile War revolt of Eumenes III of Pergamon war between Antiochus VII and Phraates II crisis in Egypt riots in Rome in the aftermath of Tiberius Gracchus reforms 60 Lost 126 123 BC Reforms of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus Quintus Caecilius Metellus campaign in the Balearic Islands 61 Lost 122 120 BC War against the Gauls victory of Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus against Bituitus death of Gaius Gracchus 62 Lost 118 117 BC Affairs of Numidia with a civil war started by Jugurtha 63 Lost 114 112 BC Campaigns against the Scordiscians in Thrace beginning of the Cimbrian War 64 Lost 112 110 BC Jugurthine War 65 Lost 109 107 BC Jugurthine War Cimbrian War 66 Lost 106 BC Jugurthine War 67 Lost 105 104 BC Cimbrian War Marius triumph and successive consulships 68 Lost 103 100 BC Cimbrian War 69 Lost 100 BC Reforms of Saturninus and Glaucia their deaths 70 Lost 97 91 BC Campaign against the Celtiberians Ptolemy Apion bequeaths his kingdom Sulla reinstates Ariobarzanes in his kingdom reforms of Marcus Livius Drusus 71 Lost 91 BC Drusus is murdered Social War 72 Lost 91 BC Social War 73 Lost 90 BC Social War 74 Lost 89 88 BC Social War 75 Lost 88 BC Social War 76 Lost 89 88 BC Social War Mithridates conquers Cappadocia and Bithynia 77 Lost 88 BC Sulla s march on Rome First Mithridatic War 78 Lost 88 BC First Mithridatic War 79 Lost 87 BC Bellum Octavianum 80 Lost 87 86 BC Citizenship given to Italian allies Bellum Octavianum death of Marius 81 Lost 87 86 BC First Mithridatic War Sulla takes Athens 82 Lost 86 BC First Mithridatic War battles of Chaeronea and Orchomenus Valerius Flaccus is murdered by Flavius Fimbria 83 Lost 86 84 BC First Mithridatic War Sulla s civil war 84 Lost 84 BC Sulla s civil war death of Cinna 85 Lost 83 BC Sulla s civil war 86 Lost 83 82 BC Sulla s civil war Second Mithridatic War 87 Lost 82 BC Sulla s civil war 88 Lost 82 BC Sulla s civil war Battle of the Colline Gate death of Marius the Younger 89 Lost 82 81 BC Sulla s civil war death of Carbo Sulla s proscriptions and reforms Pompey s first triumph 90 Lost 78 BC Death of Sulla uprising of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Sertorian War 91 Fragment 16 77 BC Sertorian War 92 Lost 76 BC Sertorian War campaign of Gaius Scribonius Curio against the Dardanians 93 Lost 76 75 BC Publius Servilius conquers Isauria Third Mithridatic War Sertorian War 94 Lost 74 BC Third Mithridatic War Sertorian War 95 Lost 74 73 BC War of Gaius Scribonius Curio against the Dardanians Third Servile War Third Mithridatic War 96 Lost 73 72 BC Third Servile War Sertorian War 97 Lost 71 70 BC Third Servile War campaign of Marcus Antonius Creticus in Crete Third Mithridatic War Crassus and Pompey become consuls 98 Lost 70 69 BC Third Mithridatic War campaign of Quintus Caecillius Metellus in Crete 99 Lost 68 67 BC Third Mithridatic War Pompey s expedition against the Cilician pirates campaign of Quintus Caecillius Metellus in Crete 100 Lost 66 BC Third Mithridatic War wars in Armenia 101 Lost 66 65 BC Third Mithridatic War Catilinarian conspiracy 102 Lost 64 63 BC Third Mithridatic War death of Mithridates Pompey takes Jerusalem Catilinarian conspiracy 103 Lost 62 58 BC Catilinarian conspiracy Publius Clodius Pulcher goes over to the plebeians First Triumvirate Gallic Wars 104 Lost 58 56 BC Gallic Wars Cicero returns from exile 105 Lost 56 54 BC Cato s attempt to obstruct the Triumvirate Gallic Wars first Crossing of the Rhine 106 Lost 54 53 BC Gallic Wars Battle of Carrhae death of Crassus 107 Lost 53 52 BC Gallic Wars murder of Clodius by Milo Pompey elected sole consul revolt of Vercingetorix 108 Lost 52 50 BC Gallic Wars Battle of Alesia victory of Gaius Cassius Longinus against the Parthians 109 Lost 50 49 BC Caesar s Civil War Crossing of the Rubicon 110 Lost 49 48 BC Caesar s Civil War 111 Quote 17 48 BC Caesar s Civil War Battle of Pharsalus 112 Quote j 48 BC Caesar s Civil War 113 Lost 47 BC Caesar s Civil War 114 Lost 46 BC Caesar s Civil War 115 Lost 46 BC Caesar s Civil War 116 Lost 45 44 BC Caesar s Civil War assassination of Caesar 117 Lost 44 BC Octavian arrives in Italy Antony disrupts the allotment of provinces preparations for war on multiple sides 118 Lost 44 BC Brutus takes the army of Publius Vatinius in Greece Octavian builds an army Antony besieges Modena 119 Lost 44 43 BC Publius Cornelius Dolabella is declared enemy of the state Battle of Mutina Octavian becomes consul at 19 120 Quote k 43 BC Second Triumvirate proscriptions death of Cicero 121 Lost 43 BC Cassius besieges Dolabella in Laodicea who commits suicide Brutus executes Gaius Antonius 122 Lost 43 BC Brutus campaign in Thrace 123 Lost 42 BC Sicilian revolt by Sextus Pompey Liberators Civil War 124 Lost 42 BC Battle of Philippi 125 Lost 41 BC Perusine War 126 Lost 41 40 BC Perusine War 127 Lost 40 39 BC Pompeian Parthian invasion Pact of Misenum 128 Lost 38 37 BC Sicilian revolt Antony s Parthian War Siege of Jerusalem 129 Lost 36 BC Sicilian Revolt Battle of Naulochus Octavian defeats Lepidus 130 Lost 36 BC Antony s Parthian War 131 Lost 35 34 BC Sextus Pompey is captured and executed by Antony Octavian s campaigns in Illyria Antony s conquest of Armenia Donations of Alexandria 132 Lost 34 31 BC Antony s Civil War Battle of Actium 133 Lost 30 28 BC Antony s Civil War suicides of Antony and Cleopatra conspiracy of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Minor 134 Lost 27 BC Octavian becomes Augustus census in the three Gauls campaign of Marcus Licinius Crassus against the Basterni and Moesians 135 Lost 25 BC Campaigns of Marcus Crassus against the Thracians and of Augustus in Hispania 136 Lost Missing in the Periochae 137 Lost Missing in the Periochae 138 Lost 15 12 BC Tiberius and Drusus conquers Raetia death of Agrippa Drusus makes a census in Gaul 139 Lost 12 BC Drusus campaign in Germania Imperial cult at Lugdunum 140 Lost 11 BC Conquest of Thracia Drusus campaign in Germania death of Octavia 141 Lost 10 BC Drusus campaign in Germania 142 Lost 9 BC Death of Drusus Style editLivy wrote in a mixture of annual chronology and narrative This emerged from his decision to organise his narrative on a year by year scheme with regular announcements of elections of consuls prodigies temple dedications triumphs and the like This kind of year by year list of events is termed annalistic history Livy employed annalistic features to associate his history with the dominant traditional of Roman history which was to write these annalistic chronicles in so doing he imbued his history with an aura of continuity and stability along with pontifical authority 20 The first and third decades see below of Livy s work are written so well that Livy has become a sine qua non of curricula in Golden Age Latin Some have argued that subsequently the quality of his writing began to decline and that he becomes repetitious and wordy Of the 91st book Barthold Georg Niebuhr says repetitions are here so frequent in the small compass of four pages and the prolixity so great that we should hardly believe it to belong to Livy Niebuhr accounts for the decline by supposing the writer has grown old and become loquacious 21 going so far as to conjecture that the later books were lost because copyists refused to copy such low quality work 22 However Livy also employed repetitive and formulaic wording in description of repetitive military affairs described by Ogilvie as mechanical and careless Modern readers however view Livy s repetitive prose more positively at least in performance of prayers blessings and public religious rituals 23 A digression in Book 9 Sections 17 19 suggests that the Romans would have beaten Alexander the Great if he had lived longer and had turned west to attack the Romans making this digression one of the oldest known written alternate history scenarios 24 Publication edit nbsp Ab Urbe condita 1714The first five books were published between 27 and 25 BC The first date mentioned is the year Augustus received that eponymous title twice in the first five books Livy uses it 25 For the second date Livy lists the closings of the temple of Janus but omits that of 25 it had not happened yet 26 Livy continued to work on the History for much of the rest of his life publishing new material by popular demand This explains why the work falls naturally into 12 packets mainly groups of 10 books or decades sometimes of 5 books pentads or pentades and the rest without any packet order The scheme of dividing it entirely into decades is a later innovation of copyists 27 The second pentad did not come out until 9 or after some 16 years after the first pentad In Book IX Livy states that the Cimminian Forest was more impassable than the German had been recently referring to the Hercynian Forest Black Forest first opened by Drusus and Ahenobarbus 28 One can only presume that in the interval Livy s first pentad had been such a success that he had to yield to the demand for more Manuscripts editThere is no uniform system of classifying and naming manuscripts Often the relationship of one manuscript MS to another remains unknown or changes as perceptions of the handwriting change Livy s release of chapters by packet diachronically encouraged copyists to copy by decade Each decade has its own conventions which do not necessarily respect the conventions of any other decade A family of MSS descend through copying from the same MSS typically lost MSS vary widely to produce an emendation or a printed edition was and is a major task Usually variant readings are given in footnotes First decade edit All of the manuscripts except one of the first ten books first decade of Ab urbe condita which were copied through the Middle Ages and were used in the first printed editions are derived from a single recension commissioned by Quintus Aurelius Symmachus consul AD 391 29 A recension is made by comparing extant manuscripts and producing a new version an emendation based on the text that seems best to the editor The latter then subscribed to the new MS by noting on it that he had emended it Symmachus probably using the authority of his office commissioned Tascius Victorianus to emend the first decade Books I IX bear the subscription Victorianus emendabam dominis Symmachis I Victorianus emended this by the authority of Symmachus Books VI VIII include another subscription preceding it that of Symmachus son in law Nicomachus Flavianus and Books III V were also emended by Flavianus son Appius Nicomachus Dexter who says he used his relative Clementianus copy 30 This recension and family of descendant MSS is called the Nicomachean after two of the subscribers From it several MSS descend incomplete list 31 32 Nicomachean Family of MSS IdentifyingLetter Location amp Number Name DateV Veronensis rescriptus 10th centuryH Harleianus 10th centuryE Einsiedlensis 10th centuryF Paris 5724 Floriacensis 10th centuryP Paris 5725 Parisiensis 9th 10th centuryM Mediceus Laurentianus 10th 11th centuryU Upsaliensis 10th 11th centuryR Vaticanus 3329 Romanus 11th centuryO Bodleianus 20631 Oxoniensis 11th centuryD Florentinus Marcianus Dominicanus 12th centuryA AgennensisPetrarch s copy 12th 14th century nbsp Ab urbe condita 1493Epigraphists go on to identify several hands and lines of descent A second family of the first decade consists of the Verona Palimpsest reconstructed and published by Theodore Mommsen 1868 hence the Veronensis MSS It includes 60 leaves of Livy fragments covering Books III VI The handwriting style is dated to the 4th century only a few centuries after Livy 33 During the Middle Ages there were constant rumours that the complete books of the History of Livy lay hidden in the library of a Danish or German Monastery One individual even affirmed under oath in the court of Martin V that he had seen the whole work written in Lombardic script in a monastery in Denmark All of these rumours were later found to be unsubstantiated 34 Veracity edit nbsp An illumination in a manuscript of Ab urbe condita in the French translation of Pierre Bersuire The manuscript belonged to king Charles V of France The illumination shows mythical scenes concerning the foundation of Rome and previous mythical history Paris Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve Ms 777 fol 7r The orthodox view is that Livy was a very poor historian indeed whether by ancient or modern standards 35 This is rooted in a few major reasons He did no primary research relying exclusively on earlier histories His understanding of those sources was poor with Livy relating the same event twice on multiple occasions 35 Moreover there are clear signs that his Greek was not good enough to understand properly one of his major sources the Greek historian Polybius 35 which he followed closely for events in the east in books 31 to 45 36 Livy also did not intend to produce a history in terms of cataloguing and understanding the past but rather in terms of preserving a memory that equips the reader with a sense of wrong and right as determined or exemplified by the actions of one s predecessors 37 Moreover the work was also written under the shadow of the new emperor 38 with the goal of supporting the idea that the Augustan principate was the culmination of Roman history 39 While other sources have attempted to rehabilitate Livy s history in terms of its literary quality for example DS Levene s Livy on the Hannibalic War 40 this is not a defence of the history s historicity 41 Modern criticism of Livy also goes into the inaccuracy of his battle accounts the vagueness of his geography the excessive partiality shown to one or an other of his heroes and in general the highly rhetorical nature of not only his speeches but also of his dramatic narrations 42 However judgement on Livy s whole work ought to be withheld insofar as only the first third of Ab urbe condita survives the portions of Livy that survive heavily relying on an uncritical repetition of earlier sources may not be the same approach he took for later periods of the republic or his own time where he would have needed to do his own research using contemporary testimonies from eyewitnesses the records of the senate and the assemblies and records of the speeches of the great orators 43 Historicity edit The details of Livy s History vary from the legendary and mythical stories at the beginning 44 to detailed accounts of real events toward the end Livy in his preface on discussing the early history of Rome noted the difficulties of interpreting or reconciling the sources in his own day So many chronological errors magistrates appearing differently in different authors suggest you cannot tell which consuls came after which or what belonged to any one year 45 It is not easy to prefer one thing over the other or one author over another I think that the tradition has been contaminated since various families have fraudulently arrogated to themselves the repute of deeds and offices As a result both individuals deeds and the public records of events have certainly been thrown into confusion Nor is there any writer contemporary with those times who could serve as a reliable standard 46 Livy too recognised that the early years of Rome were profoundly ahistorical saying the traditions of what happened prior to the foundation of the city or whilst it was being built are more fitted to adorn the creations of the poet than the authentic records of the historian 47 The first book has been one of the most significant sources of the various accounts of the traditional legend of Romulus and Remus 48 However when comparing Livy s account of the kingdom to that of Dionysius of Halicarnassus his scepticism is better evident as he omitted many stories which seemed rather improbable to him 49 And in general the early parts of the books are important accounts of early Rome surviving from antiquity 50 But while Livy did recognise the higher reliability of older contemporary authors compared to younger ones he did little to ensure that his history was internally consistent or follow his own insights on unreliability regularly preferring the story of his chosen choice without changes even if he afterward detected capital errors 51 Livy s treatment of his own sources was more in terms of arranging material and synthesising a narrative rather than engaging in original research into official documents in doing so he did little more than trying to reconcile discrepancies in his sources by using arguments from probability 52 However Livy did not substantially grapple with the possibility that annalists knew how to invent probable stories 51 Furthermore rarely did Livy provide the names of his sources especially in the long passages where he followed one major source with infrequent comparisons to other sources to correct errors 53 Fortunately Livy s goal in telling existing narratives with better style and arrangement means he seemingly did not introduce into his history invented episodes of exaggerations 49 Livy s sources edit Livy s work came at the end of a long line of historians conventionally known as the annalistic tradition 54 Where he relied on these sources along with other narrative sources available in his day his principle was similar to that of Herodotus tell what he had been told 49 Roman historiography goes back to Quintus Fabius Pictor who wrote c 200 BC heavily influenced by Greek historiographical canons and methods Other annalists included Quintus Ennius Marcius Porcius Cato the censor Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Lucius Cassius Hemina Gnaeus Gellius Vennonius Valerius Antias Licinius Macer Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius and Quintus Aelius Tubero 55 The last three annalists operating in the first century BC are however widely believed to have been less scrupulous than their second century predecessors supplying stories about the archaic period from their own imaginations 56 However as to certain elements of his narrative Livy may have relied on unscrupulous annalists who did not hesitate to invent a series of face saving victories 57 Livy did not use the libri lintei or the annales maximi kept by the pontifex maximus nor did he walk around in Rome or elsewhere to discover inscriptions or other new documents 58 The difficulties of using the senate s own archives documented in speeches by Cicero hint at the possibilities of falsifying evidence and the poor transmission of authoritative historical records 43 Later influences editMachiavelli edit Niccolo Machiavelli s work on republics Discourses on Livy is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome Translations edit The first complete rendering of Ab urbe condita into English was Philemon Holland s translation published in 1600 According to Considine it was a work of great importance presented in a grand folio volume of 1 458 pages and dedicated to Queen Elizabeth I 59 A notable translation of Livy titled History of Rome was made by B O Foster in 1919 for the Loeb Classical Library A partial translation by Aubrey de Selincourt was printed in 1960 1965 for Penguin Classics 60 61 nbsp Wikisource has original text related to this article Ab urbe condita The version of Livy available on Wikisource is that from the 1905 translation of Reverend Canon Roberts for Everyman s Library 62 Notes edit Livy himself called his history the Annales but this title has not been used by modern scholars who usually refer to it simply as the History of Rome or History of Rome from the Founding of the City or in Latin Ab urbe condita From the Founding of the City or Since the Founding of the City As with other Latin works the number of books is frequently appended to the title hence the occasional rendering Ab urbe condita libri CXLII From the Founding of the City in 142 Books 1 2 Various indications point to the period from 27 to 20 BC as that during which the first decade was written In the first book XIX 3 the emperor is called Augustus a title which he was granted by the Roman Senate early in 27 and in IX 18 the omission of all reference to the restoration in 20 of the standards taken at Carrhae seems to justify the inference that the passage was written before that date In the epitome of book LIX there is a reference to a law of Augustus which was passed in 18 3 Livy uses the chronology of Varro one of his predecessors whose chronology was the most widely accepted in antiquity and remains in general use today although scholars continue to debate the dating of specific events including the founding of Rome itself In Roman times it was customary to date events according to the consuls of each year rather than assigning each year a numerical name so while it was possible to date events by reference to the founding of Rome this was rarely done For instance the consuls of 439 BC were Agrippa Menenius Lanatus and Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus so that year would typically be referred to as the consulship of Agrippa Menenius and Titus Quinctius rather than the year three hundred and fifteen From this custom the consuls who began each year are sometimes referred to as the eponymous magistrates of that year that is the magistrates after whom the year was named This is the traditional date but some uncertainty exists with regard to four years during the Samnite Wars for which no consuls are named in any source and for which no elections were supposedly held this has led some scholars to conclude that the Gallic sack of Rome occurred in or about 386 BC although this also creates an unexplained and undated gap before the event 11 Two small fragments discovered in 1986 in Egypt 6 Maurus Servius Honoratus In Vergilii Aeneidem Commentarii 1 366 1 738 12 I should also mention the snake that Livy talks about in such detail and with such style He says that in Africa near the river Bagradas there was a snake so huge that it was able to prevent the army of Atilius Regulus from using the river It snatched up many soldiers in its huge mouth Livy notes that the hide of the beast was sent to our city and measured 120 feet 13 14 Maurus Servius Honoratus In Vergilii Aeneidem Commentarii 6 198 15 Seneca the Younger De Tranquillitate Animi 9 5 18 Seneca the Elder Suasoriae 6 17 19 References editCitations edit Livy XLIII 13 a b c d nbsp Smith William ed 1870 Livius Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Vol II p 790 Pelham 1911 Foster 1874 p xvi Hardwick 2003 p 23 a b Gabrielli 2003 pp 247 259 Livy the Periochae www livius org Archived from the original on August 9 2014 Retrieved August 5 2014 T LIVI PERIOCHARUM FRAGMENTA OXYRHYNCHI REPERTA www attalus org Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved August 5 2014 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri part XI London 1915 pagg 188 89 The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature ed By M C Howatson Oxford 1989 p 326 Broughton 1951 pp xi 94 96 141 148 149 163 164 171 McDevitte 1862 p 2213 Valerius Maximus 2004 Memorable deeds and sayings one thousand tales from ancient Rome Translated by Walker Henry Indianapolis Hackett 1 8 ext 19 ISBN 0 87220 675 0 OCLC 53231884 McDevitte 1862 pp 2213 14 McDevitte 1862 p 2214 McDevitte 1862 pp 2215 17 McDevitte 1862 p 2219 Citing Plutarch Caesar 47 McDevitte 1862 p 2219 McDevitte 1862 pp 2220 2221 Hahn 2015 p 92 Niebuhr ed Schmitz 1844 The History of Rome vol I p 56 Nieburh ed Schmitz 1844 The History of Rome vol I p 57 Hahn 2015 p 93 Dozois Gardner Schmidt Stanley eds 1998 Roads Not Taken Tales of Alternate History New York Del Rey pp 1 5 ISBN 978 0 345 42194 4 Foster 1874 p xi citing Livy I 19 and IV 20 Foster 1874 p xi citing Livy I 19 Foster 1874 pp xv xvi Niebuhr 1844 p 39 citing Livy IX 36 Hedrick Charles W 2000 History and Silence Purge and Rehabilitation of Memory in Late Antiquity University of Texas Press pp 181 182 ISBN 978 0 292 73121 9 Foster 1874 pp xxxii xxxvi Hall Frederick William 1913 A companion to classical texts Oxford Clarendon Press pp 246 247 Kraus 1994 p 30 Foster 1874 p xxxii Clark Albert C 1921 06 01 The Reappearance of the Texts of the Classics The Library S4 II 1 13 42 doi 10 1093 library s4 II 1 13 a b c Beard 2013 p 76 Briscoe 2012 p 852 Gowing 2005 p 23 Gowing 2005 p 21 Gowing 2005 p 154 Emphasis in original Beard 2013 p 77 Beard 2013 pp 77 78 Walsh PG 1958 The Negligent Historian Howlers in Livy Greece amp Rome 5 1 83 88 doi 10 1017 S0017383500015047 ISSN 1477 4550 S2CID 162297822 a b von Ungern Sternberg 2015 p 170 Cornell 1995 p 16 Holloway 2008 pp 124 25 Citing Livy 2 21 4 Forsythe 2005 p 77 Livy 1905 1 pr 6 Tennant PMW 1988 The Lupercalia and the Romulus and Remus Legend PDF Acta Classica XXXI 81 93 ISSN 0065 1141 Archived from the original PDF on 10 May 2017 Retrieved 22 November 2016 a b c von Ungern Sternberg 2015 p 171 Forsythe 2005 p 59 a b von Ungern Sternberg 2015 p 168 Forsythe 2005 p 66 von Ungern Sternberg 2015 pp 167 68 Cornell 1995 p 5 Cornell 1995 pp 5 6 Cornell 1995 p 6 Cornell is amenable to the position that these late annalists relied on other now lost works rather than invention Cornell 1986 p 74 von Ungern Sternberg 2015 p 169 Considine 2004 Livy 1960 The Early History of Rome Books I V of the History of Rome from its Foundation Penguin Classics Translated by de Selincourt Aubrey Harmondsworth Penguin Livy 1965 The War with Hannibal Books XXI XXX of the History of Rome from its Foundation Penguin Classics Translated by de Selincourt Aubrey Harmondsworth Penguin Livy 1905 Sources edit Beard Mary 2013 Confronting the classics traditions adventures and innovations 1st ed New York ISBN 978 0 87140 716 0 OCLC 843228659 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Briscoe John 2012 Livy In Hornblower Simon Spawforth Antony Eidinow Esther eds The Oxford classical dictionary 4th ed Oxford Oxford University Press pp 852 53 ISBN 978 0 19 954556 8 OCLC 959667246 Broughton Thomas Robert Shannon 1951 The magistrates of the Roman republic Vol 1 New York American Philological Association Broughton Thomas Robert Shannon 1952 The magistrates of the Roman republic Vol 2 New York American Philological Association Considine John 2004 Holland Philemon 1552 1637 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 13535 Subscription or UK public library membership required Cornell Tim 1986 The Formation of the Historical Tradition of Early Rome In Moxon IS Smart JD Woodman Anthony John eds Past Perspectives Studies in Greek and Roman Historical Writing Cambridge University Press p 74 Cornell T 1995 The Beginnings of Rome Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars c 1000 264 BC Routledge history of the ancient world Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 01596 7 Forsythe Gary 2005 A critical history of early Rome from prehistory to the first Punic War Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 94029 1 OCLC 70728478 Foster B O 2008 1874 Livy Trollope Press Gabrielli C 2003 Lucius Postumius Megellus at Gabii A New Fragment of Livy The Classical Quarterly Cambridge University Press 53 1 247 259 doi 10 1093 cq 53 1 247 hdl 2158 431091 ISSN 1471 6844 JSTOR 3556494 Gowing Alain M 2005 Empire and Memory The Representation of the Roman Republic in Imperial Culture Roman Literature and its Contexts Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 CBO9780511610592 ISBN 978 0 521 83622 7 Hahn Frances Hickson 2015 Livy s liturgical order In Mineo Bernard ed A companion to Livy Wiley pp 90 101 ISBN 978 1 118 30128 9 Hardwick L 2003 Reception Studies Greece amp Rome New surveys in the classics Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 852865 4 via Classical Association Great Britain Holloway R Ross 2008 Who Were the Tribuni Militum Consulari Potestate L Antiquite Classique 77 107 125 doi 10 3406 antiq 2008 3716 ISSN 0770 2817 JSTOR 41812945 Archived from the original on 2022 02 26 Retrieved 2022 03 02 Livy 1905 1st century AD History of Rome Translated by Roberts Canon via Wikisource McDevitte William A 1862 Fragments of the History of Livy History of Rome London HG Bohn Niebuhr Barthold Georg 1844 The History of Rome Vol 3 Smith William Translator Schmitz Leonhard Translator Philadelphia Lea amp Blanchard Pelham Henry Francis 1911 Livy In Chisholm Hugh ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 16 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 817 823 Seeley J R 1881 Livy Book I with Introduction Historical Examination and Notes 3rd ed Oxford Clarendon Press von Ungern Sternberg Jurgen 2015 Livy and the annalistic tradition In Mineo Bernard ed A companion to Livy Wiley pp 167 177 ISBN 978 1 118 30128 9 Further reading editBriscoe John A Commentary on Livy Books XXXI XXXIII Oxford Oxford University Press 1973 A Commentary on Livy Books XXXIV XXXVII Oxford Oxford University Press 1981 A Commentary on Livy Books XXXVIII XL Oxford Oxford University Press 2008 Burck Erich 1934 Die Erzahlungskunst des T Livius Problemata Forschungen zur klassischen Philologie Heft 11 in German Berlin Weidmann Chaplin Jane 2001 Livy s Exemplary History Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 815274 3 Feldherr Andrew 1998 Spectacle and Society in Livy s History Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 21027 1 Jaeger Mary 1997 Livy s Written Rome University of Michigan Press ASIN B000S73SBI Lipovsky James 1984 A Historiographical Study of Livy Books VI X New Hampshire Ayer Company ASIN B0006YIJN0 Luce T James 1977 Livy The Composition of his History Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 03552 9 Mackail J W 2008 Latin Literature BiblioLife ISBN 978 0 554 32199 8 Miles Gary B 1995 Livy Reconstructing Early Rome Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 8426 1 Oakley S P 2008 A Commentary on Livy Books VI X Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 923785 2 Ogilvie R M 1965 A Commentary on Livy Books 1 to 5 Oxford Clarendon Press ASIN B0000CMI9B Radice Betty 1982 Rome and Italy Books VI X of the History of Rome from its Foundation London Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 044388 2 Walsh P G 1996 1967 Livy his historical aims and methods Bristol Classical Press ISBN 9781853991301 External links edit nbsp Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article Ab Urbe Condita Primary sources edit Livius T Ab Urbe Condita Libri in Latin The Latin Library Retrieved 13 August 2009 Livius Titus 1823 The History of Rome in Six Volumes Baker George Translator New York Peter A Mesier et al The Online Library of Liberty Retrieved 4 February 2010 Livius Titus 2004 1904 Books I III Roman History Freese John Henry Translator Church Alfred John Translator Brodribb William Jackson Translator Osborne Duffield Contributor Project Gutenberg Archived from the original on July 9 2007 Retrieved 13 August 2009 Livius Titus 1853 The History of Rome by Titus Livius The First Eight Books Spillan D Translator London Henry G Bohn Livius Titus 1868 The History of Rome by Titus Livius Books Nine to Twenty Six Spillan D Translator Edmonds Cyrus Translator Livius Titus 2004 1850 The History of Rome by Titus Livius Books Twenty Seven to Thirty Six Edmunds Cyrus Translator Livius Livy Titus Book XLVI In McDevitte William A ed The History of Rome by Titus Livius with the epitomes and fragments of the lost books literally translated with notes and illustrations London Medford George Bell and Sons Tufts University the Perseus Digital Library Livy Lendering Jona ed The Periochae Livius Retrieved 2022 03 08 nbsp From the Foundation of the City public domain audiobook at LibriVox nbsp The History of Rome Volume 4 public domain audiobook at LibriVoxSecondary sources edit Hasselbarth Hermann 1889 Historisch kritische Untersuchungen zur dritten Dekade des Livius in German Halle San Francisco Verlag der Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses Internet Archive Nissen Heinrich 2001 1863 Kritische Untersuchungen uber die Quellen der vierten und funften Dekade des Livius in German Berlin San Francisco Weidmannsche Buchhandlung Internet Archive Rodgers Barbara Saylor 2007 Outline of Early Books of Livy University of Vermont Retrieved 13 August 2009 Ab urbe condita Livy at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ab urbe condita Livy amp oldid 1181543091, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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