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1926 Miami hurricane

The Great Miami Hurricane of 1926[1] was a large and intense tropical cyclone that devastated the Greater Miami area of Florida and caused catastrophic damage in the Bahamas and the U.S. Gulf Coast in September 1926, accruing a US$100 million damage toll. The devastation wrought by the hurricane resulted in the end of Florida's land boom, and represented an early start to the Great Depression in the state. It has been estimated that a similar hurricane would cause about $235 billion in damage if it were to hit Miami in 2018.[5]

Hurricane Seven
Surface weather analysis of the storm over South Florida on September 18
Meteorological history
FormedSeptember 11, 1926
DissipatedSeptember 22, 1926
Category 4 hurricane
1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS)
Highest winds150 mph (240 km/h)
Lowest pressure930 mbar (hPa); 27.46 inHg
(estimated)
Overall effects
Fatalities372–539+
Damage$100 million (1926 USD)
(Costliest U.S. hurricane on record when adjusted for wealth normalization)
Areas affected
IBTrACS / [1][2][3][4]

Part of the 1926 Atlantic hurricane season

The hurricane is believed to have formed in the central Atlantic Ocean on September 11.[nb 1] Steadily strengthening as it tracked west-northwestward, the storm reached hurricane intensity the next day. As a result of scattered observations at open sea, however, no ship encountered the storm until September 15, by which time it had reached major hurricane intensity north of the Virgin Islands. Strengthening continued up until the following day, when the storm reached peak intensity with a strength equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane. This intensity was maintained as the storm tracked across the Turks and Caicos and the Bahamas to landfall near Miami on September 18.

The hurricane caused immense destruction throughout the islands and across southern Florida. The storm destroyed hundreds of structures in its path over the islands, leaving thousands of residents homeless. At least seventeen deaths occurred on the islands, though many others—some related only indirectly to the storm—were reported in the aftermath. Upon striking South Florida, the cyclone generated hurricane-force winds over a broad swath of the region, causing widespread and severe structural damage from both wind and water. Most of the deaths occurred near Lake Okeechobee, when a large storm surge breached muck dikes and drowned hundreds of people.

The hurricane quickly traversed the Florida peninsula before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico near Fort Myers. It flooded surrounding communities and barrier islands, while strong winds downed trees and disrupted electrical service. The storm later made two landfalls with weaker intensities on Alabama and Mississippi on September 20 and 21, respectively. It caused additional but less severe damage in those states, primarily from heavy rains and storm surge. Land interaction caused the cyclone to deteriorate and later dissipate on September 22.

Meteorological history edit

 
Map plotting the storm's track and intensity, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
Map key
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
  Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

Due to the sparseness of available observations in the central Atlantic, the specific origins of the 1926 Miami hurricane remain unclear.[6] Operationally, the United States Weather Bureau in Washington, D.C., did not begin issuing advisories on the cyclone until September 14.[7] However, the cyclone is first listed in HURDAT—the official Atlantic hurricane database—as having begun as a tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) roughly 1,100 mi (1,800 km) east of the island of Martinique in the Lesser Antilles on September 11. Tracking west-northwestward, the storm gradually intensified and reached hurricane intensity on September 12 while still east of the Lesser Antilles.[8] The observation of low barometric pressures and winds suggesting cyclonic rotation at Saint Kitts on the evening of September 14 was the first to suggest that a hurricane had developed.[7] The following day, the steamship Matura encountered the strengthening tropical cyclone and documented a minimum pressure of 28.82 inHg (976 mb).[6] By 06:00 UTC on September 15, the storm had strengthened further to major hurricane intensity north of the Virgin Islands.[8]

Strengthening continued into September 16 as the hurricane reached a strength equivalent to that of a Category 4 on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Although no official minimum pressure readings were taken in the area at the time, the tropical cyclone peaked in wind-based intensity at 18:00 UTC on September 16 with sustained winds of 150 mph (240 km/h), near the uppermost limit of the modern-day ranking Category 4.[8] With this strength the hurricane passed near the Turks and Caicos Islands, though its intensity at the time was based on the extent of damage there as any measurement device was knocked out by the damaging winds.[6][9] Shortly afterward, the cyclone struck the Bahamian island of Mayaguana at its peak intensity.[8] After passing the island, the hurricane slightly weakened but maintained formidable strength as it accelerated through the southern Bahamas, passing near Nassau on September 17.[8][7] The storm then made a second landfall on Andros Island in the Mangrove Cay district early on September 18. Thereafter, the hurricane crossed Andros Island and passed over the Gulf Stream en route to Florida. This trajectory brought the storm ashore on the coast of South Florida near Perrine, located just 15 mi (24 km) south of Downtown Miami, before 12:00 UTC on September 18 with winds of 145 mph (233 km/h) and a minimum pressure estimated at 930 mb (27 inHg).[6][10] At the time, the hurricane was very large in size, with a radius of outermost closed isobar 375 mi (604 km) across;[11] hurricane-force winds were reported from the upper Florida Keys to near St. Lucie County.[12][13] Around 20:30 UTC, the eye of the hurricane passed into the Gulf of Mexico near Punta Rassa; though by that time the pressure in the eye had only risen to 28.05 inHg (950 mb),[7] the winds in the eye wall had decreased to 105 mph (169 km/h). The hurricane had weakened over South Florida as a result of land interaction, but re-strengthened after emerging into the Gulf of Mexico off Punta Rassa six hours later.[8][7]

The warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico allowed for the tropical cyclone to reach a secondary peak intensity with winds of 125 mph (201 km/h) on September 20, equivalent to that of a modern-day high-end Category 3 hurricane. Although the storm had taken a more northwesterly course through the gulf, the hurricane later began paralleling the coast of the Florida Panhandle and thus slowly curved westward.[8] As a result, the major hurricane, now weakening quickly, made its second landfall near Perdido Beach, Alabama, at around 21:30 UTC that day with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h).[10] After landfall, the storm quickly weakened and meandered off Alabama's barrier islands, eventually moving ashore for the last time on September 21 near Gulfport, Mississippi, as a tropical storm.[6] The cyclone continued its decay inland, degenerating into a tropical depression the following day before dissipating over Louisiana shortly thereafter.[8]

Preparations edit

On September 16, the United States Weather Bureau advised caution to ships tracking in Bahamian waters and the Florida Strait. The first tropical cyclone warning associated with the storm was a northeast storm warning issued on September 17 for the Florida coast from Jupiter Inlet to Key West, Florida. Warnings along the United States Eastern Seaboard eventually stretched as far north as Charleston, South Carolina, upon the storm's first landfall. Additional warnings were posted for the United States Gulf Coast on September 19 and covered coastal areas from Apalachicola, Florida, to Burrwood, Louisiana. Information on the storm as ascertained by the U.S. Weather Bureau was relayed by various radio and local press services, though the bureau specifically acknowledged the Mobile Register for their efforts in disseminating storm details.[7]

Impact edit

Costliest U.S. Atlantic hurricanes, 1900–2017
Direct economic losses, normalized to societal conditions in 2018[5]
Rank Hurricane Season Cost
1  4  "Miami" 1926 $235.9 billion
2  4  "Galveston" 1900 $138.6 billion
3  3  Katrina 2005 $116.9 billion
4  4  "Galveston" 1915 $109.8 billion
5  5  Andrew 1992 $106.0 billion
6  ET  Sandy 2012  $73.5 billion
7  3  "Cuba–Florida" 1944  $73.5 billion
8  4  Harvey 2017  $62.2 billion
9  3  "New England" 1938  $57.8 billion
10  4  "Okeechobee" 1928  $54.4 billion
Main article: List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes

Turks & Caicos and The Bahamas edit

Although no fatalities were reported, the hurricane wrought extensive property damage to Grand Turk Island. Rain gauges recorded 10 in (250 mm) of rain during the storm, and high surf left knee-deep sand drifts on the island.[9] The ocean covered the land up to 34 mi (1.2 km) inland, and winds unroofed buildings at the weather station. Reportedly, the winds even ripped spines from prickly pear cacti.[9] Nearly all lighters at port were lost.[14] The storm left 4,000 people homeless on three of the islands in the Turks and Caicos.[15] Due to hampered communication, the extent of damage in the Bahamas was initially unclear.[16] In the Bahamas, the storm flattened hundreds of structures and killed at least 17 people, mostly on Bimini, where seven people died and the greatest property damage occurred. The hurricane also leveled many structures on Andros, including churches and large buildings, and downed trees and other homes on New Providence.[3] On parts of Andros, the storm snapped or felled almost all of the coconut palms,[17] and in the Exuma district a large storm surge ruined many crops.[18] The storm also destroyed 60% of the homes on the north island of Bimini, left water up to 7 ft (2.1 m) deep in some areas, and was widely considered the worst storm on record in Bimini to date. Some sources say 25 people died on Bimini, but these may have been indirect deaths, as many people reportedly perished after drinking contaminated well water.[19]

United States edit

 
Damage to a home near Miami, Florida

The 1926 hurricane is known primarily for its impacts and lasting aftermath in South Florida, particularly in the Miami area. Effects were concentrated around Florida's southeastern coast and south-central Florida, with additional impacts in Northwest Florida. Damage figures from the storm in the state alone reached US$75 million and accounted for most of the damage that the tropical cyclone produced.[6] Although the official number of fatalities would later be revised downward,[1] initial estimates suggested that the death toll would likely be over 1,000 in Miami alone with an additional 2,000 injured. Nonetheless, the grave number of casualties forced resorts to serve as temporary morgues and hospitals. Homes and office buildings were used to serve as refugee camps for the approximately 38,000 people displaced by the hurricane.[20]

Miami metropolitan area edit

 
Damage on Fort Lauderdale beach, near Port Everglades

The storm surge in South Florida was not as high as it would have been had the hurricane struck another area, owing to the deep offshore continental shelf, which increased the energy needed to sustain a large surge.[13] However, along Biscayne Bay, the hurricane produced a substantial storm surge; visual estimates suggested a peak height of 14 to 15 ft (4.3 to 4.6 m) in Coconut Grove,[21] and a value of 11.7 ft (3.6 m) occurred at Dinner Key,[22] equal to the observation at Biscayne Boulevard in Downtown Miami.[21] In fact, the storm surge measured in the 1926 hurricane was the highest ever officially documented on the east coast of South Florida until observers recorded a height of 16.89 ft (5.15 m) at the Burger King International Headquarters near Cutler in Dade County during Hurricane Andrew in 1992.[23][24] The hurricane's high storm surge swept into Miami and Miami Beach, flooding city streets with knee-deep water. Yachts and large vessels were carried by the intense wind and waves onto shore.[20] The MacArthur Causeway connecting Miami and Miami Beach was submerged under 6 ft (1.8 m) of water.[16]

Waves several feet high were rolling up Las Olas Boulevard, which had the appearance of a river rather than a street. ... Practically the entire town was covered with three feet of water.[25]

M. A. Hortt, former mayor of Fort Lauderdale

Communication between the two locales as well as the rest of the United States was cut after all local telecommunications and power lines were blown down.[16] Due to their susceptibility to strong winds, most wooden buildings in Miami were either blown down or lost their roofs. Concrete and steel buildings were warped at their bases.[20] While skyscrapers mostly sustained minor damage, the 18-story Meyer-Kiser Building bore considerable damage.[26] The structure reportedly swayed and vibrated precipitously during the storm; eyewitnesses likened it to the Charleston dance.[27] Many of the injuries in the city were due to ballistic fragments of broken roofing including iron sheeting. Other structures across the region sustained significant damage. Strong winds leveled "hundreds" of working-class homes in Hialeah and severely damaged 70% of the town.[28] Winds destroyed the interiors of buildings in Fort Lauderdale, the seat of Broward County, and ripped the roof from the Broward County courthouse. Despite having only 12,000 inhabitants, the town sustained severe damage to 3,500 of its buildings.[4] Nearby, the storm severely damaged the abandoned New River House of Refuge.[29][30] Cities as far north as Lake Park (then called Kelsey City) and West Palm Beach in Palm Beach County reported many roofs blown off, numerous small buildings destroyed, walls blown down, windows shattered, and trees, shrubs, and other objects torn apart or uprooted.[30][31][32] The worst destruction occurred in the poorer, mostly black sections of the towns, where many homes were destroyed.[30]

We had never been through a hurricane in 1926, when we experienced our first one. ... We didn't know that all windows should be covered in a hurricane. ... I was watching as railroad cars were being knocked off the tracks and telegraph poles were snapped like toothpicks. ...[Immediately] almost all the windows on the top floor were broken.[33][34]

Floy Cooke Mitchell, wife of former mayor of Boca Raton J. C. Mitchell

 
Remains of a bridge at Baker's Haulover Inlet

Along the east coast of South Florida, the storm caused widespread, significant beach erosion.[35] At Hillsboro Inlet Light, high tides removed 20 ft (6.1 m) of sand beneath the lighthouse.[36] The hurricane swept away much of State Road A1A in Broward and Miami-Dade Counties.[37] The combined force of waves and storm surge undermined coastal structures that collapsed, including multi-story casinos on Miami Beach,[27] and washed out the coastal bridge on Florida State Road A1A at Baker's Haulover Inlet.[38] In Boca Raton, waves were so large that they rose to the top of the high ridge on the barrier island, though they did not overtop it.[39] High surf also destroyed a casino at the Boca Raton Inlet. "Knee-deep" water east of U.S. Route 1 (Federal Highway) in Boca Raton blocked beach access, but residents waded through.[39] Meanwhile, large waves left much debris and sand drifts several feet deep on State Road A1A in Delray Beach.[30] The waters of the Lake Worth Lagoon overflowed their banks, submerging nearby streets, parks, and golf courses.[40] High tides piled debris on the streets of Palm Beach, caused a beachfront boardwalk to collapse, and exacerbated previous damage from the July hurricane.[31] On Hollywood beach, waves smashed windows and invaded the interior of the Hollywood Beach Hotel. People on the second floor found sand drifts reaching "half way to the ceiling."[34]

 
Damage on Miami Beach

The storm also ravaged entertainment venues and historic sites. The storm flattened the Fulford–Miami Speedway in North Miami Beach, which then ceased operation.[41][42] Winds peeled into pieces the roof of the grandstand at Hialeah Race Track and destroyed the kennels, allowing racing greyhounds to escape.[28] The storm wrecked prominent restaurants and tourist attractions on Miami Beach, including the Million Dollar Pier.[27] Many historic structures throughout South Florida sustained significant damage, including the Barnacle and the Villa Vizcaya, where the yacht Nepenthe and fishing boat Psyche were sunk.[43][44][45] The storm damaged the main residence at the Bonnet House—the only hurricane to do so since the latter was first built. No other storm since 1926 caused a similar level of destruction to the property until Hurricane Wilma in 2005.[46]

The storm ruined cultivated areas throughout South Florida. The storm flooded the surrounding citrus crop and agricultural fields south of Miami, particularly near Homestead and Florida City,[47]destroying half of the citrus-bearing trees in the area.[20] Much of the citrus crop in Dania was a total loss as floodwaters submerged the area to depths of 6 ft (1.8 m); flooding lingered for more than a week after the storm.[48]

Everglades, Lake Okeechobee, and Southwest Florida edit

 
Damage to Knight's Chapel in Nokomis

A storm surge from Lake Okeechobee entirely inundated Clewiston, reportedly leaving numerous bodies along the road connecting the city with Miami. Further inland, the surge burst through frail, earthen, 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) muck dikes,[20][49] submerging Moore Haven under 13 to 15 ft (4.0 to 4.6 m) of water. Residents scrambled, often unsuccessfully, to safety on rooftops but were swept away by the winds and storm surge.[4] A nearby drainage dam was destroyed, causing additional flooding of the countryside. Most of the city's buildings were swept off of their original foundations.[20] Reports by the Red Cross and local authorities indicated that 150 human corpses were found in Moore Haven alone;[4] their estimates were incomplete as many bodies were never found, reportedly having been swept deep into the Everglades. Estimates of the dead near Lake Okeechobee ranged as high as 300.[4] Two years later, another Category 4 hurricane killed at least 2,500 people along Lake Okeechobee, but mostly affected the eastern shore, leaving Moore Haven largely unscathed.[50][51]

The Gulf Coast of the Florida peninsula saw comparatively less damage compared to Greater Miami but still suffered significant impacts. A peak storm tide of 11 to 12 ft (3.4 to 3.7 m) affected Punta Rassa and the islands of Captiva and Sanibel, causing $3,000,000 in flood damage.[52][53] The storm opened Redfish Pass between Captiva and North Captiva islands.[52] Between Tampa and Naples, strong winds destroyed windows and felled trees and power poles.[54] In Fort Myers, citrus crops sustained some damage and public utilities were put out of commission. Strong winds uprooted trees in St. Petersburg, while heavy rainfall caused flooding in the outlying districts of nearby Tampa.[20] South of the eye, a storm tide of 8 ft (2.4 m) submerged the streets of Everglades City, forcing people into the upper stories of buildings. Homes that were not secured to their foundations floated away on the tide.[54] Tides reached 4 to 5 ft (1.2 to 1.5 m) as far south as Flamingo, sending seaweed, fish, and mud into dwellings.[55] The project headquarters of Poinciana, a development project in the lower Ten Thousand Islands, were destroyed; the project was subsequently abandoned.

Florida Panhandle and elsewhere edit

 
Bridge swept away at Pensacola

Although the hurricane weakened before striking the upper Gulf Coast, its slow movement produced substantial effects to coastal regions between Mobile and Pensacola; these areas experienced heavy damage from wind, rain, and storm surge.[54] Wind records at Pensacola indicate that the city encountered sustained winds of hurricane force for more than 20 hours, including winds above 100 mph (160 km/h) for five hours. The storm tide destroyed nearly all waterfront structures on Pensacola Bay and peaked at 14 ft (4.3 m) near Bagdad, Florida.[54] Rainfall peaked at Bay Minette, Alabama, where 18+12 in (470 mm) fell.[56]

Aftermath edit

 
Panoramic view of Downtown Miami after the hurricane, wryly titled "Miami's New Drydock"

The disarray in Miami following the hurricane's passage led to a breakout of looting in the city's African-American districts that resulted in seven arrests.[citation needed] This unrest prompted the declaration of martial law with the swearing-in of 300 special policemen for voluntary duty. Similarly, 200 policemen were placed on duty in Hollywood, Florida. After a survey indicated that the available food and water supplies would only last 30 days, hoarding was banned.[20] Soup kitchens were set up in Miami's business district in order to serve food to the recently displaced and as a source for clean drinking water that was contaminated in other areas. The first aid arriving from outside the impacted areas was a relief train guarded by state militiamen that carted medical staff, medicine, potable water, and other relief supplies into Miami immediately following the storm's passage.[57] Afterwards, then-U.S. president Calvin Coolidge placed the United States Army and Coast Guard on standby should relief efforts necessitate their presence in Florida and the Bahamas.[58] The Red Cross offered its facilities and the Pullman Company offered its resources for use in relief efforts. The National Guard of the United States dispatched several companies of guardsmen to disaster areas following urgent appeals from then-Florida governor John W. Martin.[20] In response to the widespread destruction of buildings on Miami Beach, John J. Farrey was appointed chief building, plumbing and electrical inspector. He initiated and enforced the first building code in the United States, which more than 5,000 US cities duplicated.[59]

 
Destruction of vegetation near Miami

According to the American Red Cross, the storm caused 372 fatalities, including 114 from the city of Miami, but these totals apparently do not include deaths outside the United States.[2][60] Prior to 2003, the National Weather Service had long accepted 243 as the number of deaths, but historical research indicated that this total was far too low. The NWS then updated its totals to reflect the new findings.[1] Even the estimates for the United States are uncertain and vary, since there were many people, especially transients and colored migrants in South Florida, listed as "missing". About 43,000 people were left homeless, mostly in the Miami area. The toll for the storm in the United States was $100 million ($1.65 billion 2024 USD). It is estimated that if an identical storm hit in the year 2005, with modern development and prices, the storm would have caused $140–157 billion in damage ($196 billion in 2016); this would make the storm the costliest on record in the United States, adjusted for inflation, if it were to occur in contemporary times.[61][62]

 
A damaged homesite in the Miami area

Several events, including the sinking of a ship in the Miami harbor and an embargo by the Florida East Coast Railroad before the storm, weakened the Florida land boom of the 1920s in South Florida. However, the storm is considered the final blow to end the boom locally. Thousands of newcomers to Florida left the state and cleared their bank accounts, leaving many banks to the brink of bankruptcy.[63]: 295  As a result, the Great Depression of 1929 did not make a great impact to Florida unlike the rest of the country.[63]: 298  Many planned developments, which had fallen into deadlock due to insufficient resources, were abandoned due to the economic effects of the hurricane. In Boca Raton, for instance, one planned community by Addison Mizner, called Villa Rica, was destroyed by the hurricane and never rebuilt.[64] South Florida did not achieve full economic recovery until the 1940s.[63]: 324 

 
Downed tree near Miami

The University of Miami, located in Coral Gables, had been founded in 1925 and opened its doors for the first time just days after the hurricane passed. The university's athletic teams were nicknamed the Hurricanes in memory of this catastrophe. The school's mascot is Sebastian, an ibis. The ibis is a small white bird that can be seen around South Florida, including on the UM campus. According to folklore, the ibis is the last bird to leave before a hurricane strikes and the first to return after the storm, hence its selection for the school mascot.[65]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ For consistency, Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is used for all references of time as the cyclone existed in multiple time zones during its existence.

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d Blake, Eric S.; Gibney, Ethan J. (August 2011). The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (and Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts) (PDF) (United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum). Miami and Asheville, North Carolina: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
  2. ^ a b Pfost 2003, p. 1368.
  3. ^ a b "17 Killed in the Bahamas". The New York Times. The Associated Press. September 24, 1926.
  4. ^ a b c d e Barnes 1998, p. 120.
  5. ^ a b Weinkle, Jessica; et al. (2018). "Normalized hurricane damage in the continental United States 1900–2017". Nature Sustainability. 1: 808–813. doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0165-2.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Landsea, Chris; et al. (April 2014). "Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT". Miami, Florida: Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Mitchell, Charles L. (October 1926). Henry, Alfred J.; Varney, Burton M. (eds.). "The West Indian Hurricane Of September 14–22, 1926" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 54 (10): 409–414. Bibcode:1926MWRv...54..409M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1926)54<409:TWIHOS>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved February 13, 2024.   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  9. ^ a b c Goodwin, George (October 1926). "The Hurricane At Turks Island, September 16, 1926" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 54 (10): 416–417. Bibcode:1926MWRv...54..416G. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1926)54<416b:THATIS>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
  10. ^ a b Landsea, Chris; Anderson, Craig; Bredemeyer, William; et al. (January 2022). Continental United States Hurricanes (Detailed Description). Re-Analysis Project (Report). Miami, Florida: Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. Retrieved February 13, 2024.
  11. ^ Landsea, Christopher W.; Steve Feuer; Andrew Hagen; David A. Glenn; Jamese Sims; Ramón Pérez; Michael Chenoweth; Nicholas Anderson (February 2012). "A reanalysis of the 1921–1930 Atlantic hurricane database" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 25 (3): 865–85. Bibcode:2012JCli...25..865L. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00026.1. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
  12. ^ U.S. Weather Bureau 1926, p. 39.
  13. ^ a b Frank, Josh (September 18, 2006). "A date with disaster: '26 storm would be devastating". South Florida Sun-Sentinel. Fort Lauderdale, Florida. p. 7B. Retrieved April 4, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.  
  14. ^ "Storm Does Enormous Damage". The Index-Journal. Vol. 7, no. 224. Greenwood, South Carolina. Associated Press. September 17, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved January 1, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.  
  15. ^ "Bahamas Are Hard Hit by Hurricane; Thousands of People Homeless on 3 Islands". The New York Times. The Associated Press. September 22, 1926.
  16. ^ a b c "Tropical Hurricane Sweeps Southern Part Of Country". Lancaster Eagle-Gazette. Vol. 36, no. 137. Lancaster, Ohio. Associated Press. September 18, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved January 1, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.  
  17. ^ Neely 2009, p. 125.
  18. ^ Neely 2009, p. 130.
  19. ^ Neely 2009, pp. 132–3.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i "500 Reported Killed In The City Of Miami". Portsmouth Daily Times. Vol. EXTRA. Portsmouth, Ohio. Associated Press. September 20, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved January 1, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.  
  21. ^ a b Barnes 1998, p. 113.
  22. ^ "It Was Storm Without Name". Miami Herald. September 18, 1976. p. 19-A. Retrieved April 4, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.  
  23. ^ Duedall & Williams 2002, p. 97.
  24. ^ Edward Rappaport (December 10, 1993). Hurricane Andrew. National Hurricane Center (Preliminary Report). Miami, Florida: United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved November 27, 2014.
  25. ^ Hortt 1953, p. 218.
  26. ^ "Highlights of the Storm". Portsmouth Daily Times. Vol. EXTRA. Portsmouth, Ohio. Associated Press. September 20, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved January 1, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.  
  27. ^ a b c Barnes 1998, pp. 116–7.
  28. ^ a b Barnes 1998, p. 119.
  29. ^ Linehan & Nelson 1994, p. 99.
  30. ^ a b c d "Survey Reveals Delray Damage". Delray Beach News. September 24, 1926. p. 1.
  31. ^ a b "City Is Cut Off From Nation When 100 Mile Hurricane Rages". The Palm Beach Post. September 19, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved April 4, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.  
  32. ^ "Bulletins". The Palm Beach Post. September 19, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved April 4, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.  
  33. ^ Skip, Sheffield (June 28, 1981). "Stark memories of storms gone by". Boca Raton News.
  34. ^ a b Mitchell 1978, pp. 7–8.
  35. ^ Simms 1984, p. 11.
  36. ^ McGarry 1997, p. 53.
  37. ^ Hortt 1953, p. 219.
  38. ^ National Weather Service (January 8, 2009). "Memorial Web Page for the 1926 Great Miami Hurricane". srh.noaa.gov. Miami, Florida: National Weather Service. Retrieved February 21, 2015.
  39. ^ a b Williams, Mrs. Arthur (September 24, 1926). "Boca Raton News". Delray Beach News. p. 15.
  40. ^ "Many Buildings in Lake Worth Razed by Storm". The Palm Beach Post. September 19, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved April 4, 2020.  
  41. ^ "Fulford-Miami Speedway – Post Hurricane". Getty Images. January 11, 1927. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
  42. ^ "Miami-Fulford Speedway". NA-Motorsports. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
  43. ^ . thebarnacle.org. Coconut Grove, Miami, Florida: The Barnacle Society. Archived from the original on September 13, 2015. Retrieved February 21, 2015.
  44. ^ Wooldridge, Jane (September 16, 2012). "Vizcaya Museum & Gardens in Miami shows a keen eye for detail". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
  45. ^ Sandler, Nathaniel; Wouters (Curator), Gina (2016). . Vizcaya Museum & Gardens. Archived from the original on September 3, 2018. Retrieved September 2, 2018.
  46. ^ Beard 2006, p. 1.
  47. ^ Simmons & Ogden 1998, p. 4.
  48. ^ Cunningham 2008, p. 5.
  49. ^ Kleinberg 2003, pp. 15, 30.
  50. ^ Kleinberg 2003, p. 145.
  51. ^ Memorial Web Page for the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane (Report). National Weather Service Miami, Florida. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
  52. ^ a b Edic 1996, pp. 126–7.
  53. ^ Doyle et al. 1984, p. 124.
  54. ^ a b c d Barnes 1998, p. 121.
  55. ^ Simmons & Ogden 1998, p. 163.
  56. ^ United States Army Corps of Engineers (1945). Storm Total Rainfall In The United States. War Department. p. SA 4–23.
  57. ^ "Bread Lines Appear In Miami; A Relief Train Rushed There". Portsmouth Daily Times. Vol. EXTRA. Portsmouth, Ohio. Associated Press. September 20, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved January 1, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.  
  58. ^ "Nation To Rush Aid". Portsmouth Daily Times. Vol. EXTRA. Portsmouth, Ohio. United Press. September 20, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved January 1, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.  
  59. ^ . Archived from the original on May 19, 2006. Retrieved June 4, 2006.
  60. ^ Barnes 1998, p. 126.
  61. ^ Pielke, Roger A. Jr.; et al. (2008). (PDF). Natural Hazards Review. 9 (1): 29–42. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2008)9:1(29). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2013.
  62. ^ Malmstadt, Jill; Scheitlin, Kelsey; Elsner, James (2009). "Florida Hurricanes and Damage Costs". Southeastern Geographer. 49 (2): 108–131. doi:10.1353/sgo.0.0045. S2CID 129898413.
  63. ^ a b c Gannon, Michael (2012). The New History of Florida. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1415-9.
  64. ^ Gillis 2007, p. 97.
  65. ^ . Archived from the original on October 17, 2007. Retrieved November 8, 2007.

Bibliography edit

  • Barnes, Jay (1998). Florida's Hurricane History (1st ed.). Chapel Hill, North Carolina: UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-2443-7 – via Internet Archive.
  • Beard, Karen (Winter 2006). "Letter from the Executive Director". Bonnet House Museum & Gardens: 1.
  • Cunningham, Dennis (2008). . Broward Legacy. Vol. 28, no. 1. Broward County Historical Commission. pp. 1–28. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019.
  • Doyle, Larry J.; Sharma, Dinesh C.; Hine, Albert C.; Pilkey, Orrin Jr. H.; Neal, William J.; Pilkey Sr., Orrin H.; Martin, David; Belknap, Daniel F. (1984). Living with the West Florida Shore. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0517-0.
  • Duedall, Iver W.; Williams, John M. (2002). Florida Hurricanes and Tropical Storms, 1871–2001. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-2494-3.
  • Edic, Robert F. (1996). Fisherfolk of Charlotte Harbor, Florida. Gainesville, Florida: Institute of Archaeology and Paleoenvironmental Studies. ISBN 978-1-881448-04-4.
  • Gillis, Susan (2007). Boomtime Boca: Boca Raton in the 1920s. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-4443-4.
  • Grazulis, Thomas P. (1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 978-1-879362-03-1.
  • Harris, Margaret Garnett (1990). Pioneer Daughter. Hypoluxo, Florida: Star Publishing.
  • Hortt, M. A. (1953). Gold Coast Pioneer. New York: Exposition Press. ASIN B003VZWJQY.
  • (PDF). South Florida History Magazine. No. 4. 1989. pp. 10–13. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 16, 2017. Retrieved November 16, 2017. A first hand account written in 1926.
  • Kleinberg, Elliot (2003). Black Cloud: the Deadly Hurricane of 1928. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-1386-8.
  • Lee, Harris D. (1963). (PDF) (Technical report). Washington, D.C.: United States Weather Bureau. p. 139. 48. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 24, 2016. Retrieved August 7, 2015.
  • Linehan, Mary Collar; Nelson, Mary Watts (1994). Pioneer Days on the Shores of Lake Worth, 1873–1893. St. Petersburg, Florida: Southern Heritage Press. ISBN 978-0-941072-14-4.
  • McGarry, Carmen C. (1997). Magnificent Mile: A History of Hillsboro Beach. Morriston, Florida: RitAmelia Press. ISBN 978-0-9641216-3-8.
  • Mitchell, Floy C. (1978). "Mrs Mitchell's Memories of Early Boca Raton" (PDF). The Spanish River Papers. Boca Raton Historical Society. 6 (2): 3–19.
  • Neely, Wayne (2009). The Great Bahamian Hurricanes of 1926: the Story of Three of the Greatest Hurricanes to Ever Affect the Bahamas. New York City: iUniverse. ISBN 978-1-4401-5174-3 – via Google Books.
  • Neely, Wayne (2019). The Greatest and Deadliest Hurricanes to Impact the Bahamas. Cheyenne, Wyoming: UrLink. ISBN 978-1-64753-121-8.
  • Pfost, Russell L. (2003). "Reassessing the Impact of Two Historical Florida Hurricanes". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 84 (10): 1367–72. Bibcode:2003BAMS...84.1367P. doi:10.1175/BAMS-84-10-1367.
  • Simms, Louis M. (1984). In Place of Pearls: A Brief History of Deerfield Beach. Rimus Books. ASIN B0007B2CVW.
  • Simmons, Glen; Ogden, Laura (1998). Gladesmen: Gator Hunters, Moonshiners, and Skiffers. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1573-6.
  • U.S. Weather Bureau (1926). Written at Jacksonville, Florida. "The Florida Hurricane, September 17–20, 1926". Climatological Data. Washington, D.C: United States Department of Agriculture. 30 (9): 39–40.

External links edit

  • 1926 issue of the Monthly Weather Review
  • NOAA hurricane lists
  • . Mr. Miami Beach. American Experience. PBS. Archived from the original on January 14, 2016.
  • Historic Images of Florida Hurricanes (Florida State Archives)

1926, miami, hurricane, great, miami, hurricane, 1926, large, intense, tropical, cyclone, that, devastated, greater, miami, area, florida, caused, catastrophic, damage, bahamas, gulf, coast, september, 1926, accruing, million, damage, toll, devastation, wrough. The Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 1 was a large and intense tropical cyclone that devastated the Greater Miami area of Florida and caused catastrophic damage in the Bahamas and the U S Gulf Coast in September 1926 accruing a US 100 million damage toll The devastation wrought by the hurricane resulted in the end of Florida s land boom and represented an early start to the Great Depression in the state It has been estimated that a similar hurricane would cause about 235 billion in damage if it were to hit Miami in 2018 5 Hurricane Seven Surface weather analysis of the storm over South Florida on September 18Meteorological historyFormedSeptember 11 1926DissipatedSeptember 22 1926Category 4 hurricane1 minute sustained SSHWS NWS Highest winds150 mph 240 km h Lowest pressure930 mbar hPa 27 46 inHg estimated Overall effectsFatalities372 539 Damage 100 million 1926 USD Costliest U S hurricane on record when adjusted for wealth normalization Areas affectedTurks and Caicos Islands The Bahamas Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana TexasIBTrACS 1 2 3 4 Part of the 1926 Atlantic hurricane seasonThe hurricane is believed to have formed in the central Atlantic Ocean on September 11 nb 1 Steadily strengthening as it tracked west northwestward the storm reached hurricane intensity the next day As a result of scattered observations at open sea however no ship encountered the storm until September 15 by which time it had reached major hurricane intensity north of the Virgin Islands Strengthening continued up until the following day when the storm reached peak intensity with a strength equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane This intensity was maintained as the storm tracked across the Turks and Caicos and the Bahamas to landfall near Miami on September 18 The hurricane caused immense destruction throughout the islands and across southern Florida The storm destroyed hundreds of structures in its path over the islands leaving thousands of residents homeless At least seventeen deaths occurred on the islands though many others some related only indirectly to the storm were reported in the aftermath Upon striking South Florida the cyclone generated hurricane force winds over a broad swath of the region causing widespread and severe structural damage from both wind and water Most of the deaths occurred near Lake Okeechobee when a large storm surge breached muck dikes and drowned hundreds of people The hurricane quickly traversed the Florida peninsula before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico near Fort Myers It flooded surrounding communities and barrier islands while strong winds downed trees and disrupted electrical service The storm later made two landfalls with weaker intensities on Alabama and Mississippi on September 20 and 21 respectively It caused additional but less severe damage in those states primarily from heavy rains and storm surge Land interaction caused the cyclone to deteriorate and later dissipate on September 22 Contents 1 Meteorological history 2 Preparations 3 Impact 3 1 Turks amp Caicos and The Bahamas 3 2 United States 3 2 1 Miami metropolitan area 3 2 2 Everglades Lake Okeechobee and Southwest Florida 3 2 3 Florida Panhandle and elsewhere 4 Aftermath 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External linksMeteorological history edit nbsp Map plotting the storm s track and intensity according to the Saffir Simpson scaleMap keySaffir Simpson scale Tropical depression 38 mph 62 km h Tropical storm 39 73 mph 63 118 km h Category 1 74 95 mph 119 153 km h Category 2 96 110 mph 154 177 km h Category 3 111 129 mph 178 208 km h Category 4 130 156 mph 209 251 km h Category 5 157 mph 252 km h Unknown Storm type nbsp Tropical cyclone nbsp Subtropical cyclone nbsp Extratropical cyclone remnant low tropical disturbance or monsoon depressionDue to the sparseness of available observations in the central Atlantic the specific origins of the 1926 Miami hurricane remain unclear 6 Operationally the United States Weather Bureau in Washington D C did not begin issuing advisories on the cyclone until September 14 7 However the cyclone is first listed in HURDAT the official Atlantic hurricane database as having begun as a tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph 105 km h roughly 1 100 mi 1 800 km east of the island of Martinique in the Lesser Antilles on September 11 Tracking west northwestward the storm gradually intensified and reached hurricane intensity on September 12 while still east of the Lesser Antilles 8 The observation of low barometric pressures and winds suggesting cyclonic rotation at Saint Kitts on the evening of September 14 was the first to suggest that a hurricane had developed 7 The following day the steamship Matura encountered the strengthening tropical cyclone and documented a minimum pressure of 28 82 inHg 976 mb 6 By 06 00 UTC on September 15 the storm had strengthened further to major hurricane intensity north of the Virgin Islands 8 Strengthening continued into September 16 as the hurricane reached a strength equivalent to that of a Category 4 on the modern day Saffir Simpson hurricane wind scale Although no official minimum pressure readings were taken in the area at the time the tropical cyclone peaked in wind based intensity at 18 00 UTC on September 16 with sustained winds of 150 mph 240 km h near the uppermost limit of the modern day ranking Category 4 8 With this strength the hurricane passed near the Turks and Caicos Islands though its intensity at the time was based on the extent of damage there as any measurement device was knocked out by the damaging winds 6 9 Shortly afterward the cyclone struck the Bahamian island of Mayaguana at its peak intensity 8 After passing the island the hurricane slightly weakened but maintained formidable strength as it accelerated through the southern Bahamas passing near Nassau on September 17 8 7 The storm then made a second landfall on Andros Island in the Mangrove Cay district early on September 18 Thereafter the hurricane crossed Andros Island and passed over the Gulf Stream en route to Florida This trajectory brought the storm ashore on the coast of South Florida near Perrine located just 15 mi 24 km south of Downtown Miami before 12 00 UTC on September 18 with winds of 145 mph 233 km h and a minimum pressure estimated at 930 mb 27 inHg 6 10 At the time the hurricane was very large in size with a radius of outermost closed isobar 375 mi 604 km across 11 hurricane force winds were reported from the upper Florida Keys to near St Lucie County 12 13 Around 20 30 UTC the eye of the hurricane passed into the Gulf of Mexico near Punta Rassa though by that time the pressure in the eye had only risen to 28 05 inHg 950 mb 7 the winds in the eye wall had decreased to 105 mph 169 km h The hurricane had weakened over South Florida as a result of land interaction but re strengthened after emerging into the Gulf of Mexico off Punta Rassa six hours later 8 7 The warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico allowed for the tropical cyclone to reach a secondary peak intensity with winds of 125 mph 201 km h on September 20 equivalent to that of a modern day high end Category 3 hurricane Although the storm had taken a more northwesterly course through the gulf the hurricane later began paralleling the coast of the Florida Panhandle and thus slowly curved westward 8 As a result the major hurricane now weakening quickly made its second landfall near Perdido Beach Alabama at around 21 30 UTC that day with winds of 115 mph 185 km h 10 After landfall the storm quickly weakened and meandered off Alabama s barrier islands eventually moving ashore for the last time on September 21 near Gulfport Mississippi as a tropical storm 6 The cyclone continued its decay inland degenerating into a tropical depression the following day before dissipating over Louisiana shortly thereafter 8 Preparations editOn September 16 the United States Weather Bureau advised caution to ships tracking in Bahamian waters and the Florida Strait The first tropical cyclone warning associated with the storm was a northeast storm warning issued on September 17 for the Florida coast from Jupiter Inlet to Key West Florida Warnings along the United States Eastern Seaboard eventually stretched as far north as Charleston South Carolina upon the storm s first landfall Additional warnings were posted for the United States Gulf Coast on September 19 and covered coastal areas from Apalachicola Florida to Burrwood Louisiana Information on the storm as ascertained by the U S Weather Bureau was relayed by various radio and local press services though the bureau specifically acknowledged the Mobile Register for their efforts in disseminating storm details 7 Impact editCostliest U S Atlantic hurricanes 1900 2017Direct economic losses normalized to societal conditions in 2018 5 Rank Hurricane Season Cost1 4 Miami 1926 235 9 billion2 4 Galveston 1900 138 6 billion3 3 Katrina 2005 116 9 billion4 4 Galveston 1915 109 8 billion5 5 Andrew 1992 106 0 billion6 ET Sandy 2012 73 5 billion7 3 Cuba Florida 1944 73 5 billion8 4 Harvey 2017 62 2 billion9 3 New England 1938 57 8 billion10 4 Okeechobee 1928 54 4 billionMain article List of costliest Atlantic hurricanesTurks amp Caicos and The Bahamas edit Although no fatalities were reported the hurricane wrought extensive property damage to Grand Turk Island Rain gauges recorded 10 in 250 mm of rain during the storm and high surf left knee deep sand drifts on the island 9 The ocean covered the land up to 3 4 mi 1 2 km inland and winds unroofed buildings at the weather station Reportedly the winds even ripped spines from prickly pear cacti 9 Nearly all lighters at port were lost 14 The storm left 4 000 people homeless on three of the islands in the Turks and Caicos 15 Due to hampered communication the extent of damage in the Bahamas was initially unclear 16 In the Bahamas the storm flattened hundreds of structures and killed at least 17 people mostly on Bimini where seven people died and the greatest property damage occurred The hurricane also leveled many structures on Andros including churches and large buildings and downed trees and other homes on New Providence 3 On parts of Andros the storm snapped or felled almost all of the coconut palms 17 and in the Exuma district a large storm surge ruined many crops 18 The storm also destroyed 60 of the homes on the north island of Bimini left water up to 7 ft 2 1 m deep in some areas and was widely considered the worst storm on record in Bimini to date Some sources say 25 people died on Bimini but these may have been indirect deaths as many people reportedly perished after drinking contaminated well water 19 United States edit nbsp Damage to a home near Miami FloridaThe 1926 hurricane is known primarily for its impacts and lasting aftermath in South Florida particularly in the Miami area Effects were concentrated around Florida s southeastern coast and south central Florida with additional impacts in Northwest Florida Damage figures from the storm in the state alone reached US 75 million and accounted for most of the damage that the tropical cyclone produced 6 Although the official number of fatalities would later be revised downward 1 initial estimates suggested that the death toll would likely be over 1 000 in Miami alone with an additional 2 000 injured Nonetheless the grave number of casualties forced resorts to serve as temporary morgues and hospitals Homes and office buildings were used to serve as refugee camps for the approximately 38 000 people displaced by the hurricane 20 Miami metropolitan area edit nbsp Damage on Fort Lauderdale beach near Port EvergladesThe storm surge in South Florida was not as high as it would have been had the hurricane struck another area owing to the deep offshore continental shelf which increased the energy needed to sustain a large surge 13 However along Biscayne Bay the hurricane produced a substantial storm surge visual estimates suggested a peak height of 14 to 15 ft 4 3 to 4 6 m in Coconut Grove 21 and a value of 11 7 ft 3 6 m occurred at Dinner Key 22 equal to the observation at Biscayne Boulevard in Downtown Miami 21 In fact the storm surge measured in the 1926 hurricane was the highest ever officially documented on the east coast of South Florida until observers recorded a height of 16 89 ft 5 15 m at the Burger King International Headquarters near Cutler in Dade County during Hurricane Andrew in 1992 23 24 The hurricane s high storm surge swept into Miami and Miami Beach flooding city streets with knee deep water Yachts and large vessels were carried by the intense wind and waves onto shore 20 The MacArthur Causeway connecting Miami and Miami Beach was submerged under 6 ft 1 8 m of water 16 Waves several feet high were rolling up Las Olas Boulevard which had the appearance of a river rather than a street Practically the entire town was covered with three feet of water 25 M A Hortt former mayor of Fort Lauderdale Communication between the two locales as well as the rest of the United States was cut after all local telecommunications and power lines were blown down 16 Due to their susceptibility to strong winds most wooden buildings in Miami were either blown down or lost their roofs Concrete and steel buildings were warped at their bases 20 While skyscrapers mostly sustained minor damage the 18 story Meyer Kiser Building bore considerable damage 26 The structure reportedly swayed and vibrated precipitously during the storm eyewitnesses likened it to the Charleston dance 27 Many of the injuries in the city were due to ballistic fragments of broken roofing including iron sheeting Other structures across the region sustained significant damage Strong winds leveled hundreds of working class homes in Hialeah and severely damaged 70 of the town 28 Winds destroyed the interiors of buildings in Fort Lauderdale the seat of Broward County and ripped the roof from the Broward County courthouse Despite having only 12 000 inhabitants the town sustained severe damage to 3 500 of its buildings 4 Nearby the storm severely damaged the abandoned New River House of Refuge 29 30 Cities as far north as Lake Park then called Kelsey City and West Palm Beach in Palm Beach County reported many roofs blown off numerous small buildings destroyed walls blown down windows shattered and trees shrubs and other objects torn apart or uprooted 30 31 32 The worst destruction occurred in the poorer mostly black sections of the towns where many homes were destroyed 30 We had never been through a hurricane in 1926 when we experienced our first one We didn t know that all windows should be covered in a hurricane I was watching as railroad cars were being knocked off the tracks and telegraph poles were snapped like toothpicks Immediately almost all the windows on the top floor were broken 33 34 Floy Cooke Mitchell wife of former mayor of Boca Raton J C Mitchell nbsp Remains of a bridge at Baker s Haulover InletAlong the east coast of South Florida the storm caused widespread significant beach erosion 35 At Hillsboro Inlet Light high tides removed 20 ft 6 1 m of sand beneath the lighthouse 36 The hurricane swept away much of State Road A1A in Broward and Miami Dade Counties 37 The combined force of waves and storm surge undermined coastal structures that collapsed including multi story casinos on Miami Beach 27 and washed out the coastal bridge on Florida State Road A1A at Baker s Haulover Inlet 38 In Boca Raton waves were so large that they rose to the top of the high ridge on the barrier island though they did not overtop it 39 High surf also destroyed a casino at the Boca Raton Inlet Knee deep water east of U S Route 1 Federal Highway in Boca Raton blocked beach access but residents waded through 39 Meanwhile large waves left much debris and sand drifts several feet deep on State Road A1A in Delray Beach 30 The waters of the Lake Worth Lagoon overflowed their banks submerging nearby streets parks and golf courses 40 High tides piled debris on the streets of Palm Beach caused a beachfront boardwalk to collapse and exacerbated previous damage from the July hurricane 31 On Hollywood beach waves smashed windows and invaded the interior of the Hollywood Beach Hotel People on the second floor found sand drifts reaching half way to the ceiling 34 nbsp Damage on Miami BeachThe storm also ravaged entertainment venues and historic sites The storm flattened the Fulford Miami Speedway in North Miami Beach which then ceased operation 41 42 Winds peeled into pieces the roof of the grandstand at Hialeah Race Track and destroyed the kennels allowing racing greyhounds to escape 28 The storm wrecked prominent restaurants and tourist attractions on Miami Beach including the Million Dollar Pier 27 Many historic structures throughout South Florida sustained significant damage including the Barnacle and the Villa Vizcaya where the yacht Nepenthe and fishing boat Psyche were sunk 43 44 45 The storm damaged the main residence at the Bonnet House the only hurricane to do so since the latter was first built No other storm since 1926 caused a similar level of destruction to the property until Hurricane Wilma in 2005 46 The storm ruined cultivated areas throughout South Florida The storm flooded the surrounding citrus crop and agricultural fields south of Miami particularly near Homestead and Florida City 47 destroying half of the citrus bearing trees in the area 20 Much of the citrus crop in Dania was a total loss as floodwaters submerged the area to depths of 6 ft 1 8 m flooding lingered for more than a week after the storm 48 Everglades Lake Okeechobee and Southwest Florida edit nbsp Damage to Knight s Chapel in NokomisA storm surge from Lake Okeechobee entirely inundated Clewiston reportedly leaving numerous bodies along the road connecting the city with Miami Further inland the surge burst through frail earthen 6 foot tall 1 8 m muck dikes 20 49 submerging Moore Haven under 13 to 15 ft 4 0 to 4 6 m of water Residents scrambled often unsuccessfully to safety on rooftops but were swept away by the winds and storm surge 4 A nearby drainage dam was destroyed causing additional flooding of the countryside Most of the city s buildings were swept off of their original foundations 20 Reports by the Red Cross and local authorities indicated that 150 human corpses were found in Moore Haven alone 4 their estimates were incomplete as many bodies were never found reportedly having been swept deep into the Everglades Estimates of the dead near Lake Okeechobee ranged as high as 300 4 Two years later another Category 4 hurricane killed at least 2 500 people along Lake Okeechobee but mostly affected the eastern shore leaving Moore Haven largely unscathed 50 51 The Gulf Coast of the Florida peninsula saw comparatively less damage compared to Greater Miami but still suffered significant impacts A peak storm tide of 11 to 12 ft 3 4 to 3 7 m affected Punta Rassa and the islands of Captiva and Sanibel causing 3 000 000 in flood damage 52 53 The storm opened Redfish Pass between Captiva and North Captiva islands 52 Between Tampa and Naples strong winds destroyed windows and felled trees and power poles 54 In Fort Myers citrus crops sustained some damage and public utilities were put out of commission Strong winds uprooted trees in St Petersburg while heavy rainfall caused flooding in the outlying districts of nearby Tampa 20 South of the eye a storm tide of 8 ft 2 4 m submerged the streets of Everglades City forcing people into the upper stories of buildings Homes that were not secured to their foundations floated away on the tide 54 Tides reached 4 to 5 ft 1 2 to 1 5 m as far south as Flamingo sending seaweed fish and mud into dwellings 55 The project headquarters of Poinciana a development project in the lower Ten Thousand Islands were destroyed the project was subsequently abandoned Florida Panhandle and elsewhere edit nbsp Bridge swept away at PensacolaAlthough the hurricane weakened before striking the upper Gulf Coast its slow movement produced substantial effects to coastal regions between Mobile and Pensacola these areas experienced heavy damage from wind rain and storm surge 54 Wind records at Pensacola indicate that the city encountered sustained winds of hurricane force for more than 20 hours including winds above 100 mph 160 km h for five hours The storm tide destroyed nearly all waterfront structures on Pensacola Bay and peaked at 14 ft 4 3 m near Bagdad Florida 54 Rainfall peaked at Bay Minette Alabama where 18 1 2 in 470 mm fell 56 Aftermath edit nbsp Panoramic view of Downtown Miami after the hurricane wryly titled Miami s New Drydock The disarray in Miami following the hurricane s passage led to a breakout of looting in the city s African American districts that resulted in seven arrests citation needed This unrest prompted the declaration of martial law with the swearing in of 300 special policemen for voluntary duty Similarly 200 policemen were placed on duty in Hollywood Florida After a survey indicated that the available food and water supplies would only last 30 days hoarding was banned 20 Soup kitchens were set up in Miami s business district in order to serve food to the recently displaced and as a source for clean drinking water that was contaminated in other areas The first aid arriving from outside the impacted areas was a relief train guarded by state militiamen that carted medical staff medicine potable water and other relief supplies into Miami immediately following the storm s passage 57 Afterwards then U S president Calvin Coolidge placed the United States Army and Coast Guard on standby should relief efforts necessitate their presence in Florida and the Bahamas 58 The Red Cross offered its facilities and the Pullman Company offered its resources for use in relief efforts The National Guard of the United States dispatched several companies of guardsmen to disaster areas following urgent appeals from then Florida governor John W Martin 20 In response to the widespread destruction of buildings on Miami Beach John J Farrey was appointed chief building plumbing and electrical inspector He initiated and enforced the first building code in the United States which more than 5 000 US cities duplicated 59 nbsp Destruction of vegetation near MiamiAccording to the American Red Cross the storm caused 372 fatalities including 114 from the city of Miami but these totals apparently do not include deaths outside the United States 2 60 Prior to 2003 the National Weather Service had long accepted 243 as the number of deaths but historical research indicated that this total was far too low The NWS then updated its totals to reflect the new findings 1 Even the estimates for the United States are uncertain and vary since there were many people especially transients and colored migrants in South Florida listed as missing About 43 000 people were left homeless mostly in the Miami area The toll for the storm in the United States was 100 million 1 65 billion 2024 USD It is estimated that if an identical storm hit in the year 2005 with modern development and prices the storm would have caused 140 157 billion in damage 196 billion in 2016 this would make the storm the costliest on record in the United States adjusted for inflation if it were to occur in contemporary times 61 62 nbsp A damaged homesite in the Miami areaSeveral events including the sinking of a ship in the Miami harbor and an embargo by the Florida East Coast Railroad before the storm weakened the Florida land boom of the 1920s in South Florida However the storm is considered the final blow to end the boom locally Thousands of newcomers to Florida left the state and cleared their bank accounts leaving many banks to the brink of bankruptcy 63 295 As a result the Great Depression of 1929 did not make a great impact to Florida unlike the rest of the country 63 298 Many planned developments which had fallen into deadlock due to insufficient resources were abandoned due to the economic effects of the hurricane In Boca Raton for instance one planned community by Addison Mizner called Villa Rica was destroyed by the hurricane and never rebuilt 64 South Florida did not achieve full economic recovery until the 1940s 63 324 nbsp Downed tree near MiamiThe University of Miami located in Coral Gables had been founded in 1925 and opened its doors for the first time just days after the hurricane passed The university s athletic teams were nicknamed the Hurricanes in memory of this catastrophe The school s mascot is Sebastian an ibis The ibis is a small white bird that can be seen around South Florida including on the UM campus According to folklore the ibis is the last bird to leave before a hurricane strikes and the first to return after the storm hence its selection for the school mascot 65 See also edit nbsp Tropical cyclones portalHurricane Andrew caused unprecedented destruction in Greater Miami before striking Louisiana Hurricane Harvey the costliest tropical cyclone in American history noted for floods in Greater Houston 1947 Fort Lauderdale hurricane intense hurricane whose effects were lessened in southern Florida thanks to improved warning systems 1945 Homestead hurricane tracked across the Bahamas before curving into Florida and causing extensive damage 1928 Okeechobee hurricane third deadliest tropical cyclone in American history struck nearly two years to date after the 1926 hurricaneNotes edit For consistency Coordinated Universal Time UTC is used for all references of time as the cyclone existed in multiple time zones during its existence References edit a b c d Blake Eric S Gibney Ethan J August 2011 The Deadliest Costliest and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2010 and Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts PDF United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum Miami and Asheville North Carolina National Hurricane Center Retrieved January 1 2015 a b Pfost 2003 p 1368 a b 17 Killed in the Bahamas The New York Times The Associated Press September 24 1926 a b c d e Barnes 1998 p 120 a b Weinkle Jessica et al 2018 Normalized hurricane damage in the continental United States 1900 2017 Nature Sustainability 1 808 813 doi 10 1038 s41893 018 0165 2 a b c d e f Landsea Chris et al April 2014 Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT Miami Florida Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory Retrieved January 1 2015 a b c d e f Mitchell Charles L October 1926 Henry Alfred J Varney Burton M eds The West Indian Hurricane Of September 14 22 1926 PDF Monthly Weather Review 54 10 409 414 Bibcode 1926MWRv 54 409M doi 10 1175 1520 0493 1926 54 lt 409 TWIHOS gt 2 0 CO 2 Retrieved January 1 2015 a b c d e f g h Atlantic hurricane best track HURDAT version 2 Database United States National Hurricane Center April 5 2023 Retrieved February 13 2024 nbsp This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain a b c Goodwin George October 1926 The Hurricane At Turks Island September 16 1926 PDF Monthly Weather Review 54 10 416 417 Bibcode 1926MWRv 54 416G doi 10 1175 1520 0493 1926 54 lt 416b THATIS gt 2 0 CO 2 Retrieved January 1 2015 a b Landsea Chris Anderson Craig Bredemeyer William et al January 2022 Continental United States Hurricanes Detailed Description Re Analysis Project Report Miami Florida Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory Hurricane Research Division Retrieved February 13 2024 Landsea Christopher W Steve Feuer Andrew Hagen David A Glenn Jamese Sims Ramon Perez Michael Chenoweth Nicholas Anderson February 2012 A reanalysis of the 1921 1930 Atlantic hurricane database PDF Journal of Climate 25 3 865 85 Bibcode 2012JCli 25 865L doi 10 1175 JCLI D 11 00026 1 Retrieved November 28 2012 U S Weather Bureau 1926 p 39 a b Frank Josh September 18 2006 A date with disaster 26 storm would be devastating South Florida Sun Sentinel Fort Lauderdale Florida p 7B Retrieved April 4 2020 via Newspapers com nbsp Storm Does Enormous Damage The Index Journal Vol 7 no 224 Greenwood South Carolina Associated Press September 17 1926 p 1 Retrieved January 1 2015 via Newspapers com nbsp Bahamas Are Hard Hit by Hurricane Thousands of People Homeless on 3 Islands The New York Times The Associated Press September 22 1926 a b c Tropical Hurricane Sweeps Southern Part Of Country Lancaster Eagle Gazette Vol 36 no 137 Lancaster Ohio Associated Press September 18 1926 p 1 Retrieved January 1 2015 via Newspapers com nbsp Neely 2009 p 125 Neely 2009 p 130 Neely 2009 pp 132 3 a b c d e f g h i 500 Reported Killed In The City Of Miami Portsmouth Daily Times Vol EXTRA Portsmouth Ohio Associated Press September 20 1926 p 1 Retrieved January 1 2015 via Newspapers com nbsp a b Barnes 1998 p 113 It Was Storm Without Name Miami Herald September 18 1976 p 19 A Retrieved April 4 2020 via Newspapers com nbsp Duedall amp Williams 2002 p 97 Edward Rappaport December 10 1993 Hurricane Andrew National Hurricane Center Preliminary Report Miami Florida United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration s National Weather Service Retrieved November 27 2014 Hortt 1953 p 218 Highlights of the Storm Portsmouth Daily Times Vol EXTRA Portsmouth Ohio Associated Press September 20 1926 p 1 Retrieved January 1 2015 via Newspapers com nbsp a b c Barnes 1998 pp 116 7 a b Barnes 1998 p 119 Linehan amp Nelson 1994 p 99 a b c d Survey Reveals Delray Damage Delray Beach News September 24 1926 p 1 a b City Is Cut Off From Nation When 100 Mile Hurricane Rages The Palm Beach Post September 19 1926 p 1 Retrieved April 4 2020 via Newspapers com nbsp Bulletins The Palm Beach Post September 19 1926 p 1 Retrieved April 4 2020 via Newspapers com nbsp Skip Sheffield June 28 1981 Stark memories of storms gone by Boca Raton News a b Mitchell 1978 pp 7 8 Simms 1984 p 11 McGarry 1997 p 53 Hortt 1953 p 219 National Weather Service January 8 2009 Memorial Web Page for the 1926 Great Miami Hurricane srh noaa gov Miami Florida National Weather Service Retrieved February 21 2015 a b Williams Mrs Arthur September 24 1926 Boca Raton News Delray Beach News p 15 Many Buildings in Lake Worth Razed by Storm The Palm Beach Post September 19 1926 p 1 Retrieved April 4 2020 nbsp Fulford Miami Speedway Post Hurricane Getty Images January 11 1927 Retrieved August 21 2013 Miami Fulford Speedway NA Motorsports Retrieved August 21 2013 Our History thebarnacle org Coconut Grove Miami Florida The Barnacle Society Archived from the original on September 13 2015 Retrieved February 21 2015 Wooldridge Jane September 16 2012 Vizcaya Museum amp Gardens in Miami shows a keen eye for detail The Los Angeles Times Retrieved April 4 2020 Sandler Nathaniel Wouters Curator Gina 2016 Maritime Vizcaya Boats and Boating Culture at the Estate December 2016 Vizcaya Museum amp Gardens Archived from the original on September 3 2018 Retrieved September 2 2018 Beard 2006 p 1 Simmons amp Ogden 1998 p 4 Cunningham 2008 p 5 Kleinberg 2003 pp 15 30 Kleinberg 2003 p 145 Memorial Web Page for the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane Report National Weather Service Miami Florida Retrieved April 4 2020 a b Edic 1996 pp 126 7 Doyle et al 1984 p 124 a b c d Barnes 1998 p 121 Simmons amp Ogden 1998 p 163 United States Army Corps of Engineers 1945 Storm Total Rainfall In The United States War Department p SA 4 23 Bread Lines Appear In Miami A Relief Train Rushed There Portsmouth Daily Times Vol EXTRA Portsmouth Ohio Associated Press September 20 1926 p 1 Retrieved January 1 2015 via Newspapers com nbsp Nation To Rush Aid Portsmouth Daily Times Vol EXTRA Portsmouth Ohio United Press September 20 1926 p 1 Retrieved January 1 2015 via Newspapers com nbsp Great Floridians 2000 Project Archived from the original on May 19 2006 Retrieved June 4 2006 Barnes 1998 p 126 Pielke Roger A Jr et al 2008 Normalized Hurricane Damage in the United States 1900 2005 PDF Natural Hazards Review 9 1 29 42 doi 10 1061 ASCE 1527 6988 2008 9 1 29 Archived from the original PDF on June 17 2013 Malmstadt Jill Scheitlin Kelsey Elsner James 2009 Florida Hurricanes and Damage Costs Southeastern Geographer 49 2 108 131 doi 10 1353 sgo 0 0045 S2CID 129898413 a b c Gannon Michael 2012 The New History of Florida Gainesville University Press of Florida ISBN 978 0 8130 1415 9 Gillis 2007 p 97 Traditions University of Miami Archived from the original on October 17 2007 Retrieved November 8 2007 Bibliography editBarnes Jay 1998 Florida s Hurricane History 1st ed Chapel Hill North Carolina UNC Press ISBN 0 8078 2443 7 via Internet Archive Beard Karen Winter 2006 Letter from the Executive Director Bonnet House Museum amp Gardens 1 Cunningham Dennis 2008 The Big Blow Broward County and the 1926 Hurricane Broward Legacy Vol 28 no 1 Broward County Historical Commission pp 1 28 Archived from the original on January 6 2019 Doyle Larry J Sharma Dinesh C Hine Albert C Pilkey Orrin Jr H Neal William J Pilkey Sr Orrin H Martin David Belknap Daniel F 1984 Living with the West Florida Shore Duke University Press ISBN 978 0 8223 0517 0 Duedall Iver W Williams John M 2002 Florida Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 1871 2001 University Press of Florida ISBN 978 0 8130 2494 3 Edic Robert F 1996 Fisherfolk of Charlotte Harbor Florida Gainesville Florida Institute of Archaeology and Paleoenvironmental Studies ISBN 978 1 881448 04 4 Gillis Susan 2007 Boomtime Boca Boca Raton in the 1920s Charleston South Carolina Arcadia Publishing ISBN 978 0 7385 4443 4 Grazulis Thomas P 1993 Significant Tornadoes 1680 1991 A Chronology and Analysis of Events St Johnsbury Vermont The Tornado Project of Environmental Films ISBN 978 1 879362 03 1 Harris Margaret Garnett 1990 Pioneer Daughter Hypoluxo Florida Star Publishing Hortt M A 1953 Gold Coast Pioneer New York Exposition Press ASIN B003VZWJQY In the wake of Hugo The 26 storm revisited PDF South Florida History Magazine No 4 1989 pp 10 13 Archived from the original PDF on November 16 2017 Retrieved November 16 2017 A first hand account written in 1926 Kleinberg Elliot 2003 Black Cloud the Deadly Hurricane of 1928 New York Carroll amp Graf ISBN 978 0 7867 1386 8 Lee Harris D 1963 Characteristics of the Hurricane Storm Surge PDF Technical report Washington D C United States Weather Bureau p 139 48 Archived from the original PDF on December 24 2016 Retrieved August 7 2015 Linehan Mary Collar Nelson Mary Watts 1994 Pioneer Days on the Shores of Lake Worth 1873 1893 St Petersburg Florida Southern Heritage Press ISBN 978 0 941072 14 4 McGarry Carmen C 1997 Magnificent Mile A History of Hillsboro Beach Morriston Florida RitAmelia Press ISBN 978 0 9641216 3 8 Mitchell Floy C 1978 Mrs Mitchell s Memories of Early Boca Raton PDF The Spanish River Papers Boca Raton Historical Society 6 2 3 19 Neely Wayne 2009 The Great Bahamian Hurricanes of 1926 the Story of Three of the Greatest Hurricanes to Ever Affect the Bahamas New York City iUniverse ISBN 978 1 4401 5174 3 via Google Books Neely Wayne 2019 The Greatest and Deadliest Hurricanes to Impact the Bahamas Cheyenne Wyoming UrLink ISBN 978 1 64753 121 8 Pfost Russell L 2003 Reassessing the Impact of Two Historical Florida Hurricanes Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 84 10 1367 72 Bibcode 2003BAMS 84 1367P doi 10 1175 BAMS 84 10 1367 Simms Louis M 1984 In Place of Pearls A Brief History of Deerfield Beach Rimus Books ASIN B0007B2CVW Simmons Glen Ogden Laura 1998 Gladesmen Gator Hunters Moonshiners and Skiffers Gainesville Florida University Press of Florida ISBN 978 0 8130 1573 6 U S Weather Bureau 1926 Written at Jacksonville Florida The Florida Hurricane September 17 20 1926 Climatological Data Washington D C United States Department of Agriculture 30 9 39 40 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miami Hurricane of 1926 List of People Killed in the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 1926 issue of the Monthly Weather Review United States Hurricane History NOAA hurricane lists The Hurricane of 1926 Mr Miami Beach American Experience PBS Archived from the original on January 14 2016 Historic Images of Florida Hurricanes Florida State Archives Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title 1926 Miami hurricane amp oldid 1189386517, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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