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Lake Okeechobee

Lake Okeechobee (US: /kiˈbi/),[1] also known as Florida's Inland Sea,[2] is the largest freshwater lake in the U.S. state of Florida.[3] It is the tenth largest natural freshwater lake among the 50 states of the United States and the second-largest natural freshwater lake contained entirely within the contiguous 48 states, after Lake Michigan.[4]

Lake Okeechobee
Photographed from space, 2000
Lake Okeechobee
Lake Okeechobee
Shown at the top of this map of South Florida
LocationFlorida
Coordinates26°56′N 80°48′W / 26.933°N 80.800°W / 26.933; -80.800Coordinates: 26°56′N 80°48′W / 26.933°N 80.800°W / 26.933; -80.800
Primary inflowsKissimmee River, Fisheating Creek, Taylor Creek
Primary outflowsEverglades, Caloosahatchee River, St. Lucie River
Basin countriesUnited States
Max. length36 mi (57.5 km)
Max. width29 mi (46.6 km)
Surface area734 sq mi (1,900 km2)
Average depth8 ft 10 in (2.7 m)
Max. depth12 ft (3.7 m)
Water volume1 cu mi (5.2 km3) (estimated)
Residence time3 years
Surface elevation12 to 18 ft (3.74 to 5.49 m)
IslandsKreamer, Torry, Ritta, Grass, Observation, Bird, Horse, Hog, Eagle Bay

Okeechobee covers 730 square miles (1,900 km2) and is exceptionally shallow for a lake of its size, with an average depth of only 9 feet (2.7 metres). It is not only the largest lake in Florida or the largest lake in the southeast United States, but it is too large to see across, giving it the feel of an ocean.[5] The Kissimmee River, located directly north of Lake Okeechobee, is the lake's primary source.[6] The lake is divided between Glades, Okeechobee, Martin, Palm Beach and Hendry counties. All five counties meet at one point near the center of the lake.[7]

History

The earliest recorded people to have lived around the lake were the Calusa. They called the lake Mayaimi, meaning "big water", as reported in the 16th century, by Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda.[8][9] The name Okeechobee comes from the Hitchiti words oki (water) and chubi (big). Slightly later in the 16th century, René Goulaine de Laudonnière reported hearing about a large freshwater lake in southern Florida called Serrope.[10] By the 18th century the largely mythical lake was known to British mapmakers and chroniclers by the Spanish name Laguna de Espiritu Santo.[11] In the early 19th century it was known as Mayacco Lake or Lake Mayaca after the Mayaca people, originally from the upper reaches of the St. Johns River, who moved near the lake in the early 18th century.[12] The modern Port Mayaca on the east side of the lake preserves that name.[13]

On the southern rim of Lake Okeechobee, three islands—Kreamer, Ritta, and Torey—were once settled by early pioneers. These settlements had a general store, post office, school, and town elections. Farming was the main vocation. The fertile land was challenging to farm because of the muddy muck. Over the first half of the twentieth century, farmers used agricultural tools—including tractors—to farm in the muck. By the 1960s, all of these settlements were abandoned.[14]

All of Lake Okeechobee was included in the boundaries of Palm Beach County when it was created in 1909. In 1963, the lake was divided among the five counties surrounding the lake.[15]

Hurricanes

In 1926, the Great Miami Hurricane hit the Lake Okeechobee area, killing approximately 300 people. Two years later in 1928, the Okeechobee Hurricane crossed over the lake, killing thousands. The Red Cross reported 1,836 deaths, a figure which the National Weather Service initially accepted, but in 2003, the number was revised to "at least 2,500".[16] In both cases the catastrophe was caused by flooding from a storm surge when strong winds drove water over the 6.6-foot (2-meter) mud dike that circled the lake at the time. After the two hurricanes, the Florida State Legislature created the "Okeechobee Flood Control District".[citation needed]

The organization was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in actions to prevent similar disasters. U.S. President Herbert Hoover visited the area personally, and afterward the Corps designed a plan incorporating the construction of channels, gates, and nearly 140 miles of levees to protect areas surrounding Lake Okeechobee from overflow.[6]

The Okeechobee Waterway was officially opened on March 23, 1937, by a procession of boats which left Fort Myers, Florida on March 22 and arrived at Stuart, Florida the following day. The dike was then named the "Herbert Hoover Dike" in honor of the president.[citation needed]

The 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane sent an even larger storm surge to the crest of the new dike, which was expanded again in the 1960s.[citation needed]

Four recent hurricanes – Frances, Jeanne, Wilma, and Irma – had no major adverse effects on communities surrounding Lake Okeechobee, even though the lake rose 18 inches (46 cm) after Hurricane Wilma in 2005. Hurricane Ernesto increased water levels by 1 foot (30 cm) in 2006, the last time it exceeded 13 feet (4.0 m).[17] However, the lake's level began dropping soon after and by July 2007, it had dropped more than 4 feet (1.2 m) to its all-time low of 8.82 feet (2.69 m). In August 2008, Tropical Storm Fay increased water levels to 2 feet (0.65 m) above sea level, the first time it exceeded 12 feet (3.66 m) since January 2007. Over a seven-day period (including some storms that preceded Fay), about 8 inches (20 cm) of rain fell directly onto the lake.[17]

Rim Canal

 
Lake Okeechobee, from Canal Point, Florida
Sounds of Lake Okeechobee, from the Canal Point Recreation Area, Canal Point, Florida, USA

During construction of the dike, earth was excavated along the inside perimeter, resulting in a deep channel which runs along the perimeter of the lake.[4] This channel is known as the rim canal. In most places the canal is part of the lake, but in others it is separated from the open lake by low grassy islands such as Kreamer Island. During the drought of 2007–2008, this canal remained navigable while much of surrounding areas were too shallow or even above the water line. Even when the waters are higher, navigating the open lake can be difficult, whereas the rim canal is easier, so to reach a specific location in the lake it is often easiest to use the rim canal to get close then take one of the many channels into the lake.[citation needed]

Environmental concerns

 
Lake Okeechobee from space in July 2016

In 2007, during a drought, state water and wildlife managers removed thousands of truckloads of toxic mud from the lake's floor, in an effort to restore the lake's natural sandy base and create clearer water and better habitat for wildlife. The mud contained elevated levels of arsenic and other pesticides. According to tests from the South Florida Water Management District, arsenic levels on the northern part of the lake bed were as much as four times the limit for residential land. Independent tests found the mud too polluted for use on agricultural or commercial lands, and therefore difficult to dispose of on land.[18]

Through early 2008, the lake remained well below normal levels, with large portions of the lake bed exposed above the water line. During this time, portions of the lake bed, covered in organic matter, dried out and caught fire.[19] In late August 2008, Tropical Storm Fay inundated Florida with record amounts of rain. Lake Okeechobee received almost a 4 feet (1.2 m) increase in water level, including local run-off from the tributaries.

In 2013, heavy rains in central Florida resulted in high runoff into the lake; rising lake levels forced the CoE (Army Corps of Engineers) to release large volumes of polluted water from the lake through the St. Lucie River estuary to the east and the Caloosahatchee River estuary to the west. Thus the normal mix of fresh and salt water in those estuaries was replaced by a flood of polluted fresh water resulting in ecological damage.[20]

Since 2013, the CoE has been forced to pump billions of gallons of water out of the lake to avoid jeopardizing the integrity of the Hoover dike holding back the water from inundating the surrounding populated area. Some claim that sugar plantations have been pumping polluted water from their flooded fields into the lake, but U.S. Sugar claims back pumping is only to avoid flooding of communities, never to protect farmland. In March 2015, the rate was 1 billion US gallons (3,800,000 m3) daily. This results in pollution problems for the Treasure Coast, St. Lucie estuary, and the Indian River Lagoon.[21][22]

In May 2016, 33 square miles (85 km2) of the southern portion of the lake were affected by an algal bloom.[23] The outbreak was possibly due in part to nutrient-laden waters reaching the lake from farms and other sources.[23][24] Microcystin was found among the other species involved in the outbreak.[23]

In July 2016, the Federal Government denied Governor Rick Scott's request for Federal Disaster Aid to the Treasure Coast as a result of the toxic algal bloom in the St. Lucie Estuary which was responsible for millions of dollars of lost income for local businesses: this reaffirmed the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) finding that the lake's water quality was a State issue. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection and Martin County had carried out toxicity testing on the algae, but had not funded any work to clean up the water, and a FEMA spokesman said that "The state has robust capability to respond to emergencies and disasters."[25]

On June 23, 2017, the South Florida Water Management District was granted emergency permission to back pump clean water into Lake Okeechobee to save animals and plants in bloated water conservation areas."[26]

Geology

Lake Okeechobee sits in a shallow geological trough that also underlies the Kissimmee River Valley and the Everglades. The trough is underlain by clay deposits that compacted more than the limestone and sand deposits did along both coasts of peninsular Florida. Until about 6,000 years ago, the trough was dry land. As the sea level rose, the water table in Florida also rose and rainfall increased. From 6,000 to 4,000 years ago, wetlands formed building up peat deposits. Eventually the water flow into the area created a lake, drowning the wetlands. Along what is now the southern edge of the lake, the wetlands built up the layers of peat rapidly enough (reaching 13-to-14-foot or 4-to-4.3-metre thick) to form a dam, until the lake overflowed into the Everglades.[27] At its capacity, the lake holds 1 trillion US gallons (3.8×109 m3) of water[17] and is the headwaters of the Everglades.[28]

The floor of the lake is a limestone basin, with a maximum depth of 13 feet (4 m). Its water is somewhat murky from runoff from surrounding farmlands. The Army Corps of Engineers targets keeping the surface of the lake between 12.5 and 15.5 feet (4 and 5 m) above sea level.[29] The lake is enclosed by a 40 feet (12 m) high Herbert Hoover Dike built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers after a hurricane in 1928 breached the old dike, flooding surrounding communities and killing at least 2,500 people.[30] Water flows into Lake Okeechobee from several sources, including the Kissimmee River, Fisheating Creek, Lake Istokpoga, Taylor Creek, and smaller sources such as Nubbin Slough and Nicodemus Slough.[31][32] The Kissimmee River is the largest source, providing more than 60% of the water flowing into Lake Okeechobee.[33][34] Fisheating Creek is the second largest source for the lake, with about 9% of the total inflow.[32] Prior to the 20th century, Lake Istokpoga was connected to the Kissimmee River by Istokpoga Creek, but during the rainy season Lake Istokpoga overflowed, with the water flowing in a 40 km wide sheet across the Indian Prairie into Lake Okeechobee.[35] Today Lake Istokpoga drains into Lake Okeechobee through several canals that drain the Indian Prairie, and into the Kissimmee River through a canal that has replaced Istokpoga Creek.[36] Historically, outflow from the lake was by sheet flow over the Everglades, but most of the outflow has been diverted to dredged canals connecting to coastal rivers, such as the Miami Canal to the Miami River, the New River on the east, and the Caloosahatchee River (via the Caloosahatchee Canal and Lake Hicpochee) on the southwest.

Uses

Congressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee

 
Lake Okeechobee from Pahokee

According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,[37] the congressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee include the following:

  • Flood and storm risk management
  • Navigation
  • Water supply for the following:
    • Salinity control in estuaries
    • Regional groundwater control
    • Agricultural irrigation
    • Municipalities and industry
  • Enhancement of fish and wildlife
  • Recreation

Florida National Scenic Trail

The 30-metre (100 ft) wide dike surrounding Lake Okeechobee is the basis for the Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail (LOST), a part of the Florida National Scenic Trail, a 1,300-mile-long (2,100 km) trail. There is a well-maintained paved pathway along the majority of the perimeter, although with significant breaks.[38] It is used by hikers and bicyclists, and is wide enough to accommodate vehicles.

Fishing

The most common fish in this lake are largemouth bass, crappie, and bluegill. Pickerel have been less commonly caught.

Limnology

This shallow lake has been previously studied for its algal blooms. Lake Okeechobee is known for its algal blooms in consequence of increased eutrophication. Algal blooms like this can be harmful to the environment, including the lake's flora and fauna, because of released toxins. The vegetation at Lake Okeechobee is important in maintaining the oxygen in the lake, of which many aquatic biota are reliant on. There are various species of biota in Lake Okeechobee that are interdependent on each other for food, habitat, and other resources. Multiple limnological studies and related research has been conducted at Lake Okeechobee.

Characteristics

Lake Okeechobee is shallow lake, with an average depth of only 3 metres (9.8 ft),[39] and has a fetch of 54 kilometres (34 mi).[40] In total, the lake has a surface area of 1,730 square kilometres (670 sq mi).[41] The lake is normally mixed, but on days with direct sunlight and limited wind, the lake can exhibit diurnal thermal stratification. Although daily thermal stratification is brief, a hypolimnion can form during this time resulting in decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen at the lake bottom.[42] Lake transparency, measured as secchi depth, is found to be inversely correlated with the amount of suspended solids in the lake. Suspended solids varied with season with higher amounts of suspended solids in the winter, and thus less transparency on average, and lower amounts of suspended solids in the summer, leading to more transparency on average. Secchi depths not only varied across seasons, but also by location in the lake. Secchi depths ranges average from about 0.2 to 0.5 metres (0.66 to 1.64 ft) in the winter, depending on location in the lake, and 0.3 to 0.9 metres (0.98 to 2.95 ft) in the summer. Secchi depths of 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) have been recorded, indicating higher transparencies than average for the lake.[43]

Fauna

Lake Okeechobee is home to more than 40 species of native fish,[44] along with introduced species, such as the Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus.[45] Fish species displaying varying distributions throughout the lake depending on seasonality, site depth, sediments, and turbidity.[41] Yearly fish recruitment was found to be positively correlated with increased water levels, providing more substrate and protection.[46] These fish populations support different wading birds, including various species of egrets, ibises, wood storks, and herons,[47] along with alligator populations.[44] Fish diets in Lake Okeechobee depend on macro-invertebrates and zooplankton,[44] such as calanoids, cyclopoids, and cladoceran.[48] Lake Okeechobee supports over 3,800 different arthropods, including insects and arachnids, along with around 400 species of nematodes.[49]

Flora

Vascular macrophytes are important in the nutrient dynamics of lakes, along with creating micro-habitats for fish and invertebrates, and providing substrate for epiphytes. Macrophytes provide the lake with oxygen through photosynthesis, along with acting as a buffer for eutrophication by uptake of phosphorus. However, with increased eutrophication of lakes along with climate change, trends are showing decreased richness of macrophytes. Because the fauna are so reliant on the macrophytes for habitat, food, and protection from predation, a decrease in macrophyte diversity and abundance has negative consequences on fauna richness.[50] Macrophyte abundance is dependent on many abiotic factors such as water depth, water transparency and light availability, and nutrients, along with influence of biotic factors.[51] Increasing phytoplankton and algal blooms from eutrophication and nutrient abundance can decrease water transparency and light availability to submerged macrophytes, providing one explanation how macrophytes are sensitive to eutrophication.[52] Some submerged macrophytes that have been recorded at Lake Okeechobee include southern naiad (Najas guadelupensis), Illinois pondweed (Potamogeton illlinoensis), vallisneria (Vallisneria americana), and hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata).[51] Lake Okeechobee is afflicted with the invasive terrestrial plant, torpedograss (Panicum repens).[49]

Eutrophication and Algal Blooms

The concerning levels of total phosphorus (TP) began to be noticed in 1970s, and since then inputs of TP have averaged 516 tons per year.[40] These yearly inputs can vary based on the volume of runoff entering the lake.[53] The years 2005 and 2018 had particularly large volumes of water and TP inputs in relation to hurricanes increasing runoff. Despite limiting TP inputs by decreasing phosphorus use in agriculture, Lake Okeechobee has yet to be reach the aimed target set by the South Florida Water Management District's in the 1980s of reducing the lake's TP by 40 μg/L. Although proposed by the South Florida Water Management District, this initiative of limiting the lake's TP to 40 μg/L was adopted by The Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Committee (LOTAC), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), but phosphorus inputs have yet to be controlled enough to reach this goal.[40] Concerning estimates of phosphorus assimilation capacity indicates that even if phosphorus inputs were to be stopped, or severely limited, the extensive saturation of the lake would result in it taking years before improved water quality can be observed.[53]

 
Photo taken on July 1st, 2016 during Lake Okeechobee's extensive algal bloom caused by the increased runoff from the weather conditions of the El Niño event.

These inputs of phosphorus provide optimal conditions for harmful algal blooms (HABs). Cyanobacteria (CyanoHABs), which need nitrogen and phosphorus for growth, have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. With this ability along with the high inputs of phosphorus, the shallow nature of the lake providing plenty of sunlight, and cyanobacteria's preference for warm waters, Lake Okeechobee is an optimal environment for a cyanobacteria algal bloom. The presence of various species of cyanobacteria in Lake Okeechobee have been recorded since the 1980s. Cyanobacteria produce various toxins, including microcystin, which is not only harmful to the environment, but humans.[54] In 2016, Lake Okeechobee experienced an extensive cyanobacteria algal bloom that lasted from May to mid-July. During the previous 2015–16 winter, there were relatively high recorded temperatures, and higher than average rates of precipitation and storms in relation to the El Niño event.[55] As mentioned, higher rates of precipitation can lead to greater influxes of runoff which unload more phosphorus into the lake, enabling harmful algal bloom. Along with this algal bloom in 2016, other algal blooms have been found to occur in relation to hurricanes and other climate events leading to increased water flow into the lake.[55]

Research at Lake Okeechobee

Research done by James et al. (2009) aimed to evaluate and compare shallow lakes, including Lake Okeechobee and Lake Taihu in P.R. China, including their light, temperature, and nutrient dynamics. This research provides important knowledge on conditions that influence algal blooms. They found that for both lakes, wind, nutrients, water depth, and water transparency varied seasonally, and this had implications on phytoplankton abundance. Different locations in the lake may have had different limiting factors based on the light and nutrient availability in those locations. At Lake Okeechobee specifically, algal blooms were found to have strong effects during the winter on the western side of the lake.[43]

In the limnological study conducted by Beaver et al. (2013) at Lake Okeechobee, lake phytoplankton composition was examined in response to conditions of anthropogenic inputs, including nutrient inputs, along with natural events, like extreme weather conditions. Lake Okeechobee was a great location for this study because of its long history of agricultural runoff causing algal blooms, along with its location in the Gulf of Mexico making it susceptible to weather events like tropical storms and hurricanes. From 2000–2008, phytoplankton samples were collected using an integrated tube sampler, and weather conditions, including temperature and wind conditions, were recorded. They found that phytoplankton composition transitioned from non-nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating the lake before 2000, to nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating the lake after 2000 and up until 2004 as phosphorus inputs were high and nitrogen was limiting. This time was referred to as the "pre-hurricane" time period, and the period after the 2004–2005 hurricane season was referred to as the "post-hurricane" period. During the post-hurricane period, light became limiting and influenced phytoplankton composition.[56]

Kramer et al. (2018) studied Lake Okeechobee during and after its major 2016 algal bloom that was related to the El Niño event. They collected information on nutrient availability, phytoplankton communities, and the presence of toxins, along with the genetic makeup of the phytoplankton communities and their genetic abilities to produce toxins. Additionally, they conducted nutrient experiments to couple with their findings. They found that cyanobacteria with the ability to do nitrogen fixation were in high abundance during this 2016 algal bloom. During this time, nitrogen was a limiting factor due to the extreme amounts of phosphorus in the freshwater ecosystem. The field experiments conducted with this study found that microcystin, the toxin produced by cyanobacteria, was produced in higher quantities when there was more nitrogen present.[55]

A study conducted by Pei, Zhang, and Mitsch (2020) examined nitrate concentrations, and their respective isotope compositions, in hopes of determining origins of major inflows and outflows of nitrogen into the lake and what their respective contributions are. They found that ammonium based fertilizers and soil nitrogen were the largest contributors to nitrate found in the lake. Manure and precipitation were two other sources of nitrate. These results can aid in monitoring and regulation of nitrogen uses around Okeechobee, and subsequently aid in restoring the lake.[57]

Notes

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  3. ^ Gardner, Rusty. "Welcome to the Lake Okeechobee". Florida by Water.
  4. ^ a b Heather S. Henkel (2010-04-15). "SOFIA Virtual Tour – Lake Okeechobee". Sofia.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2011-11-27.[dead link]
  5. ^ Lecher, Alanna L. (January 2021). "A Brief History of Lake Okeechobee: A Narrative of Conflict". Journal of Florida Studies. 1 (9): 1–3.
  6. ^ a b "Lake Okeechobee | Location & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-02-19.
  7. ^ Counties of Florida map from U.S. Census Bureau.
  8. ^ Janosky, Jim (1997). Okeechobee: A Modern Frontier. University Press of Florida. p. 2. ISBN 0-8130-1467-0.
  9. ^ Hahn:11
  10. ^ Hann (2003), p. 148.
  11. ^ Hanna & Hanna (1948), p. 32.
  12. ^ Hann (2003), p. 99.
  13. ^ "Mosquito County, Florida, 1830 (map)". University of South Florida. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
  14. ^ Wills, Lawrence E. (1977). A Cracker History of Okeechobee. West Palm Beach, Florida: Palm Beach County Historical Society.
  15. ^ "Palm Beach County Interesting Facts and Figures". Palm Beach County. 2019. Retrieved December 29, 2019.
  16. ^ "National Hurricane Center: The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996". Nhc.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
  17. ^ a b c Kleinberg, Eliot (2008-08-21). . The Palm Beach Post. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
  18. ^ "Polluted Muck Taken from Florida's Lake Okeechobee Prompts Fears on Land", Environmental News Network
  19. ^ Lake Okeechobee Brush Fire, WINK News . Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. Retrieved 2008-06-17.
  20. ^ Lizette Alvarez (September 8, 2013). "In South Florida, a Polluted Bubble Ready to Burst". The New York Times. Retrieved September 9, 2013.
  21. ^ Hiaasen, Carl (March 13, 2016). "Where's Rick Scott in Lake O pollution crisis?". Florida Today. Melbourne, Florida. pp. 23A. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  22. ^ LaPeter Anton, Leonora; Pittman, Craig (March 19, 2016). "Lake Okeechobee flood control creates environmental disaster". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved 22 March 2016.
  23. ^ a b c "Water quality concerns grow as toxic bacteria found in Lake O". ABC 7 WZVN. 20 May 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  24. ^ Andy Reid (17 May 2016). "Lake Okeechobee algae bloom threatens to worsen water woes". Sun Sentinel. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  25. ^ "Florida can pay for algae recovery on its own, FEMA says". TCPalm. 18 July 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  26. ^ "Emergency Lake Okeechobee back-pumping granted to save wildlife". 23 June 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
  27. ^ Lodge (2005), p. 110.
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  29. ^ Reid, Andy (April 21, 2011). "Declining Lake Okeechobee water levels threaten South Florida environment, water supplies". South Florida Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
  30. ^ Brochu, Nicole Sterghos (2003). "Florida's Forgotten Storm: the Hurricane of 1928". South Florida Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved April 6, 2008.
  31. ^ Lodge (2005), pp. 105, 109.
  32. ^ a b Fisheating Creek Sub-Watershed Feasibility Study (PDF) (Report). p. 11. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
  33. ^ Lodge (2005), p. 106.
  34. ^ Boning (2007), p. 212.
  35. ^ Lodge (2005), pp. 107, 109.
  36. ^ Lodge (2005), p. 109.
  37. ^ "LAKE OKEECHOBEE / Water Management > Jacksonville District > Fact Sheet Article View". Jacksonville District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2012-10-09. Retrieved 2017-01-08.
  38. ^ "Lake Okeechobee and Florida National Scenic Trails CURRENT CLOSURES" (PDF). US Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
  39. ^ Jin, Kang-Ren; Ji, Zhen-Gang (2001-05-01). "Calibration and verification of a spectral wind–wave model for Lake Okeechobee". Ocean Engineering. 28 (5): 571–584. doi:10.1016/S0029-8018(00)00009-3. ISSN 0029-8018.
  40. ^ a b c Canfield, Daniel E.; Bachmann, Roger W.; Hoyer, Mark V. (2021-01-02). "Restoration of Lake Okeechobee, Florida: mission impossible?". Lake and Reservoir Management. 37 (1): 95–111. doi:10.1080/10402381.2020.1839607. ISSN 1040-2381. S2CID 229389829.
  41. ^ a b Bull, L.A. (1995). "Fish distribution in limnetic areas of Lake Okeechobee, Florida". Archiv für Hydrobiologie, Advances in Limnology. 45: 333–342.
  42. ^ Rodusky, A. J.; Sharfstein, B.; Jin, K-R.; East, T. L. (2005-09-01). "Thermal Stratification and the Potential for Enhanced Phosphorus Release from the Sediments in Lake Okeechobee, USA". Lake and Reservoir Management. 21 (3): 330–337. doi:10.1080/07438140509354438. ISSN 1040-2381. S2CID 84027808.
  43. ^ a b James, R. Thomas; Havens, Karl; Zhu, Guangwei; Qin, Boqiang (2009-07-01). "Comparative analysis of nutrients, chlorophyll and transparency in two large shallow lakes (Lake Taihu, P.R. China and Lake Okeechobee, USA)". Hydrobiologia. 627 (1): 211–231. doi:10.1007/s10750-009-9729-5. ISSN 1573-5117. S2CID 21858063.
  44. ^ a b c Havens, Karl E.; Gawlik, Dale E. (2005-12-01). "Lake Okeechobee conceptual ecological model". Wetlands. 25 (4): 908–925. doi:10.1672/0277-5212(2005)025[0908:LOCEM]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1943-6246. S2CID 36311881.
  45. ^ Matamoros, Wilfredo A.; Chin, Keith D.; Sharfstein, Bruce (2005-01-01). "First Report of the Mayan Cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus (Günther 1862) Collected in the Southern Littoral Zone of Lake Okeechobee, Florida". Gulf and Caribbean Research. 17. doi:10.18785/gcr.1701.10. ISSN 1528-0470.
  46. ^ Johnson, Kevin G.; Allen, Micheal S.; Havens, Karl E. (2007-03-01). "A review of littoral vegetation, fisheries, and wildlife responses to hydrologic variation at Lake Okeechobee". Wetlands. 27 (1): 110–126. doi:10.1672/0277-5212(2007)27[110:AROLVF]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1943-6246. S2CID 31447948.
  47. ^ Pete., David (1993). Wading bird use of Lake Okeechobee relative to fluctuating water levels. Everglades Systems Research Div., Dept. of Research, South Florida Water Management District. OCLC 30912983.
  48. ^ Havens, Karl E.; Beaver, John R. (2010-08-27). "Composition, size, and biomass of zooplankton in large productive Florida lakes". Hydrobiologia. 668 (1): 49–60. doi:10.1007/s10750-010-0386-5. ISSN 0018-8158. S2CID 12327281.
  49. ^ a b Cuda, J. P.; Dunford, J. C.; Leavengood Jr, J. M. (2007). "Invertebrate Fauna Associated with Torpedograss, Panicum Repens (Cyperales: Poaceae), in Lake Okeechobee, Florida, and Prospects for Biological Control". Florida Entomologist. 90 (1): 238–248. doi:10.1653/0015-4040(2007)90[238:IFAWTP]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0015-4040. S2CID 59463929.
  50. ^ Chambers, P. A.; Lacoul, P.; Murphy, K. J.; Thomaz, S. M. (2008), Balian, E. V.; Lévêque, C.; Segers, H.; Martens, K. (eds.), "Global diversity of aquatic macrophytes in freshwater", Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment, Developments in Hydrobiology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 9–26, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_2, ISBN 978-1-4020-8259-7
  51. ^ a b Hopson, Maragaret S., Zimba, P.V. (1993). "Temporal variation in the biomass of submerged macrophytes in Lake, Okeechobee, Florida" (PDF). Journal of Aquatic Plant Management. 31: 76.
  52. ^ Hough, R. Anton; Fornwall, Mark D.; Negele, Brian J.; Thompson, Robert L.; Putt, David A. (1989-03-01). "Plant community dynamics in a chain of lakes: principal factors in the decline of rooted macrophytes with eutrophication". Hydrobiologia. 173 (3): 199–217. doi:10.1007/BF00008968. ISSN 1573-5117. S2CID 40338414.
  53. ^ a b Havens, Karl E.; James, R. Thomas (2005-06-01). "The Phosphorus Mass Balance of Lake Okeechobee, Florida: Implications for Eutrophication Management". Lake and Reservoir Management. 21 (2): 139–148. doi:10.1080/07438140509354423. ISSN 1040-2381. S2CID 84550944.
  54. ^ Rosen, Barry H.; Davis, Timothy W.; Gobler, Christopher J.; Kramer, Benjamin J.; Loftin, Keith A. (2017). "Cyanobacteria of the 2016 Lake Okeechobee and Okeechobee Waterway harmful algal bloom". Open-File Report. Reston, VA. doi:10.3133/ofr20171054.
  55. ^ a b c Kramer, Benjamin J.; Davis, Timothy W.; Meyer, Kevin A.; Rosen, Barry H.; Goleski, Jennifer A.; Dick, Gregory J.; Oh, Genesok; Gobler, Christopher J. (2018-05-23). "Nitrogen limitation, toxin synthesis potential, and toxicity of cyanobacterial populations in Lake Okeechobee and the St. Lucie River Estuary, Florida, during the 2016 state of emergency event". PLOS ONE. 13 (5): e0196278. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1396278K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196278. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5965861. PMID 29791446.
  56. ^ Beaver, John R.; Casamatta, Dale A.; East, Therese L.; Havens, Karl E.; Rodusky, Andrew J.; James, R. Thomas; Tausz, Claudia E.; Buccier, Kristen M. (2013-06-01). "Extreme weather events influence the phytoplankton community structure in a large lowland subtropical lake (Lake Okeechobee, Florida, USA)". Hydrobiologia. 709 (1): 213–226. doi:10.1007/s10750-013-1451-7. ISSN 1573-5117. S2CID 17258511.
  57. ^ Ma, Pei; Zhang, Li; Mitsch, William J. (2020-08-01). "Investigating sources and transformations of nitrogen using dual stable isotopes for Lake Okeechobee restoration in Florida". Ecological Engineering. 155: 105947. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105947. ISSN 0925-8574. S2CID 225381047.

References

External links

  Media related to Lake Okeechobee at Wikimedia Commons

lake, okeechobee, also, known, florida, inland, largest, freshwater, lake, state, florida, tenth, largest, natural, freshwater, lake, among, states, united, states, second, largest, natural, freshwater, lake, contained, entirely, within, contiguous, states, af. Lake Okeechobee US oʊ k i ˈ tʃ oʊ b i 1 also known as Florida s Inland Sea 2 is the largest freshwater lake in the U S state of Florida 3 It is the tenth largest natural freshwater lake among the 50 states of the United States and the second largest natural freshwater lake contained entirely within the contiguous 48 states after Lake Michigan 4 Lake OkeechobeePhotographed from space 2000Lake OkeechobeeShow map of FloridaLake OkeechobeeShow map of the United StatesShown at the top of this map of South FloridaLocationFloridaCoordinates26 56 N 80 48 W 26 933 N 80 800 W 26 933 80 800 Coordinates 26 56 N 80 48 W 26 933 N 80 800 W 26 933 80 800Primary inflowsKissimmee River Fisheating Creek Taylor CreekPrimary outflowsEverglades Caloosahatchee River St Lucie RiverBasin countriesUnited StatesMax length36 mi 57 5 km Max width29 mi 46 6 km Surface area734 sq mi 1 900 km2 Average depth8 ft 10 in 2 7 m Max depth12 ft 3 7 m Water volume1 cu mi 5 2 km3 estimated Residence time3 yearsSurface elevation12 to 18 ft 3 74 to 5 49 m IslandsKreamer Torry Ritta Grass Observation Bird Horse Hog Eagle BayOkeechobee covers 730 square miles 1 900 km2 and is exceptionally shallow for a lake of its size with an average depth of only 9 feet 2 7 metres It is not only the largest lake in Florida or the largest lake in the southeast United States but it is too large to see across giving it the feel of an ocean 5 The Kissimmee River located directly north of Lake Okeechobee is the lake s primary source 6 The lake is divided between Glades Okeechobee Martin Palm Beach and Hendry counties All five counties meet at one point near the center of the lake 7 Contents 1 History 1 1 Hurricanes 1 2 Rim Canal 1 3 Environmental concerns 2 Geology 3 Uses 3 1 Congressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee 3 2 Florida National Scenic Trail 3 3 Fishing 4 Limnology 4 1 Characteristics 4 2 Fauna 4 3 Flora 4 3 1 Eutrophication and Algal Blooms 4 4 Research at Lake Okeechobee 5 Notes 6 References 7 External linksHistory EditThe earliest recorded people to have lived around the lake were the Calusa They called the lake Mayaimi meaning big water as reported in the 16th century by Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda 8 9 The name Okeechobee comes from the Hitchiti words oki water and chubi big Slightly later in the 16th century Rene Goulaine de Laudonniere reported hearing about a large freshwater lake in southern Florida called Serrope 10 By the 18th century the largely mythical lake was known to British mapmakers and chroniclers by the Spanish name Laguna de Espiritu Santo 11 In the early 19th century it was known as Mayacco Lake or Lake Mayaca after the Mayaca people originally from the upper reaches of the St Johns River who moved near the lake in the early 18th century 12 The modern Port Mayaca on the east side of the lake preserves that name 13 On the southern rim of Lake Okeechobee three islands Kreamer Ritta and Torey were once settled by early pioneers These settlements had a general store post office school and town elections Farming was the main vocation The fertile land was challenging to farm because of the muddy muck Over the first half of the twentieth century farmers used agricultural tools including tractors to farm in the muck By the 1960s all of these settlements were abandoned 14 All of Lake Okeechobee was included in the boundaries of Palm Beach County when it was created in 1909 In 1963 the lake was divided among the five counties surrounding the lake 15 Hurricanes Edit In 1926 the Great Miami Hurricane hit the Lake Okeechobee area killing approximately 300 people Two years later in 1928 the Okeechobee Hurricane crossed over the lake killing thousands The Red Cross reported 1 836 deaths a figure which the National Weather Service initially accepted but in 2003 the number was revised to at least 2 500 16 In both cases the catastrophe was caused by flooding from a storm surge when strong winds drove water over the 6 6 foot 2 meter mud dike that circled the lake at the time After the two hurricanes the Florida State Legislature created the Okeechobee Flood Control District citation needed The organization was authorized to cooperate with the U S Army Corps of Engineers in actions to prevent similar disasters U S President Herbert Hoover visited the area personally and afterward the Corps designed a plan incorporating the construction of channels gates and nearly 140 miles of levees to protect areas surrounding Lake Okeechobee from overflow 6 The Okeechobee Waterway was officially opened on March 23 1937 by a procession of boats which left Fort Myers Florida on March 22 and arrived at Stuart Florida the following day The dike was then named the Herbert Hoover Dike in honor of the president citation needed The 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane sent an even larger storm surge to the crest of the new dike which was expanded again in the 1960s citation needed Four recent hurricanes Frances Jeanne Wilma and Irma had no major adverse effects on communities surrounding Lake Okeechobee even though the lake rose 18 inches 46 cm after Hurricane Wilma in 2005 Hurricane Ernesto increased water levels by 1 foot 30 cm in 2006 the last time it exceeded 13 feet 4 0 m 17 However the lake s level began dropping soon after and by July 2007 it had dropped more than 4 feet 1 2 m to its all time low of 8 82 feet 2 69 m In August 2008 Tropical Storm Fay increased water levels to 2 feet 0 65 m above sea level the first time it exceeded 12 feet 3 66 m since January 2007 Over a seven day period including some storms that preceded Fay about 8 inches 20 cm of rain fell directly onto the lake 17 Rim Canal Edit Lake Okeechobee from Canal Point Florida source source Sounds of Lake Okeechobee from the Canal Point Recreation Area Canal Point Florida USA During construction of the dike earth was excavated along the inside perimeter resulting in a deep channel which runs along the perimeter of the lake 4 This channel is known as the rim canal In most places the canal is part of the lake but in others it is separated from the open lake by low grassy islands such as Kreamer Island During the drought of 2007 2008 this canal remained navigable while much of surrounding areas were too shallow or even above the water line Even when the waters are higher navigating the open lake can be difficult whereas the rim canal is easier so to reach a specific location in the lake it is often easiest to use the rim canal to get close then take one of the many channels into the lake citation needed Environmental concerns Edit Lake Okeechobee from space in July 2016 In 2007 during a drought state water and wildlife managers removed thousands of truckloads of toxic mud from the lake s floor in an effort to restore the lake s natural sandy base and create clearer water and better habitat for wildlife The mud contained elevated levels of arsenic and other pesticides According to tests from the South Florida Water Management District arsenic levels on the northern part of the lake bed were as much as four times the limit for residential land Independent tests found the mud too polluted for use on agricultural or commercial lands and therefore difficult to dispose of on land 18 Through early 2008 the lake remained well below normal levels with large portions of the lake bed exposed above the water line During this time portions of the lake bed covered in organic matter dried out and caught fire 19 In late August 2008 Tropical Storm Fay inundated Florida with record amounts of rain Lake Okeechobee received almost a 4 feet 1 2 m increase in water level including local run off from the tributaries In 2013 heavy rains in central Florida resulted in high runoff into the lake rising lake levels forced the CoE Army Corps of Engineers to release large volumes of polluted water from the lake through the St Lucie River estuary to the east and the Caloosahatchee River estuary to the west Thus the normal mix of fresh and salt water in those estuaries was replaced by a flood of polluted fresh water resulting in ecological damage 20 Since 2013 the CoE has been forced to pump billions of gallons of water out of the lake to avoid jeopardizing the integrity of the Hoover dike holding back the water from inundating the surrounding populated area Some claim that sugar plantations have been pumping polluted water from their flooded fields into the lake but U S Sugar claims back pumping is only to avoid flooding of communities never to protect farmland In March 2015 the rate was 1 billion US gallons 3 800 000 m3 daily This results in pollution problems for the Treasure Coast St Lucie estuary and the Indian River Lagoon 21 22 In May 2016 33 square miles 85 km2 of the southern portion of the lake were affected by an algal bloom 23 The outbreak was possibly due in part to nutrient laden waters reaching the lake from farms and other sources 23 24 Microcystin was found among the other species involved in the outbreak 23 In July 2016 the Federal Government denied Governor Rick Scott s request for Federal Disaster Aid to the Treasure Coast as a result of the toxic algal bloom in the St Lucie Estuary which was responsible for millions of dollars of lost income for local businesses this reaffirmed the Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA finding that the lake s water quality was a State issue The Florida Department of Environmental Protection and Martin County had carried out toxicity testing on the algae but had not funded any work to clean up the water and a FEMA spokesman said that The state has robust capability to respond to emergencies and disasters 25 On June 23 2017 the South Florida Water Management District was granted emergency permission to back pump clean water into Lake Okeechobee to save animals and plants in bloated water conservation areas 26 Geology EditLake Okeechobee sits in a shallow geological trough that also underlies the Kissimmee River Valley and the Everglades The trough is underlain by clay deposits that compacted more than the limestone and sand deposits did along both coasts of peninsular Florida Until about 6 000 years ago the trough was dry land As the sea level rose the water table in Florida also rose and rainfall increased From 6 000 to 4 000 years ago wetlands formed building up peat deposits Eventually the water flow into the area created a lake drowning the wetlands Along what is now the southern edge of the lake the wetlands built up the layers of peat rapidly enough reaching 13 to 14 foot or 4 to 4 3 metre thick to form a dam until the lake overflowed into the Everglades 27 At its capacity the lake holds 1 trillion US gallons 3 8 109 m3 of water 17 and is the headwaters of the Everglades 28 The floor of the lake is a limestone basin with a maximum depth of 13 feet 4 m Its water is somewhat murky from runoff from surrounding farmlands The Army Corps of Engineers targets keeping the surface of the lake between 12 5 and 15 5 feet 4 and 5 m above sea level 29 The lake is enclosed by a 40 feet 12 m high Herbert Hoover Dike built by the U S Army Corps of Engineers after a hurricane in 1928 breached the old dike flooding surrounding communities and killing at least 2 500 people 30 Water flows into Lake Okeechobee from several sources including the Kissimmee River Fisheating Creek Lake Istokpoga Taylor Creek and smaller sources such as Nubbin Slough and Nicodemus Slough 31 32 The Kissimmee River is the largest source providing more than 60 of the water flowing into Lake Okeechobee 33 34 Fisheating Creek is the second largest source for the lake with about 9 of the total inflow 32 Prior to the 20th century Lake Istokpoga was connected to the Kissimmee River by Istokpoga Creek but during the rainy season Lake Istokpoga overflowed with the water flowing in a 40 km wide sheet across the Indian Prairie into Lake Okeechobee 35 Today Lake Istokpoga drains into Lake Okeechobee through several canals that drain the Indian Prairie and into the Kissimmee River through a canal that has replaced Istokpoga Creek 36 Historically outflow from the lake was by sheet flow over the Everglades but most of the outflow has been diverted to dredged canals connecting to coastal rivers such as the Miami Canal to the Miami River the New River on the east and the Caloosahatchee River via the Caloosahatchee Canal and Lake Hicpochee on the southwest Uses EditCongressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee Edit Lake Okeechobee from Pahokee According to the U S Army Corps of Engineers 37 the congressionally authorized uses for Lake Okeechobee include the following Flood and storm risk management Navigation Water supply for the following Salinity control in estuaries Regional groundwater control Agricultural irrigation Municipalities and industry Enhancement of fish and wildlife RecreationFlorida National Scenic Trail Edit The 30 metre 100 ft wide dike surrounding Lake Okeechobee is the basis for the Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail LOST a part of the Florida National Scenic Trail a 1 300 mile long 2 100 km trail There is a well maintained paved pathway along the majority of the perimeter although with significant breaks 38 It is used by hikers and bicyclists and is wide enough to accommodate vehicles Fishing Edit The most common fish in this lake are largemouth bass crappie and bluegill Pickerel have been less commonly caught Limnology EditThis shallow lake has been previously studied for its algal blooms Lake Okeechobee is known for its algal blooms in consequence of increased eutrophication Algal blooms like this can be harmful to the environment including the lake s flora and fauna because of released toxins The vegetation at Lake Okeechobee is important in maintaining the oxygen in the lake of which many aquatic biota are reliant on There are various species of biota in Lake Okeechobee that are interdependent on each other for food habitat and other resources Multiple limnological studies and related research has been conducted at Lake Okeechobee Characteristics Edit Lake Okeechobee is shallow lake with an average depth of only 3 metres 9 8 ft 39 and has a fetch of 54 kilometres 34 mi 40 In total the lake has a surface area of 1 730 square kilometres 670 sq mi 41 The lake is normally mixed but on days with direct sunlight and limited wind the lake can exhibit diurnal thermal stratification Although daily thermal stratification is brief a hypolimnion can form during this time resulting in decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen at the lake bottom 42 Lake transparency measured as secchi depth is found to be inversely correlated with the amount of suspended solids in the lake Suspended solids varied with season with higher amounts of suspended solids in the winter and thus less transparency on average and lower amounts of suspended solids in the summer leading to more transparency on average Secchi depths not only varied across seasons but also by location in the lake Secchi depths ranges average from about 0 2 to 0 5 metres 0 66 to 1 64 ft in the winter depending on location in the lake and 0 3 to 0 9 metres 0 98 to 2 95 ft in the summer Secchi depths of 1 7 metres 5 6 ft have been recorded indicating higher transparencies than average for the lake 43 Fauna Edit Lake Okeechobee is home to more than 40 species of native fish 44 along with introduced species such as the Mayan cichlid Cichlasoma urophthalmus 45 Fish species displaying varying distributions throughout the lake depending on seasonality site depth sediments and turbidity 41 Yearly fish recruitment was found to be positively correlated with increased water levels providing more substrate and protection 46 These fish populations support different wading birds including various species of egrets ibises wood storks and herons 47 along with alligator populations 44 Fish diets in Lake Okeechobee depend on macro invertebrates and zooplankton 44 such as calanoids cyclopoids and cladoceran 48 Lake Okeechobee supports over 3 800 different arthropods including insects and arachnids along with around 400 species of nematodes 49 Flora Edit Vascular macrophytes are important in the nutrient dynamics of lakes along with creating micro habitats for fish and invertebrates and providing substrate for epiphytes Macrophytes provide the lake with oxygen through photosynthesis along with acting as a buffer for eutrophication by uptake of phosphorus However with increased eutrophication of lakes along with climate change trends are showing decreased richness of macrophytes Because the fauna are so reliant on the macrophytes for habitat food and protection from predation a decrease in macrophyte diversity and abundance has negative consequences on fauna richness 50 Macrophyte abundance is dependent on many abiotic factors such as water depth water transparency and light availability and nutrients along with influence of biotic factors 51 Increasing phytoplankton and algal blooms from eutrophication and nutrient abundance can decrease water transparency and light availability to submerged macrophytes providing one explanation how macrophytes are sensitive to eutrophication 52 Some submerged macrophytes that have been recorded at Lake Okeechobee include southern naiad Najas guadelupensis Illinois pondweed Potamogeton illlinoensis vallisneria Vallisneria americana and hydrilla Hydrilla verticillata 51 Lake Okeechobee is afflicted with the invasive terrestrial plant torpedograss Panicum repens 49 Eutrophication and Algal Blooms Edit The concerning levels of total phosphorus TP began to be noticed in 1970s and since then inputs of TP have averaged 516 tons per year 40 These yearly inputs can vary based on the volume of runoff entering the lake 53 The years 2005 and 2018 had particularly large volumes of water and TP inputs in relation to hurricanes increasing runoff Despite limiting TP inputs by decreasing phosphorus use in agriculture Lake Okeechobee has yet to be reach the aimed target set by the South Florida Water Management District s in the 1980s of reducing the lake s TP by 40 mg L Although proposed by the South Florida Water Management District this initiative of limiting the lake s TP to 40 mg L was adopted by The Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Committee LOTAC the United States Environmental Protection Agency USEPA and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection FDEP but phosphorus inputs have yet to be controlled enough to reach this goal 40 Concerning estimates of phosphorus assimilation capacity indicates that even if phosphorus inputs were to be stopped or severely limited the extensive saturation of the lake would result in it taking years before improved water quality can be observed 53 Photo taken on July 1st 2016 during Lake Okeechobee s extensive algal bloom caused by the increased runoff from the weather conditions of the El Nino event These inputs of phosphorus provide optimal conditions for harmful algal blooms HABs Cyanobacteria CyanoHABs which need nitrogen and phosphorus for growth have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen With this ability along with the high inputs of phosphorus the shallow nature of the lake providing plenty of sunlight and cyanobacteria s preference for warm waters Lake Okeechobee is an optimal environment for a cyanobacteria algal bloom The presence of various species of cyanobacteria in Lake Okeechobee have been recorded since the 1980s Cyanobacteria produce various toxins including microcystin which is not only harmful to the environment but humans 54 In 2016 Lake Okeechobee experienced an extensive cyanobacteria algal bloom that lasted from May to mid July During the previous 2015 16 winter there were relatively high recorded temperatures and higher than average rates of precipitation and storms in relation to the El Nino event 55 As mentioned higher rates of precipitation can lead to greater influxes of runoff which unload more phosphorus into the lake enabling harmful algal bloom Along with this algal bloom in 2016 other algal blooms have been found to occur in relation to hurricanes and other climate events leading to increased water flow into the lake 55 Research at Lake Okeechobee Edit Research done by James et al 2009 aimed to evaluate and compare shallow lakes including Lake Okeechobee and Lake Taihu in P R China including their light temperature and nutrient dynamics This research provides important knowledge on conditions that influence algal blooms They found that for both lakes wind nutrients water depth and water transparency varied seasonally and this had implications on phytoplankton abundance Different locations in the lake may have had different limiting factors based on the light and nutrient availability in those locations At Lake Okeechobee specifically algal blooms were found to have strong effects during the winter on the western side of the lake 43 In the limnological study conducted by Beaver et al 2013 at Lake Okeechobee lake phytoplankton composition was examined in response to conditions of anthropogenic inputs including nutrient inputs along with natural events like extreme weather conditions Lake Okeechobee was a great location for this study because of its long history of agricultural runoff causing algal blooms along with its location in the Gulf of Mexico making it susceptible to weather events like tropical storms and hurricanes From 2000 2008 phytoplankton samples were collected using an integrated tube sampler and weather conditions including temperature and wind conditions were recorded They found that phytoplankton composition transitioned from non nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating the lake before 2000 to nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria dominating the lake after 2000 and up until 2004 as phosphorus inputs were high and nitrogen was limiting This time was referred to as the pre hurricane time period and the period after the 2004 2005 hurricane season was referred to as the post hurricane period During the post hurricane period light became limiting and influenced phytoplankton composition 56 Kramer et al 2018 studied Lake Okeechobee during and after its major 2016 algal bloom that was related to the El Nino event They collected information on nutrient availability phytoplankton communities and the presence of toxins along with the genetic makeup of the phytoplankton communities and their genetic abilities to produce toxins Additionally they conducted nutrient experiments to couple with their findings They found that cyanobacteria with the ability to do nitrogen fixation were in high abundance during this 2016 algal bloom During this time nitrogen was a limiting factor due to the extreme amounts of phosphorus in the freshwater ecosystem The field experiments conducted with this study found that microcystin the toxin produced by cyanobacteria was produced in higher quantities when there was more nitrogen present 55 A study conducted by Pei Zhang and Mitsch 2020 examined nitrate concentrations and their respective isotope compositions in hopes of determining origins of major inflows and outflows of nitrogen into the lake and what their respective contributions are They found that ammonium based fertilizers and soil nitrogen were the largest contributors to nitrate found in the lake Manure and precipitation were two other sources of nitrate These results can aid in monitoring and regulation of nitrogen uses around Okeechobee and subsequently aid in restoring the lake 57 Notes Edit Okeechobee Collins Dictionary n d Retrieved 24 September 2014 Lake Okeechobee Area Visit Florida Gardner Rusty Welcome to the Lake Okeechobee Florida by Water a b Heather S Henkel 2010 04 15 SOFIA Virtual Tour Lake Okeechobee Sofia usgs gov Retrieved 2011 11 27 dead link Lecher Alanna L January 2021 A Brief History of Lake Okeechobee A Narrative of Conflict Journal of Florida Studies 1 9 1 3 a b Lake Okeechobee Location amp Facts Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 2019 02 19 Counties of Florida map from U S Census Bureau Janosky Jim 1997 Okeechobee A Modern Frontier University Press of Florida p 2 ISBN 0 8130 1467 0 Hahn 11 Hann 2003 p 148 Hanna amp Hanna 1948 p 32 Hann 2003 p 99 Mosquito County Florida 1830 map University of South Florida Retrieved 24 April 2011 Wills Lawrence E 1977 A Cracker History of Okeechobee West Palm Beach Florida Palm Beach County Historical Society Palm Beach County Interesting Facts and Figures Palm Beach County 2019 Retrieved December 29 2019 National Hurricane Center The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones 1492 1996 Nhc noaa gov Retrieved 2011 11 27 a b c Kleinberg Eliot 2008 08 21 Lake Okeechobee surpasses 12 feet for first time since January 07 The Palm Beach Post Archived from the original on 17 June 2011 Retrieved 2011 11 27 Polluted Muck Taken from Florida s Lake Okeechobee Prompts Fears on Land Environmental News Network Lake Okeechobee Brush Fire WINK News UPDATE Lake Okeechobee brush fire WINK News Southwest Florida Local amp Florida Archived from the original on 2008 05 17 Retrieved 2008 06 17 Lizette Alvarez September 8 2013 In South Florida a Polluted Bubble Ready to Burst The New York Times Retrieved September 9 2013 Hiaasen Carl March 13 2016 Where s Rick Scott in Lake O pollution crisis Florida Today Melbourne Florida pp 23A Retrieved March 13 2016 LaPeter Anton Leonora Pittman Craig March 19 2016 Lake Okeechobee flood control creates environmental disaster Tampa Bay Times Retrieved 22 March 2016 a b c Water quality concerns grow as toxic bacteria found in Lake O ABC 7 WZVN 20 May 2016 Retrieved 21 May 2016 Andy Reid 17 May 2016 Lake Okeechobee algae bloom threatens to worsen water woes Sun Sentinel Retrieved 21 May 2016 Florida can pay for algae recovery on its own FEMA says TCPalm 18 July 2016 Retrieved 1 August 2016 Emergency Lake Okeechobee back pumping granted to save wildlife 23 June 2017 Retrieved 23 June 2016 Lodge 2005 p 110 South Florida Water Management District Okeechobee Watershed Overview my sfwmd gov Reid Andy April 21 2011 Declining Lake Okeechobee water levels threaten South Florida environment water supplies South Florida Sun Sentinel Retrieved 26 June 2012 Brochu Nicole Sterghos 2003 Florida s Forgotten Storm the Hurricane of 1928 South Florida Sun Sentinel Retrieved April 6 2008 Lodge 2005 pp 105 109 a b Fisheating Creek Sub Watershed Feasibility Study PDF Report p 11 Retrieved 18 April 2011 Lodge 2005 p 106 Boning 2007 p 212 Lodge 2005 pp 107 109 Lodge 2005 p 109 LAKE OKEECHOBEE Water Management gt Jacksonville District gt Fact Sheet Article View Jacksonville District U S Army Corps of Engineers 2012 10 09 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Lake Okeechobee and Florida National Scenic Trails CURRENT CLOSURES PDF US Army Corps of Engineers Retrieved 1 October 2016 Jin Kang Ren Ji Zhen Gang 2001 05 01 Calibration and verification of a spectral wind wave model for Lake Okeechobee Ocean Engineering 28 5 571 584 doi 10 1016 S0029 8018 00 00009 3 ISSN 0029 8018 a b c Canfield Daniel E Bachmann Roger W Hoyer Mark V 2021 01 02 Restoration of Lake Okeechobee Florida mission impossible Lake and Reservoir Management 37 1 95 111 doi 10 1080 10402381 2020 1839607 ISSN 1040 2381 S2CID 229389829 a b Bull L A 1995 Fish distribution in limnetic areas of Lake Okeechobee Florida Archiv fur Hydrobiologie Advances in Limnology 45 333 342 Rodusky A J Sharfstein B Jin K R East T L 2005 09 01 Thermal Stratification and the Potential for Enhanced Phosphorus Release from the Sediments in Lake Okeechobee USA Lake and Reservoir Management 21 3 330 337 doi 10 1080 07438140509354438 ISSN 1040 2381 S2CID 84027808 a b James R Thomas Havens Karl Zhu Guangwei Qin Boqiang 2009 07 01 Comparative analysis of nutrients chlorophyll and transparency in two large shallow lakes Lake Taihu P R China and Lake Okeechobee USA Hydrobiologia 627 1 211 231 doi 10 1007 s10750 009 9729 5 ISSN 1573 5117 S2CID 21858063 a b c Havens Karl E Gawlik Dale E 2005 12 01 Lake Okeechobee conceptual ecological model Wetlands 25 4 908 925 doi 10 1672 0277 5212 2005 025 0908 LOCEM 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 1943 6246 S2CID 36311881 Matamoros Wilfredo A Chin Keith D Sharfstein Bruce 2005 01 01 First Report of the Mayan Cichlid Cichlasoma urophthalmus Gunther 1862 Collected in the Southern Littoral Zone of Lake Okeechobee Florida Gulf and Caribbean Research 17 doi 10 18785 gcr 1701 10 ISSN 1528 0470 Johnson Kevin G Allen Micheal S Havens Karl E 2007 03 01 A review of littoral vegetation fisheries and wildlife responses to hydrologic variation at Lake Okeechobee Wetlands 27 1 110 126 doi 10 1672 0277 5212 2007 27 110 AROLVF 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 1943 6246 S2CID 31447948 Pete David 1993 Wading bird use of Lake Okeechobee relative to fluctuating water levels Everglades Systems Research Div Dept of Research South Florida Water Management District OCLC 30912983 Havens Karl E Beaver John R 2010 08 27 Composition size and biomass of zooplankton in large productive Florida lakes Hydrobiologia 668 1 49 60 doi 10 1007 s10750 010 0386 5 ISSN 0018 8158 S2CID 12327281 a b Cuda J P Dunford J C Leavengood Jr J M 2007 Invertebrate Fauna Associated with Torpedograss Panicum Repens Cyperales Poaceae in Lake Okeechobee Florida and Prospects for Biological Control Florida Entomologist 90 1 238 248 doi 10 1653 0015 4040 2007 90 238 IFAWTP 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0015 4040 S2CID 59463929 Chambers P A Lacoul P Murphy K J Thomaz S M 2008 Balian E V Leveque C Segers H Martens K eds Global diversity of aquatic macrophytes in freshwater Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment Developments in Hydrobiology Dordrecht Springer Netherlands pp 9 26 doi 10 1007 978 1 4020 8259 7 2 ISBN 978 1 4020 8259 7 a b Hopson Maragaret S Zimba P V 1993 Temporal variation in the biomass of submerged macrophytes in Lake Okeechobee Florida PDF Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 31 76 Hough R Anton Fornwall Mark D Negele Brian J Thompson Robert L Putt David A 1989 03 01 Plant community dynamics in a chain of lakes principal factors in the decline of rooted macrophytes with eutrophication Hydrobiologia 173 3 199 217 doi 10 1007 BF00008968 ISSN 1573 5117 S2CID 40338414 a b Havens Karl E James R Thomas 2005 06 01 The Phosphorus Mass Balance of Lake Okeechobee Florida Implications for Eutrophication Management Lake and Reservoir Management 21 2 139 148 doi 10 1080 07438140509354423 ISSN 1040 2381 S2CID 84550944 Rosen Barry H Davis Timothy W Gobler Christopher J Kramer Benjamin J Loftin Keith A 2017 Cyanobacteria of the 2016 Lake Okeechobee and Okeechobee Waterway harmful algal bloom Open File Report Reston VA doi 10 3133 ofr20171054 a b c Kramer Benjamin J Davis Timothy W Meyer Kevin A Rosen Barry H Goleski Jennifer A Dick Gregory J Oh Genesok Gobler Christopher J 2018 05 23 Nitrogen limitation toxin synthesis potential and toxicity of cyanobacterial populations in Lake Okeechobee and the St Lucie River Estuary Florida during the 2016 state of emergency event PLOS ONE 13 5 e0196278 Bibcode 2018PLoSO 1396278K doi 10 1371 journal pone 0196278 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 5965861 PMID 29791446 Beaver John R Casamatta Dale A East Therese L Havens Karl E Rodusky Andrew J James R Thomas Tausz Claudia E Buccier Kristen M 2013 06 01 Extreme weather events influence the phytoplankton community structure in a large lowland subtropical lake Lake Okeechobee Florida USA Hydrobiologia 709 1 213 226 doi 10 1007 s10750 013 1451 7 ISSN 1573 5117 S2CID 17258511 Ma Pei Zhang Li Mitsch William J 2020 08 01 Investigating sources and transformations of nitrogen using dual stable isotopes for Lake Okeechobee restoration in Florida Ecological Engineering 155 105947 doi 10 1016 j ecoleng 2020 105947 ISSN 0925 8574 S2CID 225381047 References EditBoning Charles R 2007 Florida s Rivers Sarasota Florida Pineapple Press ISBN 978 1 56164 400 1 Hann John H 2003 Indians of Central and South Florida 1513 1763 Gainesville Florida University Press of Florida ISBN 0 8130 2645 8 Hanna Alfred Jackson Hanna Kathryn Abbey 1948 Lake Okeechobee Bobbs Merrill Retrieved 24 April 2011 Lodge Thomas E 2005 The Everglades Handbook Understanding the Ecosystem 2nd ed CRC Press ISBN 1 56670 614 9 External links Edit Media related to Lake Okeechobee at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Lake Okeechobee amp oldid 1145726114, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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