fbpx
Wikipedia

Universal value

March 06, 2023

A value is a universal value if it has the same value or worth for all, or almost all, people. Spheres of human value encompass morality, aesthetic preference, human traits, human endeavour, and social order. Whether universal values exist is an unproven conjecture of moral philosophy and cultural anthropology, though it is clear that certain values are found across a great diversity of human cultures, such as primary attributes of physical attractiveness (e.g. youthfulness, symmetry) whereas other attributes (e.g. slenderness) are subject to aesthetic relativism as governed by cultural norms. This objection is not limited to aesthetics. Relativism concerning morals is known as moral relativism, a philosophical stance opposed to the existence of universal moral values.

The claim for universal values can be understood in two different ways. First, it could be that something has a universal value when everybody finds it valuable. This was Isaiah Berlin's understanding of the term. According to Berlin, "...universal values....are values that a great many human beings in the vast majority of places and situations, at almost all times, do in fact hold in common, whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in their behaviour..."[1] Second, something could have universal value when all people have reason to believe it has value. Amartya Sen interprets the term in this way, pointing out that when Mahatma Gandhi argued that non-violence is a universal value, he was arguing that all people have reason to value non-violence, not that all people currently value non-violence.[2] Many different things have been claimed to be of universal value, for example, fertility,[3] pleasure,[4] and democracy.[5] The issue of whether anything is of universal value, and, if so, what that thing or those things are, is relevant to psychology, political science, and philosophy, among other fields.

Perspectives from various disciplines

Philosophy

Philosophical study of universal value addresses questions such as the meaningfulness of universal value or whether universal values exist.

Sociology

Sociological study of universal value addresses how such values are formed in a society.

Psychology and the search for universal values

See also: Theory of Basic Human Values and Moral foundations theory

S. H. Schwartz, along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out empirical research investigating whether there are universal values, and what those values are. Schwartz defined 'values' as "conceptions of the desirable that influence the way people select action and evaluate events".[6] He hypothesised that universal values would relate to three different types of human need: biological needs, social co-ordination needs, and needs related to the welfare and survival of groups. Schwartz's results from a series of studies that included surveys of more than 25,000 people in 44 countries with a wide range of different cultural types suggest that there are fifty-six specific universal values and ten types of universal value.[7] Schwartz's ten types of universal value are: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security. Below are each of the value types, with the specific related values alongside:

Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value, 'spirituality', or 'the goal of finding meaning in life', but found that it does not seem to be recognised in all cultures.[8]

Criticism

The Chinese Communist Party has listed universal value as one of seven forces that threaten the Party's power, along with Western constitutional democracy, neoliberalism, civil society, Western journalism, discussion that challenge the historical legitimacy of the Party, and questionings over China's political policies.[9][10]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Jahanbegloo 1991, p. 37
  2. ^ Sen 1999, p. 12
  3. ^ Bolin & Whelehan 1999
  4. ^ Mason 2006
  5. ^ Sen 1999
  6. ^ Schwartz & Bilsky 1987, p. 550
  7. ^ Schwartz 1994
  8. ^ Schwartz 1992
  9. ^ "Netizen Voices: University Warns Against "Universal Values," "Civil Society," and "The West's Idea of Journalism"". 10 August 2022.
  10. ^ "China Party Magazine Blasts 'Western Values' in Universities". International Business Times. 25 January 2015.

References

  • Bolin, Anne, and Patricia Whelehan (1999). Perspectives on Human Sexuality. SUNY Press.
  • Diamond, Larry Jay, and Marc F. Plattner (2001). The Global Divergence of Democracies. Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Jahanbegloo, Ramin, (1991). Conversations With Isaiah Berlin. McArthur & Co. Reprinted 2007, Halban Publishers. ISBN 1-905559-03-8, ISBN 978-1-905559-03-9
  • Mason, Elinor, (2006). 'Value pluralism'. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (Accessed 13 Nov 2007).
  • Pettit, Philip (1996). The Common Mind: An Essay on Psychology, Society, and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Schwartz, S. H. (1992). 'Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theory and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries'. In M. Zanna (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 25). New York: Academic Press: 1-65.
  • Schwartz, S. H. (1994). 'Are there Universal Aspects in the Structure and Contents of Human Values?'. Journal of Social Issues, 50 (4): 19–45.
  • Schwartz, S. H. and W. Bilsky (1987). 'Toward a Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53: 550-562.
  • Sen, Amartya (1999). 'Democracy as a Universal Value'. Journal of Democracy, 10 (3): 3-17.

External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Universal value.
  • Kofi Annan, 'Do We Still Have Universal Values'.
  • Martha Nussbaum, , Women and Human Development; The 5th Annual Hesburgh Lectures on Ethics and Public Policy. Occasional Paper Series, 16:OP:1.
  • Shalom H. Schwartz, 'Basic Human Values: An Overview'. (Accessed 6 Feb. 2016).
  • Michael J. Zimmerman, (2007). 'Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (Accessed 13 Nov 2007).

March 06, 2023
universal, value, value, universal, value, same, value, worth, almost, people, spheres, human, value, encompass, morality, aesthetic, preference, human, traits, human, endeavour, social, order, whether, universal, values, exist, unproven, conjecture, moral, ph. A value is a universal value if it has the same value or worth for all or almost all people Spheres of human value encompass morality aesthetic preference human traits human endeavour and social order Whether universal values exist is an unproven conjecture of moral philosophy and cultural anthropology though it is clear that certain values are found across a great diversity of human cultures such as primary attributes of physical attractiveness e g youthfulness symmetry whereas other attributes e g slenderness are subject to aesthetic relativism as governed by cultural norms This objection is not limited to aesthetics Relativism concerning morals is known as moral relativism a philosophical stance opposed to the existence of universal moral values The claim for universal values can be understood in two different ways First it could be that something has a universal value when everybody finds it valuable This was Isaiah Berlin s understanding of the term According to Berlin universal values are values that a great many human beings in the vast majority of places and situations at almost all times do in fact hold in common whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in their behaviour 1 Second something could have universal value when all people have reason to believe it has value Amartya Sen interprets the term in this way pointing out that when Mahatma Gandhi argued that non violence is a universal value he was arguing that all people have reason to value non violence not that all people currently value non violence 2 Many different things have been claimed to be of universal value for example fertility 3 pleasure 4 and democracy 5 The issue of whether anything is of universal value and if so what that thing or those things are is relevant to psychology political science and philosophy among other fields Contents 1 Perspectives from various disciplines 1 1 Philosophy 1 2 Sociology 1 3 Psychology and the search for universal values 2 Criticism 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External linksPerspectives from various disciplines EditPhilosophy Edit Philosophical study of universal value addresses questions such as the meaningfulness of universal value or whether universal values exist Sociology Edit Sociological study of universal value addresses how such values are formed in a society Psychology and the search for universal values Edit See also Theory of Basic Human Values and Moral foundations theory S H Schwartz along with a number of psychology colleagues has carried out empirical research investigating whether there are universal values and what those values are Schwartz defined values as conceptions of the desirable that influence the way people select action and evaluate events 6 He hypothesised that universal values would relate to three different types of human need biological needs social co ordination needs and needs related to the welfare and survival of groups Schwartz s results from a series of studies that included surveys of more than 25 000 people in 44 countries with a wide range of different cultural types suggest that there are fifty six specific universal values and ten types of universal value 7 Schwartz s ten types of universal value are power achievement hedonism stimulation self direction universalism benevolence tradition conformity and security Below are each of the value types with the specific related values alongside Power authority leadership dominance social power wealth Achievement success capability ambition influence intelligence self respect Hedonism pleasure enjoying life Stimulation daring activities varied life exciting life Self direction creativity freedom independence curiosity choosing your own goals Universalism broadmindedness wisdom social justice equality a world at peace a world of beauty unity with nature protecting the environment inner harmony Benevolence helpfulness honesty forgiveness loyalty responsibility friendship Tradition accepting one s portion in life humility devoutness respect for tradition moderation Conformity self discipline obedience Security cleanliness family security national security stability of social order reciprocation of favours health sense of belongingSchwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value spirituality or the goal of finding meaning in life but found that it does not seem to be recognised in all cultures 8 Criticism EditThe Chinese Communist Party has listed universal value as one of seven forces that threaten the Party s power along with Western constitutional democracy neoliberalism civil society Western journalism discussion that challenge the historical legitimacy of the Party and questionings over China s political policies 9 10 See also EditValue system Cultural universal Human rights Moral hierarchy Moral universalismNotes Edit Jahanbegloo 1991 p 37 Sen 1999 p 12 Bolin amp Whelehan 1999 Mason 2006 Sen 1999 Schwartz amp Bilsky 1987 p 550 Schwartz 1994 Schwartz 1992 Netizen Voices University Warns Against Universal Values Civil Society and The West s Idea of Journalism 10 August 2022 China Party Magazine Blasts Western Values in Universities International Business Times 25 January 2015 References EditBolin Anne and Patricia Whelehan 1999 Perspectives on Human Sexuality SUNY Press Diamond Larry Jay and Marc F Plattner 2001 The Global Divergence of Democracies Johns Hopkins University Press Jahanbegloo Ramin 1991 Conversations With Isaiah Berlin McArthur amp Co Reprinted 2007 Halban Publishers ISBN 1 905559 03 8 ISBN 978 1 905559 03 9 Mason Elinor 2006 Value pluralism In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Accessed 13 Nov 2007 Pettit Philip 1996 The Common Mind An Essay on Psychology Society and Politics New York Oxford University Press Schwartz S H 1992 Universals in the Content and Structure of Values Theory and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries In M Zanna ed Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Vol 25 New York Academic Press 1 65 Schwartz S H 1994 Are there Universal Aspects in the Structure and Contents of Human Values Journal of Social Issues 50 4 19 45 Schwartz S H and W Bilsky 1987 Toward a Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53 550 562 Sen Amartya 1999 Democracy as a Universal Value Journal of Democracy 10 3 3 17 External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Universal value Kofi Annan Do We Still Have Universal Values Martha Nussbaum 1999 In Defense of Universal Values Women and Human Development The 5th Annual Hesburgh Lectures on Ethics and Public Policy Occasional Paper Series 16 OP 1 Shalom H Schwartz Basic Human Values An Overview Accessed 6 Feb 2016 Michael J Zimmerman 2007 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Value Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Accessed 13 Nov 2007 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Universal value amp oldid 1106784721, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.