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Nematomorpha

February 15, 2024

Nematomorpha (sometimes called Gordiacea, and commonly known as horsehair worms, hairsnakes,[1][2][3] or Gordian worms) are a phylum of parasitoid animals superficially similar to nematode worms in morphology, hence the name. Most species range in size from 50 to 100 millimetres (2.0 to 3.9 in), reaching 2 metres (79 in) in extreme cases, and 1 to 3 millimetres (0.039 to 0.118 in) in diameter. Horsehair worms can be discovered in damp areas, such as watering troughs, swimming pools, streams, puddles, and cisterns. The adult worms are free-living, but the larvae are parasitic on arthropods, such as beetles, cockroaches, mantises, orthopterans, and crustaceans.[4] About 351 freshwater species are known[5] and a conservative estimate suggests that there may be about 2000 freshwater species worldwide.[6] The name "Gordian" stems from the legendary Gordian knot. This relates to the fact that nematomorphs often coil themselves in tight balls that resemble knots.[7]

Nematomorpha
Temporal range: Cenomanian–Recent Possible Atdabanian Record
Paragordius tricuspidatus
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Clade: ParaHoxozoa
Clade: Bilateria
Clade: Nephrozoa
(unranked): Protostomia
Superphylum: Ecdysozoa
Clade: Nematoida
Phylum: Nematomorpha
Vejdovsky, 1886
Orders and families

Description and biology edit

Nematomorphs possess an external cuticle without cilia. Internally, they have only longitudinal muscle and a non-functional gut, with no excretory, respiratory or circulatory systems. The nervous system consists of a nerve ring near the anterior end of the animal, and a ventral nerve cord running along the body.[8]

Reproductively, they have two distinct sexes, with the internal fertilization of eggs that are then laid in gelatinous strings. Adults have cylindrical gonads, opening into the cloaca. The larvae have rings of cuticular hooks and terminal stylets that are believed to be used to enter the hosts. Once inside the host, the larvae live inside the haemocoel and absorb nutrients directly through their skin. Development into the adult form takes weeks or months, and the larva moults several times as it grows in size.[8]

The adults are mostly free-living in freshwater or marine environments, and males and females aggregate into tight balls (Gordian knots) during mating.[9][10]

 
Spinochordodes tellinii and its Meconema host

In Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus, which have grasshoppers and crickets as their hosts, the infection acts on the infected host's brain.[11] This causes the host insect to seek water and drown itself, thus returning the nematomorph to water.[9] P. tricuspidatus is also remarkably able to survive the predation of their host, being able to wiggle out of the predator that has eaten the host.[12] The nematomorpha parasite affects host Hierodula patellifera's light-interpreting organs so the host is attracted to horizontally polarized light. Thus the host goes into water and the parasite's lifecycle completes.[13] Many of the genes the parasites use for manipulating their host have been acquired through horizontal gene transfer from the host genome.[14]

There are a few cases of accidental parasitism in vertebrate hosts, including dogs[15] and humans. Several cases involving Parachordodes, Paragordius, or Gordius have been recorded in human hosts in Japan and China.[16][17]

Community ecology edit

 
Horsehair worm in Germany 2021

Owing to their use of orthopterans as hosts, nematomorphs can be significant factors in shaping community ecology. One study conducted in a Japanese riparian ecosystem showed that nematomorphs can cause orthopterans to become 20 times more likely to enter water than non-infected orthopterans; these orthopterans constituted up to 60% of the annual energy intake for the Kirikuchi char. Absence of nematomorphs from riparian communities can thus lead to char predating more heavily on other aquatic invertebrates, potentially causing more widespread physiological effects.[18]

Taxonomy edit

See also: List of bilaterial animal orders

Nematomorphs can be confused with nematodes, particularly mermithid worms. Unlike nematomorphs, mermithids do not have a terminal cloaca. Male mermithids have one or two spicules just before the end apart from having a thinner, smoother cuticle, without areoles and a paler brown colour.[19]

The phylum is placed along with the Ecdysozoa clade of moulting organisms that include the Arthropoda. Their closest relatives are the nematodes. The two phyla make up the group Nematoida in the clade Cycloneuralia. During the larval stage, the animals show a resemblance to adult kinorhyncha and some species of Loricifera and Priapulida, all members of the group Scalidophora.[20] The earliest Nematomorph could be Maotianshania, from the Lower Cambrian; this organism is, however, very different from extant species;[21] fossilized worms resembling the modern forms have been reported from mid Cretaceous Burmese amber dated to 100 million years ago.[22]

Relationships within the phylum are still somewhat unclear, but two classes are recognised. The five marine species of nematomorph are contained in Nectonematoida.[23] This order is monotypic containing the genus Nectonema Verrill, 1879: adults are planktonic and the larvae parasitise decapod crustaceans, especially crabs.[23] They are characterized by a double row of natotory setae along each side of the body, dorsal and ventral longitudinal epidermal cords, a spacious and fluid-filled blastocoelom and singular gonads.

The approximately 320 remaining species are distributed between two families,[24] within the monotypic class Gordioida. Gordioidean adults are free-living in freshwater or semiterrestrial habitats and larvae parasitise insects, primarily orthopterans.[23] Unlike nectonematiodeans, gordioideans lack lateral rows of setae, have a single, ventral epidermal cord and their blastocoels are filled with mesenchyme in young animals but become spacious in older individuals.

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ Heston, Joshua. "Horse Hair Snake". State of the Ozarks. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
  2. ^ Troxell, W.H. (30 January 1903). "Erroneous Beliefs" (PDF). Emmitsburg Chronicle. No. 37. (PDF) from the original on 2021-05-09. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
  3. ^ Ningewance, Pat (8–10 August 1996). "Naasaab Izhi-anishinaabebii'igeng conference report: a conference to find a common Anishinaabemowin writing system" (PDF). Toronto, Ontario: Literacy Ontario. p. 27. (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-22. Girls, don't swim without pants or a hairsnake will enter you.
  4. ^ Hanelt, B, F. Thomas, and A. Schmidt-Rhaesa (2005). "Biology of the phylum Nematomorpha". Advances in Parasitology Volume 59. Vol. 59. pp. 244–305. doi:10.1016/S0065-308X(05)59004-3. ISBN 9780120317592. PMID 16182867. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Zhang, Z.-Q. (2011). "Animal biodiversity: An introduction to higher-level classification and taxonomic richness" (PDF). Zootaxa. 3148: 7–12. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3148.1.3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-10.
  6. ^ Poinar Jr., G (January 2008). "Global diversity of hairworms (Nematomorpha: Gordiaceae) in freshwater". Hydrobiologia. 595 (1): 79–83. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9112-3. S2CID 37985613.
  7. ^ Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.
  8. ^ a b Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 307–308. ISBN 978-0-03-056747-6.
  9. ^ a b Thomas, F.; Schmidt-Rhaesa, A.; Martin, G.; Manu, C.; Durand, P.; Renaud, F. (May 2002). (PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 15 (3): 356–361. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.485.9002. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00410.x. S2CID 86278524. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. — according to Thomas et al., the "infected insects may first display an erratic behaviour which brings them sooner or later close to a stream and then a behavioural change that makes them enter the water", rather than seeking out water over long distances.
  10. ^ Schmidt-Rhaesa, Andreas (2002). "Two Dimensions of Biodiversity Research Exemplified by Nematomorpha and Gastrotricha". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 42 (3): 633–640. doi:10.1093/icb/42.3.633. PMID 21708759.
  11. ^ Thomas, F.; et al. (2003). "Biochemical and histological changes in the brain of the cricket Nemobius sylvestris infected by a manipulative parasite Paragordius tricuspudatus (Nematomorpha)". International Journal for Parasitology. 33 (4): 435–443. doi:10.1016/S0020-7519(03)00014-6. PMID 12705936.
  12. ^ Ponton, Fleur; Camille Lebarbenchon; Thierry Lefèvre; David G. Biron; David Duneau; David P. Hughes; Frédéric Thomas (April 2006). "Parasitology: Parasite survives predation on its host" (PDF). Nature. 440 (7085): 756. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..756P. doi:10.1038/440756a. PMID 16598248. S2CID 7777607.
  13. ^ "Parasites manipulate praying mantis's polarized-light perception, causing it to jump into water". phys.org. Retrieved 2021-07-04.
  14. ^ This Parasitic Worm ‘Steals’ Genes From Its Unsuspecting Host
  15. ^ Hong, Eui-Ju; Sim, Cheolho; Chae, Joon-Seok; Kim, Hyeon-Cheol; Park, Jinho; Choi, Kyoung-Seong; Yu, Do-Hyeon; Yoo, Jae-Gyu; Park, Bae-Keun (2015). "A Horsehair Worm, Gordius sp. (Nematomorpha: Gordiida), Passed in a Canine Feces". The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 53 (6): 719–24. doi:10.3347/kjp.2015.53.6.719. PMC 4725239. PMID 26797439.
  16. ^ Yamada, Minoru; Tegoshi, Tatsuya; Abe, Niichiro; Urabe, Misako (2012). "Two Human Cases Infected by the Horsehair Worm, Parachordodes sp. (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae), in Japan and America". The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 50 (3): 263–7. doi:10.3347/kjp.2012.50.3.263. PMC 3428576. PMID 22949758.
  17. ^ Saito, Y; Inoue, I; Hayashi, F; Itagaki, H (1987). "A hairworm, Gordius sp., vomited by a domestic cat". Nihon Juigaku Zasshi. The Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science. 49 (6): 1035–7. doi:10.1292/jvms1939.49.1035. PMID 3430914.
  18. ^ Sato, Takuya; Watanabe, Katsutoshi; Kanaiwa, Minoru; Niizuma, Yasuaki; Harada, Yasushi; Lafferty, Kevin D. (2011). "Nematomorph parasites drive energy flow through a riparian ecosystem". Ecology. 92 (1): 201–207. doi:10.1890/09-1565.1. hdl:2433/139443. ISSN 1939-9170. PMID 21560690. S2CID 20274754.
  19. ^ Malcolm S. Bryant, Robert D. Adlard & Lester R.G. Cannon 2006. Gordian Worms: Factsheet. Queensland Museum. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-22. Retrieved 2008-03-10.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  20. ^ Nematomorpha – Bumblebees
  21. ^ Sun, W.; Hou, X. (1987). "Early Cambrian worms from Chengjiang, Yunnan, China: Maotianshania gen. nov" (Paywall). Acta Palaeontologica Sinica. 26 (3): 299–305.
  22. ^ Poinar George; Ron Buckley (September 2006). "Nematode (Nematoda: Mermithidae) and hairworm (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae) parasites in Early Cretaceous amber". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 93 (1): 36–41. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2006.04.006. PMID 16737709.
  23. ^ a b c Pechenik, 'Biology of the Invertebrates, 2010, pg 457.
  24. ^ "Gordioidea". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.

General and cited references edit

  • Pechenik, Jan A. (2010). "Four Phyla of Likely Nematode Relatives". Biology of the Invertebrates (6th International ed.). Singapore: Mc-Graw Hill Education (Asia). pp. 452–457. ISBN 978-0-07-127041-0.

Further reading edit

  • Baker GL, Capinera JL (1997). "Nematodes and nematomorphs as control agents of grasshoppers and locusts". Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada. 171: 157–211. doi:10.4039/entm129171157-1.
  • Hanelt B, Thomas F, Schmidt-Rhaesa A (2005). "Biology of the phylum Nematomorpha". Advances in Parasitology Volume 59. Vol. 59. pp. 244–305. doi:10.1016/S0065-308X(05)59004-3. ISBN 9780120317592. PMID 16182867. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  • Poinar GO Jr (1991). "Nematoda and Nematomorpha". In Thorp JH, Covich AP (eds.). Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 249–283.
  • Thorne G (1940). "The hairworm, Gordius robustus Leidy, as a parasite of the Mormon cricket, Anabrus simplex Haldeman". Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 30: 219–231.

External links edit

 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Nematomorpha".
  • Capinera, J. L. Horsehair Worms, Hairworms, Gordian Worms, Nematomorphs, Gordius spp. (Nematomorpha: Gordioidea). University of Florida IFAS. Published 1999, revised 2005.
  • Nematomorph worm – Behavior modification of cricket by nematomorph worm. YouTube.
  • Gordian worms discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week, 6 November 2015

February 15, 2024
nematomorpha, sometimes, called, gordiacea, commonly, known, horsehair, worms, hairsnakes, gordian, worms, phylum, parasitoid, animals, superficially, similar, nematode, worms, morphology, hence, name, most, species, range, size, from, millimetres, reaching, m. Nematomorpha sometimes called Gordiacea and commonly known as horsehair worms hairsnakes 1 2 3 or Gordian worms are a phylum of parasitoid animals superficially similar to nematode worms in morphology hence the name Most species range in size from 50 to 100 millimetres 2 0 to 3 9 in reaching 2 metres 79 in in extreme cases and 1 to 3 millimetres 0 039 to 0 118 in in diameter Horsehair worms can be discovered in damp areas such as watering troughs swimming pools streams puddles and cisterns The adult worms are free living but the larvae are parasitic on arthropods such as beetles cockroaches mantises orthopterans and crustaceans 4 About 351 freshwater species are known 5 and a conservative estimate suggests that there may be about 2000 freshwater species worldwide 6 The name Gordian stems from the legendary Gordian knot This relates to the fact that nematomorphs often coil themselves in tight balls that resemble knots 7 NematomorphaTemporal range Cenomanian Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Possible Atdabanian RecordParagordius tricuspidatusScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaSubkingdom EumetazoaClade ParaHoxozoaClade BilateriaClade Nephrozoa unranked ProtostomiaSuperphylum EcdysozoaClade NematoidaPhylum NematomorphaVejdovsky 1886Orders and familiesGordioidea Rauther 1930 Chordodidae May 1919 Gordiidae May 1919 Nectonematoidea Rauther 1930 Nectonemidae Ward 1892 Contents 1 Description and biology 2 Community ecology 3 Taxonomy 4 References 4 1 Citations 4 2 General and cited references 5 Further reading 6 External linksDescription and biology editNematomorphs possess an external cuticle without cilia Internally they have only longitudinal muscle and a non functional gut with no excretory respiratory or circulatory systems The nervous system consists of a nerve ring near the anterior end of the animal and a ventral nerve cord running along the body 8 Reproductively they have two distinct sexes with the internal fertilization of eggs that are then laid in gelatinous strings Adults have cylindrical gonads opening into the cloaca The larvae have rings of cuticular hooks and terminal stylets that are believed to be used to enter the hosts Once inside the host the larvae live inside the haemocoel and absorb nutrients directly through their skin Development into the adult form takes weeks or months and the larva moults several times as it grows in size 8 The adults are mostly free living in freshwater or marine environments and males and females aggregate into tight balls Gordian knots during mating 9 10 nbsp Spinochordodes tellinii and its Meconema hostIn Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus which have grasshoppers and crickets as their hosts the infection acts on the infected host s brain 11 This causes the host insect to seek water and drown itself thus returning the nematomorph to water 9 P tricuspidatus is also remarkably able to survive the predation of their host being able to wiggle out of the predator that has eaten the host 12 The nematomorpha parasite affects host Hierodula patellifera s light interpreting organs so the host is attracted to horizontally polarized light Thus the host goes into water and the parasite s lifecycle completes 13 Many of the genes the parasites use for manipulating their host have been acquired through horizontal gene transfer from the host genome 14 There are a few cases of accidental parasitism in vertebrate hosts including dogs 15 and humans Several cases involving Parachordodes Paragordius or Gordius have been recorded in human hosts in Japan and China 16 17 Community ecology edit nbsp Horsehair worm in Germany 2021Owing to their use of orthopterans as hosts nematomorphs can be significant factors in shaping community ecology One study conducted in a Japanese riparian ecosystem showed that nematomorphs can cause orthopterans to become 20 times more likely to enter water than non infected orthopterans these orthopterans constituted up to 60 of the annual energy intake for the Kirikuchi char Absence of nematomorphs from riparian communities can thus lead to char predating more heavily on other aquatic invertebrates potentially causing more widespread physiological effects 18 Taxonomy editSee also List of bilaterial animal orders Nematomorphs can be confused with nematodes particularly mermithid worms Unlike nematomorphs mermithids do not have a terminal cloaca Male mermithids have one or two spicules just before the end apart from having a thinner smoother cuticle without areoles and a paler brown colour 19 The phylum is placed along with the Ecdysozoa clade of moulting organisms that include the Arthropoda Their closest relatives are the nematodes The two phyla make up the group Nematoida in the clade Cycloneuralia During the larval stage the animals show a resemblance to adult kinorhyncha and some species of Loricifera and Priapulida all members of the group Scalidophora 20 The earliest Nematomorph could be Maotianshania from the Lower Cambrian this organism is however very different from extant species 21 fossilized worms resembling the modern forms have been reported from mid Cretaceous Burmese amber dated to 100 million years ago 22 Relationships within the phylum are still somewhat unclear but two classes are recognised The five marine species of nematomorph are contained in Nectonematoida 23 This order is monotypic containing the genus Nectonema Verrill 1879 adults are planktonic and the larvae parasitise decapod crustaceans especially crabs 23 They are characterized by a double row of natotory setae along each side of the body dorsal and ventral longitudinal epidermal cords a spacious and fluid filled blastocoelom and singular gonads The approximately 320 remaining species are distributed between two families 24 within the monotypic class Gordioida Gordioidean adults are free living in freshwater or semiterrestrial habitats and larvae parasitise insects primarily orthopterans 23 Unlike nectonematiodeans gordioideans lack lateral rows of setae have a single ventral epidermal cord and their blastocoels are filled with mesenchyme in young animals but become spacious in older individuals References editCitations edit Heston Joshua Horse Hair Snake State of the Ozarks Retrieved 1 January 2021 Troxell W H 30 January 1903 Erroneous Beliefs PDF Emmitsburg Chronicle No 37 Archived PDF from the original on 2021 05 09 Retrieved 1 January 2021 Ningewance Pat 8 10 August 1996 Naasaab Izhi anishinaabebii igeng conference report a conference to find a common Anishinaabemowin writing system PDF Toronto Ontario Literacy Ontario p 27 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 10 22 Girls don t swim without pants or a hairsnake will enter you Hanelt B F Thomas and A Schmidt Rhaesa 2005 Biology of the phylum Nematomorpha Advances in Parasitology Volume 59 Vol 59 pp 244 305 doi 10 1016 S0065 308X 05 59004 3 ISBN 9780120317592 PMID 16182867 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Zhang Z Q 2011 Animal biodiversity An introduction to higher level classification and taxonomic richness PDF Zootaxa 3148 7 12 doi 10 11646 zootaxa 3148 1 3 Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 10 Poinar Jr G January 2008 Global diversity of hairworms Nematomorpha Gordiaceae in freshwater Hydrobiologia 595 1 79 83 doi 10 1007 s10750 007 9112 3 S2CID 37985613 Piper Ross 2007 Extraordinary Animals An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals Greenwood Press a b Barnes Robert D 1982 Invertebrate Zoology Philadelphia PA Holt Saunders International pp 307 308 ISBN 978 0 03 056747 6 a b Thomas F Schmidt Rhaesa A Martin G Manu C Durand P Renaud F May 2002 Do hairworms Nematomorpha manipulate the water seeking behaviour of their terrestrial hosts PDF Journal of Evolutionary Biology 15 3 356 361 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 485 9002 doi 10 1046 j 1420 9101 2002 00410 x S2CID 86278524 Archived from the original PDF on 2015 09 24 according to Thomas et al the infected insects may first display an erratic behaviour which brings them sooner or later close to a stream and then a behavioural change that makes them enter the water rather than seeking out water over long distances Schmidt Rhaesa Andreas 2002 Two Dimensions of Biodiversity Research Exemplified by Nematomorpha and Gastrotricha Integrative and Comparative Biology 42 3 633 640 doi 10 1093 icb 42 3 633 PMID 21708759 Thomas F et al 2003 Biochemical and histological changes in the brain of the cricket Nemobius sylvestris infected by a manipulative parasite Paragordius tricuspudatus Nematomorpha International Journal for Parasitology 33 4 435 443 doi 10 1016 S0020 7519 03 00014 6 PMID 12705936 Ponton Fleur Camille Lebarbenchon Thierry Lefevre David G Biron David Duneau David P Hughes Frederic Thomas April 2006 Parasitology Parasite survives predation on its host PDF Nature 440 7085 756 Bibcode 2006Natur 440 756P doi 10 1038 440756a PMID 16598248 S2CID 7777607 Parasites manipulate praying mantis s polarized light perception causing it to jump into water phys org Retrieved 2021 07 04 This Parasitic Worm Steals Genes From Its Unsuspecting Host Hong Eui Ju Sim Cheolho Chae Joon Seok Kim Hyeon Cheol Park Jinho Choi Kyoung Seong Yu Do Hyeon Yoo Jae Gyu Park Bae Keun 2015 A Horsehair Worm Gordius sp Nematomorpha Gordiida Passed in a Canine Feces The Korean Journal of Parasitology 53 6 719 24 doi 10 3347 kjp 2015 53 6 719 PMC 4725239 PMID 26797439 Yamada Minoru Tegoshi Tatsuya Abe Niichiro Urabe Misako 2012 Two Human Cases Infected by the Horsehair Worm Parachordodes sp Nematomorpha Chordodidae in Japan and America The Korean Journal of Parasitology 50 3 263 7 doi 10 3347 kjp 2012 50 3 263 PMC 3428576 PMID 22949758 Saito Y Inoue I Hayashi F Itagaki H 1987 A hairworm Gordius sp vomited by a domestic cat Nihon Juigaku Zasshi The Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science 49 6 1035 7 doi 10 1292 jvms1939 49 1035 PMID 3430914 Sato Takuya Watanabe Katsutoshi Kanaiwa Minoru Niizuma Yasuaki Harada Yasushi Lafferty Kevin D 2011 Nematomorph parasites drive energy flow through a riparian ecosystem Ecology 92 1 201 207 doi 10 1890 09 1565 1 hdl 2433 139443 ISSN 1939 9170 PMID 21560690 S2CID 20274754 Malcolm S Bryant Robert D Adlard amp Lester R G Cannon 2006 Gordian Worms Factsheet Queensland Museum Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2008 07 22 Retrieved 2008 03 10 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Nematomorpha Bumblebees Sun W Hou X 1987 Early Cambrian worms from Chengjiang Yunnan China Maotianshania gen nov Paywall Acta Palaeontologica Sinica 26 3 299 305 Poinar George Ron Buckley September 2006 Nematode Nematoda Mermithidae and hairworm Nematomorpha Chordodidae parasites in Early Cretaceous amber Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 93 1 36 41 doi 10 1016 j jip 2006 04 006 PMID 16737709 a b c Pechenik Biology of the Invertebrates 2010 pg 457 Gordioidea Integrated Taxonomic Information System General and cited references edit Pechenik Jan A 2010 Four Phyla of Likely Nematode Relatives Biology of the Invertebrates 6th International ed Singapore Mc Graw Hill Education Asia pp 452 457 ISBN 978 0 07 127041 0 Further reading editBaker GL Capinera JL 1997 Nematodes and nematomorphs as control agents of grasshoppers and locusts Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 171 157 211 doi 10 4039 entm129171157 1 Hanelt B Thomas F Schmidt Rhaesa A 2005 Biology of the phylum Nematomorpha Advances in Parasitology Volume 59 Vol 59 pp 244 305 doi 10 1016 S0065 308X 05 59004 3 ISBN 9780120317592 PMID 16182867 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help Poinar GO Jr 1991 Nematoda and Nematomorpha In Thorp JH Covich AP eds Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates San Diego CA Academic Press pp 249 283 Thorne G 1940 The hairworm Gordius robustus Leidy as a parasite of the Mormon cricket Anabrus simplex Haldeman Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 30 219 231 External links edit nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Nematomorpha Capinera J L Horsehair Worms Hairworms Gordian Worms Nematomorphs Gordius spp Nematomorpha Gordioidea University of Florida IFAS Published 1999 revised 2005 Nematomorph worm Behavior modification of cricket by nematomorph worm YouTube Gordian worms discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week 6 November 2015 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Nematomorpha amp oldid 1189509246, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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