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NeXT

March 28, 2023

This article is about the technology company. For other uses, see Next.

NeXT, Inc. (later NeXT Computer, Inc. and NeXT Software, Inc.) was an American technology company that specialized in computer workstations intended for higher education and business use. Based in Redwood City, California, and founded by Apple Computer co-founder and CEO Steve Jobs after he was forced out of Apple, the company introduced their first product, the NeXT Computer, in 1988, and then the smaller NeXTcube and NeXTstation in 1990. These computers had relatively limited sales, with only about 50,000 units shipped in total. Nevertheless, their object-oriented programming and graphical user interfaces were trendsetters of computer innovation, and highly influential.

NeXT, Inc.
Logo, designed by Paul Rand
TypePrivate
Industry
Founded1985; 38 years ago (1985)
FounderSteve Jobs
Defunct1996; 27 years ago (1996)
FateMerged into Apple Computer
SuccessorApple Computer
Headquarters
Redwood City, California
,
U.S.
Key people
Products
List
Number of employees
530 (1993)
Website (archived)

NeXT partnered with Sun Microsystems to create a programming environment called OpenStep, which was the NeXTSTEP operating system's application layer hosted on a third-party operating system. In 1993, NeXT withdrew from the hardware industry to concentrate on marketing OPENSTEP for Mach, its own OpenStep implementation, for several other computer vendors. NeXT also developed WebObjects, one of the first enterprise web application frameworks, and although its market appeal was limited by its high $50,000 price, it is a prominent early example of a web server that is based on dynamic page generation rather than static content.

Apple purchased NeXT in 1997 for $400 million, which included 1.5 million shares of Apple stock, and Jobs, the chairman and CEO of NeXT, was given an advisory role at Apple. Apple also promised that NeXT's operating system would be ported to Macintosh hardware, and combined with the classic Mac OS operating system, which would yield Mac OS X, later called macOS.

History

Background

In 1985, Apple co-founder and CEO Steve Jobs led a division campaign called SuperMicro, which was responsible for developing the Macintosh and Lisa computers. They were commercial successes on university campuses because Jobs had personally visited a few notable universities to promote his products, and also because of Apple University Consortium, a marketing program that allowed academics to buy them at a discount.[1]: 56, 67, 72  The Consortium had earned over $50 million on computer sales by February 1984.[2]

Jobs met Paul Berg, a Nobel Laureate in chemistry, at a luncheon held in Silicon Valley to honor President of France François Mitterrand.[3]: 72 [4] Berg was frustrated by the time and expense of researching recombinant DNA via wet laboratories, and suggested that Jobs should use his influence to create a "3M computer" that is designed for higher education use.[5][6]

Jobs was intrigued by Berg's concept of a workstation and contemplated starting a higher-education computer company in late 1985, amid increasing turmoil at Apple. Jobs's division did not release the upgraded versions of the Macintosh computer and much of the Macintosh Office software.[7] As a result, its sales plummeted,[8]: 193  and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory.[8]: 227  In 1985, John Sculley ousted Jobs from his executive role at Apple and replaced him with Jean-Louis Gassée.[8]: 291  Later that year, Jobs began a power struggle to regain control over his company. The board of directors sided with Sculley, and Jobs took a business trip to Western Europe and the Soviet Union on behalf of Apple.[9]

Original NeXT team

 
Steve Jobs, founder of NeXT

In September 1985, after several months of being sidelined, Jobs resigned from Apple.[10] He told the board he was leaving to set up a new computer company, and that he would be taking several Apple employees from the SuperMicro division with him, but he also promised that his new company would not compete with Apple and might even consider licensing their designs to them under the Macintosh brand.[11]

A number of former Apple employees followed him to NeXT, including Joanna Hoffman, Bud Tribble, George Crow, Rich Page, Susan Barnes, Susan Kare, and Dan'l Lewin.[12] After consulting with major educational buyers from around the country, including a follow-up meeting with Paul Berg, a tentative specification for the workstation was drawn up. It was designed to be powerful enough to run wet-lab simulations and affordable enough for college students to use in their dormitory rooms.[13] Before the specifications were finished, however, Apple sued NeXT on September 23, 1985, for "nefarious schemes" to take advantage of the cofounders' insider information.[3]: 75 [13]: 44 [12] Jobs argued, "It is hard to think that a $2 billion company with 4,300-plus people couldn't compete with six people in blue jeans."[14]: 207  The suit was eventually dismissed before trial.[3]: 75 

In 1986, Jobs recruited the graphic designer Paul Rand to create a brand identity for US$100,000 (equivalent to $247,210 in 2021).[15] Jobs recalled, "I asked him if he would come up with a few options, and he said, 'No, I will solve your problem for you and you will pay me. You don't have to use the solution. If you want options go talk to other people.'"[16] Rand created a 20-page brochure detailing the brand, including the precise angle used for the logo (28°) and a new company name spelling, NeXT.[15]

1987–1993: NeXT Computer

First generation

 
This NeXT Computer was used by Computer Scientist Tim Berners-Lee at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) to create the world's first web server.

I want some kid at Stanford to be able to cure cancer in his dorm room.

Jobs, on the purpose of the NeXT Computer[17]

In mid-1986, NeXT changed its business plan to develop both computer hardware and software, rather than just workstations. Rich Page, a NeXT cofounder who formerly directed Apple Lisa's team, led a team to develop the hardware, while Mach kernel engineer Avie Tevanian led the development of NeXT's operating system, NeXTSTEP. NeXT's first factory was established in Fremont, California in 1987, and it was capable of manufacturing about 150,000 machines per year.[3]: 72  NeXT's first workstation was named the NeXT Computer. It was also nicknamed as "the cube"[18] due to its distinctive magnesium one-foot (30 cm) cubic case. The case was designed by Hartmut Esslinger and his team at Frog Design.[19][20]

In 1987, Ross Perot became NeXT's first major outside-investor. He invested $20 million for 16% of NeXT's stock after seeing a segment about NeXT on a 1986 PBS documentary titled Entrepreneurs.[12] In 1988, he joined the company's board of directors.[21][22]

NeXT and Adobe collaborated on Display PostScript (DPS), a 2D graphics engine that was released in 1987. NeXT engineers wrote an alternative windowing engine edition to take full advantage of NeXTSTEP. NeXT engineers used Display PostScript to draw on-screen graphic designs such as title-bar and scroller for NeXTSTEP's user-space windowing system library.[23]

The original design team anticipated to complete the computer in early 1987 and launch it for US$3,000 by mid-year.[24] On October 12, 1988, the NeXT Computer received standing ovations when it was revealed at a private gala event, "NeXT Introduction – the Introduction to the NeXT Generation of Computers for Education" at the Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco, California. The following day, selected educators and software engineers were invited to attend the first public technical overview of the NeXT computer at the event "The NeXT Day" held at the San Francisco Hilton. The event gave developers interested in NeXT software an insight into their architecture, object-oriented programming, and the NeXT Computer. The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs.[25]

The first NeXT Computers were experimented in 1989, after which NeXT sold a limited number of these devices to universities with a beta version of the NeXTSTEP operating system pre-installed. Initially, the NeXT Computer targeted the United States higher-education institutions only, with a base price of US$6,500 (equivalent to $14,209 in 2021).[18] The computer was widely reviewed in magazines, primarily the hardware portion. When asked if he was upset that the computer's debut was delayed by several months, Jobs responded, "Late? This computer is five years ahead of its time!"[26]

The NeXT Computer was based on the 25 MHz Motorola 68030 central processing unit (CPU). The Motorola 88000 RISC chip was originally considered, but it was not available in sufficient quantities.[27] The computer included between 8 and 64 MB of random-access memory (RAM), a 256 MB magneto-optical (MO) drive, a 40 MB (swap-only), 330 MB, or 660 MB hard disk drive, 10BASE2 Ethernet, NuBus, and a 17-inch MegaPixel grayscale display measuring 1120 by 832 pixels. In 1989, a typical new PC, Macintosh, or Amiga computer included a few megabytes of RAM, a 640×480 16-color or a 320x240 4,096-color display, a 10- to 20-megabyte hard drive, and few networking capabilities.[28][29] It was the first computer to ship with a general-purpose DSP chip (Motorola 56001) on the motherboard. This supported sophisticated music and sound processing, including the Music Kit software.[30]

The magneto-optical (MO) drive manufactured by Canon Inc. was the primary mass storage device. This drive technology was relatively new to the market, and the NeXT was the first computer to use it.[31] MO drives were cheaper but much slower than hard drives, with an average seek time of 96 ms; Jobs negotiated Canon's initial price of $150 per blank MO disk so that they could sell at retail for only $50. The disk drive's design made it impossible to move files between computers without a network, because each NeXT Computer has only one MO drive and the disk could not be removed without shutting down the system.[31] The drive's limited speed and capacity made it insufficient as the primary medium running the NeXTSTEP operating system.[31]

In 1989, NeXT struck a deal for former Compaq reseller Businessland to sell the NeXT Computer in international markets. Selling through a retailer was a major change from NeXT's original business model of only selling directly to students and educational institutions.[32] Businessland founder David Norman predicted that sales of the NeXT Computer would surpass sales of Compaq computers after 12 months.[33]

That same year, Canon invested US$100 million in NeXT, for a 16.67 percent stake,[34] making NeXT worth almost $600 million. Canon invested in NeXT with the condition of installing the NeXTSTEP environment on its own workstations, which would mean a greatly expanded market for the software. After NeXT exited the hardware business, Canon produced a line of PCs called object.station—including models 31, 41, 50, and 52—specifically designed to run NeXTSTEP on Intel chips.[35] Canon also served as NeXT's distributor in Japan.[36]

The NeXT Computer was released in 1990 for US$9,999 (equivalent to $20,739 in 2021). In June 1991, Perot resigned from the board of directors to concentrate more time in his company, Perot Systems, a Plano, Texas–based software system integrator.[37]

Second generation

 
A NeXT monitor and a NeXTcube
 
Mainboard of the NeXTcube (1990) with Motorola 68040 at the lower edge. To the right are the interfaces, to the left the system bus. In the enlarged version of the image, most chips and connectors are described.

In 1990, NeXT released a second generation of workstations: a revised NeXT Computer NeXTcube and the NeXTstation. The NeXTstation was nicknamed "the slab" for its low-rise box form-factor. Jobs ensured that NeXT staffers did not nickname the NeXTstation "pizza box" to avoid inadvertent comparison with competitor Sun workstations, which already had that nickname.

The machines were initially planned to use the 2.88 MB floppy drive, but the 2.88 MB floppy disks were expensive, and its technology failed to supplant the 1.44 MB floppy. Realizing this, NeXT used the CD-ROM drive instead, which would eventually become the standard for storage. Color graphics were available on the NeXTstation Color and NeXTdimension graphics processor hardware for the NeXTcube. The new computers, with the new Motorola 68040 processor, were cheaper and faster than their predecessors.[38][39]

In 1992, NeXT launched "Turbo" variants of the NeXTcube and NeXTstation, with a 33 MHz 68040 processor and the maximum RAM capacity increased to 128 MB. In 1992, NeXT sold 20,000 computers, counting upgraded motherboards on back order as system sales. This was a small number compared with competitors, but the company reported sales of $140 million for the year, which encouraged Canon to invest a further $30 million to keep the company afloat.[40]

In its existence, Next has sold a total of 50,000 copies of Nextstep, says Jobs. It's not much of an installed base, so he predicts the company will ship 50,000 Nextstep packages in 1993. But Next needs to increase its volume three-fold in order to build enough momentum to forestall Microsoft and Taligent in the object-oriented software business.

UnixWorld, April 1993[41]

In total, 50,000 NeXT machines were sold,[42][41] including thousands to the then super-secret National Reconnaissance Office located in Chantilly, Virginia. NeXT's long-term plan was to migrate to one of the emerging high-performance Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures, with the NeXT RISC Workstation (NRW). Initially, the NRW was to be based on the Motorola 88110 processor, but it was later redesigned around dual PowerPC 601s, due to a lack of confidence in Motorola's commitment to the 88000-series architecture in the time leading up to the AIM alliance's transition to PowerPC.[43][44]

1993–1996: NeXT Software, Inc.

 
The NeXTSTEP operating system interface

In late 1991, because of NeXT's future withdrawal from the hardware industry, the company started porting the NeXTSTEP operating system to the Intel 80486-based IBM PC compatible computers. In January 1992, a demonstration of the port was shown at NeXTWorld Expo. By mid-1993 the process was completed, and version 3.1 (NeXTSTEP 486) was released.[45]

NeXTSTEP 3.x was later ported to PA-RISC-[46] and SPARC-based platforms, for a total of four versions: NeXTSTEP/NeXT (for NeXT's own hardware), NeXTSTEP/Intel, NeXTSTEP/PA-RISC, and NeXTSTEP/SPARC. Although the latter three ports were not widely used, NeXTSTEP gained popularity at institutions such as First Chicago NBD, Swiss Bank Corporation, O'Connor and Company, and other organizations, owing to its programming model.[47] The software was used by many U.S. government agencies, including the United States Naval Research Laboratory, the National Security Agency, the Advanced Research Projects Agency, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the National Reconnaissance Office.[48] Some IBM PC clone vendors offered somewhat customized hardware solutions that were delivered running NeXTSTEP on Intel, such as the Elonex NextStation[49] and the Canon object.station 41.[50]

In 1993, NeXT withdrew from the hardware industry, and the company was renamed to NeXT Software, Inc. Consequently, 230 of the 530 staff employees were laid off.[51] NeXT negotiated to sell the hardware business, including the Fremont factory, to Canon, which later pulled out of the deal. Work on the PowerPC machines was stopped, along with all hardware production. Sun CEO, Scott McNealy, announced plans to invest $10 million in 1993 and use NeXT software in future Sun systems.[52] NeXT partnered with Sun to create a programming environment called OpenStep, which is NeXTSTEP's application layer hosted on a third party operating system.[53] In 1994, Microsoft and NeXT were collaborating on a Windows NT port of OpenStep which was never released.[54]

Stepstone, originally named Productivity Products International (PPI), was a software company founded in 1983 by Brad Cox and Tom Love, best known for releasing the original version of the Objective-C programming language. In April 1995, NeXT acquired the Objective-C trademark and rights from Stepstone.[55] At the same time, Stepstone licensed back from NeXT the right to continue selling their Objective-C based products. As Apple Computer acquired NeXT a year later, they now hold the rights to Objective-C. The U.S. software company Stepstone appears to have gone out of business in the early 2000s.

After exiting the hardware business, NeXT focused on other operating systems. New products based on OpenStep were released, including OpenStep Enterprise, a version for Microsoft's Windows NT. NeXT launched WebObjects, a platform for building large-scale dynamic web applications. It failed to achieve wide popularity, partly because of the initial high price of US$50,000;[56] but it remains the first and most prominent early example of a web application server that enabled dynamic page generation based on user interactions as opposed to static content. The platform was bundled with macOS Server and Xcode,[56] but was removed in 2009 and discontinued in 2016.[57] It was used for a short of period of time by many large businesses, including Dell, Disney, WorldCom, and the BBC.[58] WebObjects would eventually be used to power Apple's iTunes Store and most of its corporate website[59] for years, with parts of the iTunes Store and Apple Music remaining powered by it to this day.

1996–2006: Acquisition by Apple

We went for one of our, you know, signature Steve Jobs walks around Palo Alto, and ... we happened to see someone who was in that meeting from the [Apple] management team who said, 'You guys won easily, no problem. You have nothing to worry about.'

Avie Tevanian, presenting NeXT versus Be to Apple[60]

On December 20, 1996, Apple Computer announced its intention to acquire NeXT.[61] Apple paid $400 million in cash and shares.[62][61] Though Steve Jobs preferred to only receive cash, Gil Amelio insisted he take 1.5 million Apple shares to give the deal "credibility".[63] The main purpose of the acquisition was to use NeXTSTEP as a foundation to replace the dated classic Mac OS.[64] Steve Jobs also returned to Apple as a consultant.[65] The night of the deal, Jobs commented:

Much of the industry has lived off the Macintosh for over ten years now, slowly copying the Mac's revolutionary user interface. Now the time has come for new innovation, and where better than Apple for this to spring from? Who else has consistently led this industry-first with the Apple II, then the Macintosh and LaserWriter? With this merger, the advanced software from NeXT will be married with Apple's very high-volume hardware platforms and marketing channels to create another breakthrough, leapfrogging existing platforms, and fueling Apple and the industry copy cats for the next ten years and beyond. I still have very deep feelings for Apple, and it gives me great joy to play a role in architecting Apple's future.[66]

The NeXT deal was finalized on February 7, 1997,[67][66] In 2000, Jobs took the CEO position as a permanent assignment, holding the position until his resignation on August 24, 2011, shortly before his death on October 5, 2011.[68][69]

Several NeXT executives replaced their Apple counterparts when Jobs restructured the company's board of directors. Over the next five years the NeXTSTEP operating system was ported to the PowerPC architecture. At the same time, an Intel port and OpenStep Enterprise toolkit for Windows were both produced. That operating system was code-named Rhapsody,[70] while the crossplatform toolkit was called "Yellow Box". For backward compatibility, Apple added the "Blue Box" to Rhapsody, allowing existing Mac applications to be run in a self-contained cooperative multitasking environment.[71]

A server version of the new operating system was released as Mac OS X Server 1.0 in 1999, and the first consumer version, Mac OS X 10.0, in 2001. The OpenStep developer toolkit was renamed Cocoa. Rhapsody's Blue Box was renamed Classic Environment and changed to run applications full-screen without requiring a separate window. Apple included an updated version of the original Macintosh toolbox, called Carbon, that gave existing Mac applications access to the environment without the constraints of Blue Box.[72][73] Some of NeXTSTEP's interface features are used in Mac OS X, including the Dock, the Services menu, the Finder's "Column" view, and the Cocoa text system.

NeXTSTEP's processor-independent capabilities were retained in Mac OS X, leading to PowerPC, x86, and ARM versions (although only PowerPC versions were publicly available before 2006 and were discontinued by 2009, and ARM versions were not available until 2020). Apple moved to Intel processors by August 2006, and is in the process of moving to ARM processors as of September 2022.[74][75]

Corporate culture and community

 
NeXT's former headquarters at 900 Chesapeake Drive, c. 2022

Jobs created a different corporate culture at NeXT in terms of facilities, salaries, and benefits. Jobs had experimented with some structural changes at Apple, but at NeXT he abandoned conventional corporate structures, instead making a "community" with "members" instead of employees. There were only two different salaries at NeXT until the early 1990s. Team members who joined before 1986 were paid US$75,000 (equivalent to $185,405 in 2021) and those who joined afterward were paid US$50,000 (equivalent to $123,604 in 2021). This caused a few awkward situations where managers were paid less than their employees. Later, employees were given performance reviews and raises every six months. To foster openness, all employees had full access to the payrolls, although few employees ever took advantage of the privilege. NeXT's health insurance plan offered benefits to not only married couples but unmarried and same-sex couples, although the latter privilege was later withdrawn due to insurance complications.[3]: 80  The payroll schedule was also very different from other companies in Silicon Valley at the time, because instead of employees being paid twice a month at the end of the pay period, they were paid once a month in advance.[3]: 289 

Jobs found office space in Palo Alto, California, at 3475 Deer Creek Road, occupying a glass-and-concrete building that featured a staircase designed by the architect I. M. Pei. The first floor had hardwood flooring and large worktables where the workstations would be assembled. To avoid inventory errors, NeXT used the just-in-time (JIT) inventory strategy. The company contracted out for all major components, such as mainboards and cases, and had the finished components shipped to the first floor for assembly. On the second floor was office space with an open floor plan. The only enclosed rooms were Jobs's office and a few conference rooms.[76]: 323 

 
Entrance to NeXT's Redwood City office in 1995

As NeXT expanded, more office space was needed. The company rented an office at 800 and 900 Chesapeake Drive, in Redwood City, also designed by Pei. The architectural centerpiece was a "floating" staircase with no visible supports. The open floor plan was retained, with furnishings that were luxurious, such as $5,000 chairs, $10,000 sofas, and Ansel Adams prints.[3]: 80 

NeXT's Palo Alto office was subsequently occupied by Internet Shopping Network (a subsidiary of Home Shopping Network) in 1994, and later by SAP AG. Its Redwood City office was later occupied by ApniCure and OncoMed Pharmaceuticals Inc.[77]

The first issue of NeXTWORLD magazine was printed in 1991. It was edited by Michael Miley and, later, Dan Ruby and was published in San Francisco by Integrated Media. It was the only mainstream periodical to discuss NeXT computers, their operating system, and NeXT application software. The publication was discontinued in 1994 after only four volumes.[78] A developer conference, NeXTWORLD Expo, was held in 1991 and 1992 at the San Francisco Civic Center and in 1993 and 1994 at the Moscone Center in San Francisco, with Jobs as the keynote speaker.[79]

Legacy

Though not very profitable, the company had a wide-ranging impact on the computer industry. Object-oriented programming and graphical user interfaces became more common after the 1988 release of the NeXTcube and NeXTSTEP. The technologically successful platform was often held as the trendsetter when other companies started to emulate the success of NeXT's object-oriented system.[80]

Widely seen as a response to NeXT, Microsoft announced the Cairo project in 1991; the Cairo specification included similar object-oriented user-interface features for a coming consumer version of Windows NT. Although Cairo was ultimately abandoned, some elements were integrated into other projects.[54]

By 1993, Taligent was considered by the press to be a competitor in objects and operating systems, even without any product release, with NeXT being a main point of comparison. For the first few years, Taligent's theoretical innovation was often compared to NeXT's older but mature and commercially established platform,[a] but Taligent's debut release in 1995 was called "too little, too late", especially when compared with NeXT.[84]

Several developers used the NeXT platform to write pioneering programs. For example, in 1990, Computer Scientist Tim Berners-Lee used a NeXT Computer to develop the first web browser and web server.[85][86] The game series Doom,[87] and Quake were developed by id Software with NeXT computers.[88][89] Other commercial programs were released for NeXT computers, including Altsys Virtuoso—a vector-drawing program with page-layout features, which was ported to Mac OS and Microsoft Windows as Aldus FreeHand v4—and the Lotus Improv spreadsheet program.[b]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Attributed to multiple references: [41][81][82][83]
  2. ^ Attributed to multiple references: [90][91][92][93]: 4 : 63 

References

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Further reading

  • Malone, Michael (1999). Infinite Loop. Currency. ISBN 0-385-48684-7.
  • Young, Jeffrey S.; Simon, William L. (2005). iCon: Steve Jobs. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-72083-6.
  • Panzarino, Matthew (November 20, 2011). . TNW. Archived from the original on April 16, 2021. Retrieved January 4, 2022.

External links

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March 28, 2023
next, this, article, about, technology, company, other, uses, next, later, computer, software, american, technology, company, that, specialized, computer, workstations, intended, higher, education, business, based, redwood, city, california, founded, apple, co. This article is about the technology company For other uses see Next NeXT Inc later NeXT Computer Inc and NeXT Software Inc was an American technology company that specialized in computer workstations intended for higher education and business use Based in Redwood City California and founded by Apple Computer co founder and CEO Steve Jobs after he was forced out of Apple the company introduced their first product the NeXT Computer in 1988 and then the smaller NeXTcube and NeXTstation in 1990 These computers had relatively limited sales with only about 50 000 units shipped in total Nevertheless their object oriented programming and graphical user interfaces were trendsetters of computer innovation and highly influential NeXT Inc Logo designed by Paul RandTypePrivateIndustryComputer hardware SoftwareFounded1985 38 years ago 1985 FounderSteve JobsDefunct1996 27 years ago 1996 FateMerged into Apple ComputerSuccessorApple ComputerHeadquartersRedwood City California U S Key peopleSteve Jobs chairman CEO Ross Perot director John Patrick Crecine director Avie Tevanian vice president of engineering Bud Tribble vice president of software development ProductsList NeXT ComputerNeXTcubeNeXTstationNeXTdimensionNeXTSTEPNeXTMailNeXT RISC WorkstationNeXT Laser PrinterNeXT MegaPixel DisplayNeXT Music KitNeXTcube TurboNeXT portOpenStepWebObjectsNumber of employees530 1993 Websitenext com archived NeXT partnered with Sun Microsystems to create a programming environment called OpenStep which was the NeXTSTEP operating system s application layer hosted on a third party operating system In 1993 NeXT withdrew from the hardware industry to concentrate on marketing OPENSTEP for Mach its own OpenStep implementation for several other computer vendors NeXT also developed WebObjects one of the first enterprise web application frameworks and although its market appeal was limited by its high 50 000 price it is a prominent early example of a web server that is based on dynamic page generation rather than static content Apple purchased NeXT in 1997 for 400 million which included 1 5 million shares of Apple stock and Jobs the chairman and CEO of NeXT was given an advisory role at Apple Apple also promised that NeXT s operating system would be ported to Macintosh hardware and combined with the classic Mac OS operating system which would yield Mac OS X later called macOS Contents 1 History 1 1 Background 1 2 Original NeXT team 1 3 1987 1993 NeXT Computer 1 3 1 First generation 1 3 2 Second generation 1 4 1993 1996 NeXT Software Inc 1 5 1996 2006 Acquisition by Apple 2 Corporate culture and community 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 6 1 Further reading 7 External linksHistory EditBackground Edit In 1985 Apple co founder and CEO Steve Jobs led a division campaign called SuperMicro which was responsible for developing the Macintosh and Lisa computers They were commercial successes on university campuses because Jobs had personally visited a few notable universities to promote his products and also because of Apple University Consortium a marketing program that allowed academics to buy them at a discount 1 56 67 72 The Consortium had earned over 50 million on computer sales by February 1984 2 Jobs met Paul Berg a Nobel Laureate in chemistry at a luncheon held in Silicon Valley to honor President of France Francois Mitterrand 3 72 4 Berg was frustrated by the time and expense of researching recombinant DNA via wet laboratories and suggested that Jobs should use his influence to create a 3M computer that is designed for higher education use 5 6 Jobs was intrigued by Berg s concept of a workstation and contemplated starting a higher education computer company in late 1985 amid increasing turmoil at Apple Jobs s division did not release the upgraded versions of the Macintosh computer and much of the Macintosh Office software 7 As a result its sales plummeted 8 193 and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory 8 227 In 1985 John Sculley ousted Jobs from his executive role at Apple and replaced him with Jean Louis Gassee 8 291 Later that year Jobs began a power struggle to regain control over his company The board of directors sided with Sculley and Jobs took a business trip to Western Europe and the Soviet Union on behalf of Apple 9 Original NeXT team Edit Steve Jobs founder of NeXT In September 1985 after several months of being sidelined Jobs resigned from Apple 10 He told the board he was leaving to set up a new computer company and that he would be taking several Apple employees from the SuperMicro division with him but he also promised that his new company would not compete with Apple and might even consider licensing their designs to them under the Macintosh brand 11 A number of former Apple employees followed him to NeXT including Joanna Hoffman Bud Tribble George Crow Rich Page Susan Barnes Susan Kare and Dan l Lewin 12 After consulting with major educational buyers from around the country including a follow up meeting with Paul Berg a tentative specification for the workstation was drawn up It was designed to be powerful enough to run wet lab simulations and affordable enough for college students to use in their dormitory rooms 13 Before the specifications were finished however Apple sued NeXT on September 23 1985 for nefarious schemes to take advantage of the cofounders insider information 3 75 13 44 12 Jobs argued It is hard to think that a 2 billion company with 4 300 plus people couldn t compete with six people in blue jeans 14 207 The suit was eventually dismissed before trial 3 75 In 1986 Jobs recruited the graphic designer Paul Rand to create a brand identity for US 100 000 equivalent to 247 210 in 2021 15 Jobs recalled I asked him if he would come up with a few options and he said No I will solve your problem for you and you will pay me You don t have to use the solution If you want options go talk to other people 16 Rand created a 20 page brochure detailing the brand including the precise angle used for the logo 28 and a new company name spelling NeXT 15 1987 1993 NeXT Computer Edit First generation Edit This NeXT Computer was used by Computer Scientist Tim Berners Lee at the European Organization for Nuclear Research CERN to create the world s first web server I want some kid at Stanford to be able to cure cancer in his dorm room Jobs on the purpose of the NeXT Computer 17 In mid 1986 NeXT changed its business plan to develop both computer hardware and software rather than just workstations Rich Page a NeXT cofounder who formerly directed Apple Lisa s team led a team to develop the hardware while Mach kernel engineer Avie Tevanian led the development of NeXT s operating system NeXTSTEP NeXT s first factory was established in Fremont California in 1987 and it was capable of manufacturing about 150 000 machines per year 3 72 NeXT s first workstation was named the NeXT Computer It was also nicknamed as the cube 18 due to its distinctive magnesium one foot 30 cm cubic case The case was designed by Hartmut Esslinger and his team at Frog Design 19 20 In 1987 Ross Perot became NeXT s first major outside investor He invested 20 million for 16 of NeXT s stock after seeing a segment about NeXT on a 1986 PBS documentary titled Entrepreneurs 12 In 1988 he joined the company s board of directors 21 22 NeXT and Adobe collaborated on Display PostScript DPS a 2D graphics engine that was released in 1987 NeXT engineers wrote an alternative windowing engine edition to take full advantage of NeXTSTEP NeXT engineers used Display PostScript to draw on screen graphic designs such as title bar and scroller for NeXTSTEP s user space windowing system library 23 The original design team anticipated to complete the computer in early 1987 and launch it for US 3 000 by mid year 24 On October 12 1988 the NeXT Computer received standing ovations when it was revealed at a private gala event NeXT Introduction the Introduction to the NeXT Generation of Computers for Education at the Louise M Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco California The following day selected educators and software engineers were invited to attend the first public technical overview of the NeXT computer at the event The NeXT Day held at the San Francisco Hilton The event gave developers interested in NeXT software an insight into their architecture object oriented programming and the NeXT Computer The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs 25 The first NeXT Computers were experimented in 1989 after which NeXT sold a limited number of these devices to universities with a beta version of the NeXTSTEP operating system pre installed Initially the NeXT Computer targeted the United States higher education institutions only with a base price of US 6 500 equivalent to 14 209 in 2021 18 The computer was widely reviewed in magazines primarily the hardware portion When asked if he was upset that the computer s debut was delayed by several months Jobs responded Late This computer is five years ahead of its time 26 The NeXT Computer was based on the 25 MHz Motorola 68030 central processing unit CPU The Motorola 88000 RISC chip was originally considered but it was not available in sufficient quantities 27 The computer included between 8 and 64 MB of random access memory RAM a 256 MB magneto optical MO drive a 40 MB swap only 330 MB or 660 MB hard disk drive 10BASE2 Ethernet NuBus and a 17 inch MegaPixel grayscale display measuring 1120 by 832 pixels In 1989 a typical new PC Macintosh or Amiga computer included a few megabytes of RAM a 640 480 16 color or a 320x240 4 096 color display a 10 to 20 megabyte hard drive and few networking capabilities 28 29 It was the first computer to ship with a general purpose DSP chip Motorola 56001 on the motherboard This supported sophisticated music and sound processing including the Music Kit software 30 The magneto optical MO drive manufactured by Canon Inc was the primary mass storage device This drive technology was relatively new to the market and the NeXT was the first computer to use it 31 MO drives were cheaper but much slower than hard drives with an average seek time of 96 ms Jobs negotiated Canon s initial price of 150 per blank MO disk so that they could sell at retail for only 50 The disk drive s design made it impossible to move files between computers without a network because each NeXT Computer has only one MO drive and the disk could not be removed without shutting down the system 31 The drive s limited speed and capacity made it insufficient as the primary medium running the NeXTSTEP operating system 31 In 1989 NeXT struck a deal for former Compaq reseller Businessland to sell the NeXT Computer in international markets Selling through a retailer was a major change from NeXT s original business model of only selling directly to students and educational institutions 32 Businessland founder David Norman predicted that sales of the NeXT Computer would surpass sales of Compaq computers after 12 months 33 That same year Canon invested US 100 million in NeXT for a 16 67 percent stake 34 making NeXT worth almost 600 million Canon invested in NeXT with the condition of installing the NeXTSTEP environment on its own workstations which would mean a greatly expanded market for the software After NeXT exited the hardware business Canon produced a line of PCs called object station including models 31 41 50 and 52 specifically designed to run NeXTSTEP on Intel chips 35 Canon also served as NeXT s distributor in Japan 36 The NeXT Computer was released in 1990 for US 9 999 equivalent to 20 739 in 2021 In June 1991 Perot resigned from the board of directors to concentrate more time in his company Perot Systems a Plano Texas based software system integrator 37 Second generation Edit A NeXT monitor and a NeXTcube Mainboard of the NeXTcube 1990 with Motorola 68040 at the lower edge To the right are the interfaces to the left the system bus In the enlarged version of the image most chips and connectors are described In 1990 NeXT released a second generation of workstations a revised NeXT Computer NeXTcube and the NeXTstation The NeXTstation was nicknamed the slab for its low rise box form factor Jobs ensured that NeXT staffers did not nickname the NeXTstation pizza box to avoid inadvertent comparison with competitor Sun workstations which already had that nickname The machines were initially planned to use the 2 88 MB floppy drive but the 2 88 MB floppy disks were expensive and its technology failed to supplant the 1 44 MB floppy Realizing this NeXT used the CD ROM drive instead which would eventually become the standard for storage Color graphics were available on the NeXTstation Color and NeXTdimension graphics processor hardware for the NeXTcube The new computers with the new Motorola 68040 processor were cheaper and faster than their predecessors 38 39 In 1992 NeXT launched Turbo variants of the NeXTcube and NeXTstation with a 33 MHz 68040 processor and the maximum RAM capacity increased to 128 MB In 1992 NeXT sold 20 000 computers counting upgraded motherboards on back order as system sales This was a small number compared with competitors but the company reported sales of 140 million for the year which encouraged Canon to invest a further 30 million to keep the company afloat 40 In its existence Next has sold a total of 50 000 copies of Nextstep says Jobs It s not much of an installed base so he predicts the company will ship 50 000 Nextstep packages in 1993 But Next needs to increase its volume three fold in order to build enough momentum to forestall Microsoft and Taligent in the object oriented software business UnixWorld April 1993 41 In total 50 000 NeXT machines were sold 42 41 including thousands to the then super secret National Reconnaissance Office located in Chantilly Virginia NeXT s long term plan was to migrate to one of the emerging high performance Reduced Instruction Set Computing RISC architectures with the NeXT RISC Workstation NRW Initially the NRW was to be based on the Motorola 88110 processor but it was later redesigned around dual PowerPC 601s due to a lack of confidence in Motorola s commitment to the 88000 series architecture in the time leading up to the AIM alliance s transition to PowerPC 43 44 1993 1996 NeXT Software Inc Edit The NeXTSTEP operating system interface In late 1991 because of NeXT s future withdrawal from the hardware industry the company started porting the NeXTSTEP operating system to the Intel 80486 based IBM PC compatible computers In January 1992 a demonstration of the port was shown at NeXTWorld Expo By mid 1993 the process was completed and version 3 1 NeXTSTEP 486 was released 45 NeXTSTEP 3 x was later ported to PA RISC 46 and SPARC based platforms for a total of four versions NeXTSTEP NeXT for NeXT s own hardware NeXTSTEP Intel NeXTSTEP PA RISC and NeXTSTEP SPARC Although the latter three ports were not widely used NeXTSTEP gained popularity at institutions such as First Chicago NBD Swiss Bank Corporation O Connor and Company and other organizations owing to its programming model 47 The software was used by many U S government agencies including the United States Naval Research Laboratory the National Security Agency the Advanced Research Projects Agency the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Reconnaissance Office 48 Some IBM PC clone vendors offered somewhat customized hardware solutions that were delivered running NeXTSTEP on Intel such as the Elonex NextStation 49 and the Canon object station 41 50 In 1993 NeXT withdrew from the hardware industry and the company was renamed to NeXT Software Inc Consequently 230 of the 530 staff employees were laid off 51 NeXT negotiated to sell the hardware business including the Fremont factory to Canon which later pulled out of the deal Work on the PowerPC machines was stopped along with all hardware production Sun CEO Scott McNealy announced plans to invest 10 million in 1993 and use NeXT software in future Sun systems 52 NeXT partnered with Sun to create a programming environment called OpenStep which is NeXTSTEP s application layer hosted on a third party operating system 53 In 1994 Microsoft and NeXT were collaborating on a Windows NT port of OpenStep which was never released 54 Stepstone originally named Productivity Products International PPI was a software company founded in 1983 by Brad Cox and Tom Love best known for releasing the original version of the Objective C programming language In April 1995 NeXT acquired the Objective C trademark and rights from Stepstone 55 At the same time Stepstone licensed back from NeXT the right to continue selling their Objective C based products As Apple Computer acquired NeXT a year later they now hold the rights to Objective C The U S software company Stepstone appears to have gone out of business in the early 2000s After exiting the hardware business NeXT focused on other operating systems New products based on OpenStep were released including OpenStep Enterprise a version for Microsoft s Windows NT NeXT launched WebObjects a platform for building large scale dynamic web applications It failed to achieve wide popularity partly because of the initial high price of US 50 000 56 but it remains the first and most prominent early example of a web application server that enabled dynamic page generation based on user interactions as opposed to static content The platform was bundled with macOS Server and Xcode 56 but was removed in 2009 and discontinued in 2016 57 It was used for a short of period of time by many large businesses including Dell Disney WorldCom and the BBC 58 WebObjects would eventually be used to power Apple s iTunes Store and most of its corporate website 59 for years with parts of the iTunes Store and Apple Music remaining powered by it to this day 1996 2006 Acquisition by Apple Edit We went for one of our you know signature Steve Jobs walks around Palo Alto and we happened to see someone who was in that meeting from the Apple management team who said You guys won easily no problem You have nothing to worry about Avie Tevanian presenting NeXT versus Be to Apple 60 On December 20 1996 Apple Computer announced its intention to acquire NeXT 61 Apple paid 400 million in cash and shares 62 61 Though Steve Jobs preferred to only receive cash Gil Amelio insisted he take 1 5 million Apple shares to give the deal credibility 63 The main purpose of the acquisition was to use NeXTSTEP as a foundation to replace the dated classic Mac OS 64 Steve Jobs also returned to Apple as a consultant 65 The night of the deal Jobs commented Much of the industry has lived off the Macintosh for over ten years now slowly copying the Mac s revolutionary user interface Now the time has come for new innovation and where better than Apple for this to spring from Who else has consistently led this industry first with the Apple II then the Macintosh and LaserWriter With this merger the advanced software from NeXT will be married with Apple s very high volume hardware platforms and marketing channels to create another breakthrough leapfrogging existing platforms and fueling Apple and the industry copy cats for the next ten years and beyond I still have very deep feelings for Apple and it gives me great joy to play a role in architecting Apple s future 66 The NeXT deal was finalized on February 7 1997 67 66 In 2000 Jobs took the CEO position as a permanent assignment holding the position until his resignation on August 24 2011 shortly before his death on October 5 2011 68 69 Several NeXT executives replaced their Apple counterparts when Jobs restructured the company s board of directors Over the next five years the NeXTSTEP operating system was ported to the PowerPC architecture At the same time an Intel port and OpenStep Enterprise toolkit for Windows were both produced That operating system was code named Rhapsody 70 while the crossplatform toolkit was called Yellow Box For backward compatibility Apple added the Blue Box to Rhapsody allowing existing Mac applications to be run in a self contained cooperative multitasking environment 71 A server version of the new operating system was released as Mac OS X Server 1 0 in 1999 and the first consumer version Mac OS X 10 0 in 2001 The OpenStep developer toolkit was renamed Cocoa Rhapsody s Blue Box was renamed Classic Environment and changed to run applications full screen without requiring a separate window Apple included an updated version of the original Macintosh toolbox called Carbon that gave existing Mac applications access to the environment without the constraints of Blue Box 72 73 Some of NeXTSTEP s interface features are used in Mac OS X including the Dock the Services menu the Finder s Column view and the Cocoa text system NeXTSTEP s processor independent capabilities were retained in Mac OS X leading to PowerPC x86 and ARM versions although only PowerPC versions were publicly available before 2006 and were discontinued by 2009 and ARM versions were not available until 2020 Apple moved to Intel processors by August 2006 and is in the process of moving to ARM processors as of September 2022 74 75 Corporate culture and community Edit NeXT s former headquarters at 900 Chesapeake Drive c 2022 Jobs created a different corporate culture at NeXT in terms of facilities salaries and benefits Jobs had experimented with some structural changes at Apple but at NeXT he abandoned conventional corporate structures instead making a community with members instead of employees There were only two different salaries at NeXT until the early 1990s Team members who joined before 1986 were paid US 75 000 equivalent to 185 405 in 2021 and those who joined afterward were paid US 50 000 equivalent to 123 604 in 2021 This caused a few awkward situations where managers were paid less than their employees Later employees were given performance reviews and raises every six months To foster openness all employees had full access to the payrolls although few employees ever took advantage of the privilege NeXT s health insurance plan offered benefits to not only married couples but unmarried and same sex couples although the latter privilege was later withdrawn due to insurance complications 3 80 The payroll schedule was also very different from other companies in Silicon Valley at the time because instead of employees being paid twice a month at the end of the pay period they were paid once a month in advance 3 289 Jobs found office space in Palo Alto California at 3475 Deer Creek Road occupying a glass and concrete building that featured a staircase designed by the architect I M Pei The first floor had hardwood flooring and large worktables where the workstations would be assembled To avoid inventory errors NeXT used the just in time JIT inventory strategy The company contracted out for all major components such as mainboards and cases and had the finished components shipped to the first floor for assembly On the second floor was office space with an open floor plan The only enclosed rooms were Jobs s office and a few conference rooms 76 323 Entrance to NeXT s Redwood City office in 1995 As NeXT expanded more office space was needed The company rented an office at 800 and 900 Chesapeake Drive in Redwood City also designed by Pei The architectural centerpiece was a floating staircase with no visible supports The open floor plan was retained with furnishings that were luxurious such as 5 000 chairs 10 000 sofas and Ansel Adams prints 3 80 NeXT s Palo Alto office was subsequently occupied by Internet Shopping Network a subsidiary of Home Shopping Network in 1994 and later by SAP AG Its Redwood City office was later occupied by ApniCure and OncoMed Pharmaceuticals Inc 77 The first issue of NeXTWORLD magazine was printed in 1991 It was edited by Michael Miley and later Dan Ruby and was published in San Francisco by Integrated Media It was the only mainstream periodical to discuss NeXT computers their operating system and NeXT application software The publication was discontinued in 1994 after only four volumes 78 A developer conference NeXTWORLD Expo was held in 1991 and 1992 at the San Francisco Civic Center and in 1993 and 1994 at the Moscone Center in San Francisco with Jobs as the keynote speaker 79 Legacy EditThough not very profitable the company had a wide ranging impact on the computer industry Object oriented programming and graphical user interfaces became more common after the 1988 release of the NeXTcube and NeXTSTEP The technologically successful platform was often held as the trendsetter when other companies started to emulate the success of NeXT s object oriented system 80 Widely seen as a response to NeXT Microsoft announced the Cairo project in 1991 the Cairo specification included similar object oriented user interface features for a coming consumer version of Windows NT Although Cairo was ultimately abandoned some elements were integrated into other projects 54 By 1993 Taligent was considered by the press to be a competitor in objects and operating systems even without any product release with NeXT being a main point of comparison For the first few years Taligent s theoretical innovation was often compared to NeXT s older but mature and commercially established platform a but Taligent s debut release in 1995 was called too little too late especially when compared with NeXT 84 Several developers used the NeXT platform to write pioneering programs For example in 1990 Computer Scientist Tim Berners Lee used a NeXT Computer to develop the first web browser and web server 85 86 The game series Doom 87 and Quake were developed by id Software with NeXT computers 88 89 Other commercial programs were released for NeXT computers including Altsys Virtuoso a vector drawing program with page layout features which was ported to Mac OS and Microsoft Windows as Aldus FreeHand v4 and the Lotus Improv spreadsheet program b See also Edit Companies portal San Francisco Bay Area portal 1990s portalNeXT character set Multi architecture binaryNotes Edit Attributed to multiple references 41 81 82 83 Attributed to multiple references 90 91 92 93 4 63 References Edit Stross Randall 1993 Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing Athenium ISBN 0 689 12135 0 Archived from the original on June 28 2019 Retrieved August 1 2019 Morrison Ann February 20 1984 Apple Bites Back Fortune Archived from the original on June 9 2019 a b c d e f g Stross Randall 1993 Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing Athenium ISBN 0 689 12135 0 Archived from the original on June 28 2019 Retrieved August 1 2019 Shannon Victoria May 22 2006 Apple losing its polish in France International Herald Tribune p 11 Archived from the original on June 2 2006 Patton Phil August 6 1989 Steve Jobs Out For Revenge The New York Times Magazine Archived from the original on December 14 2018 Retrieved July 28 2021 Lubenow Gerald C September 29 1985 Jobs Talks About His Rise and Fall Newsweek Archived from the original on July 28 2021 Retrieved July 28 2021 Fuerst Irene March 15 1985 Apple s new Mac push can Apple Computer succeed in wooing big companies with its Macintosh Office Datamation p 42 a b c Rose Frank 1990 West of Eden Viking ISBN 0 670 81278 1 Archived from the original on January 3 2020 Retrieved August 1 2019 Young Jeffrey S Simon William L 2005 iCon Steve Jobs John Wiley amp Sons pp 118 ISBN 0 471 72083 6 Archived from the original on October 23 2019 Retrieved August 1 2019 Kahney Leander September 15 2008 Sept 16 1985 Jobs Quits AppleSept 16 1997 Jobs Rejoins Apple Wired Archived from the original on October 11 2021 Retrieved December 14 2021 Spector G September 24 1985 Apple s Jobs Starts New Firm Targets Education Market PC Week p 109 a b c Gallagher William September 12 2019 Looking back at Steve Jobs s NeXT Inc the most successful failure ever AppleInsider Retrieved July 12 2022 a b Deutschman Alan 2000 Second Coming of Steve Jobs Broadway Books pp 64 ISBN 0 7679 0432 X Archived from the original on January 3 2020 Retrieved August 1 2019 Linzmayer Owen W 2004 Apple confidential 2 0 the definitive history of the world s most colorful company Owen W Linzmayer Rev 2nd ed ed San Francisco Calif No Starch Press ISBN 1 59327 010 0 OCLC 52821221 Archived from the original on June 30 2009 Retrieved February 22 2022 a b Heller Steven Helfand Jessica Lois George 2000 Paul Rand Phaidon Press p 256 ISBN 0 7148 3994 9 Beahm George W 2014 Steve Jobs life by design lessons to be learned from his last lecture the most popular graduation address in history New York NY St Martin s Press p 190 ISBN 978 1 137 27983 5 OCLC 880884772 Archived from the original on February 24 2022 Retrieved February 22 2022 Menuez Doug June 3 2014 Fearless Genius The Digital Revolution in Silicon Valley 1985 2000 Atria Books p 4 ISBN 978 1476752693 OCLC 852226582 Archived from the original on November 24 2021 Retrieved February 10 2019 a b Thompson Tom Baran Nick November 1988 The NeXT Computer Byte 13 12 158 175 Archived from the original on April 5 2008 Retrieved May 14 2008 Brownlee John February 16 2016 Remembering The Design Legacy Of Steve Jobs s Other Great Computer Company Fast Company Archived from the original on January 13 2022 Retrieved February 24 2022 Bonnera Paul February 1989 The heart of a new machine frogdesign for NeXT computer PC Computing Magazine p 144 McCracken Harry July 9 2019 How Ross Perot befriended Steve Jobs and helped bring us the iPhone Fast Company Archived from the original on December 1 2019 Retrieved March 30 2020 Young Jeffrey S Simon William L 2005 iCon Steve Jobs John Wiley amp Sons pp 134 ISBN 0 471 72083 6 Archived from the original on October 23 2019 Retrieved August 1 2019 PostScript language reference Adobe Systems 3rd ed Reading Mass Addison Wesley 1999 ISBN 0 201 37922 8 OCLC 40543937 Archived from the original on February 24 2022 Retrieved January 4 2022 a href Template Cite 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May 1994 NeXT means business now Wall Street amp Technology General Reference Center Gold Tribble Bud February 1994 Bud Tribble Explains It All NeXTWORLD Interview Interviewed by NeXTWORLD p 23 24 Archived from the original on January 3 2020 Retrieved February 10 2019 Semich J William March 15 1994 Taligent Apple IBM and HP s joint object oriented operating system Datamation p 34 Santalesa Rich 1995 Taligent Readies a New Development Paradigm PDF IEEE Software Archived PDF from the original on August 30 2017 Retrieved October 3 2017 Abate Tom June 6 1995 Analysts wary of late software by Taligent SF Gate Archived from the original on February 18 2019 Retrieved February 10 2019 Berners Lee Tim The WorldWideWeb browser World Wide Web Consortium Archived from the original on September 4 2008 Retrieved June 13 2008 Roads and Crossroads of Internet History Archived February 6 2015 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 4 Birth of the Web Bhatia Anuj May 9 2020 Remembering Steve Jobs NeXT a computer company he founded in 1985 The Indian Express Archived from the original on May 5 2020 Retrieved February 24 2022 Carmack John September 1 2016 Why John Carmack Chose NeXT For Developing Doom And Other Favorites Forbes Quora Archived from the original on May 26 2021 Retrieved February 24 2022 Morgan Clancy Steve Jobs left Apple to start a new computer company His 12 million failure saved Apple Business Insider Retrieved February 25 2022 Bove Tony Rhodes Cheryl Reviews Virtuoso Performance Simson Garfinkel Retrieved February 25 2022 Bove Tony Rhodes Cheryl Reviews Its Own Reward Simson Garfinkel Retrieved February 25 2022 V2 1 type library on CD ROM Graphic Arts Monthly via HighBeam Research subscription required August 1 1991 Archived from the original on April 9 2016 Retrieved February 17 2013 NeXTWORLD Vol 1 No 1 January February 1991 1991 Further reading Edit Malone Michael 1999 Infinite Loop Currency ISBN 0 385 48684 7 Young Jeffrey S Simon William L 2005 iCon Steve Jobs John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 0 471 72083 6 Panzarino Matthew November 20 2011 Steve Jobs brainstorms with the NeXT team TNW Archived from the original on April 16 2021 Retrieved January 4 2022 External links EditListen to this article 28 minutes source source This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 16 October 2011 2011 10 16 and does not reflect subsequent edits Audio help More spoken articles Media related to NeXT at Wikimedia Commons Official website at the Wayback Machine archived April 12 1997 NeXTcomputers org Welcome to the NeXT world Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title NeXT amp oldid 1144152090, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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