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Morgan's Canon

January 30, 2023

Morgan's Canon, also known as Lloyd Morgan's Canon, Morgan's Canon of Interpretation or the principle or law of parsimony, is a fundamental precept of comparative (animal) psychology, coined by 19th-century British psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan.[1] In its developed form it states that:[2]

In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.

Morgan's explanation illustrates the supposed fallacy in anthropomorphic approaches to animal behaviour. He believed that people should only equate the actions of animals to human states, such as emotions, intents, or conscious awareness, if a less advanced description of the behaviour cannot be posed. Alternatively, animal behaviours can be justified as complex when the animal's initiative involves procedures beyond instinctual practice (i.e. the animal is consciously aware of their own natural behaviours).[3] This explanation can be used to understand the context under which the canon was studied, as well as its praises and criticisms. Several real world applications involving mating, competition and cognition exemplify Morgan's preference to simplify animal behaviour as it relates to these processes.

Context

Morgan's canon was derived after questioning previous interpretations of animal behaviour, specifically the anecdotal approach of George Romanes that he deemed excessively anthropomorphic. Its prestige is partly credited to Morgan's behavioural descriptions, where those initially interpreted as using higher mental processes could be better explained by simple trial-and-error learning (what is now called operant conditioning). One famous observation involves Morgan's terrier Tony, who, after many attempts, had successfully opened a garden gate. Though the final result could easily be seen as an insightful act, Lloyd Morgan had watched and recorded the approximations leading to the dog's gradual procedural learning, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.

Evaluation

The widespread study of animal cognition has required a disciplined use of Lloyd Morgan's canon.[4] D.A. Dewsbury called Morgan's Canon "perhaps, the most quoted statement in the history of comparative psychology".[5] Frans de Waal reiterated that it is "perhaps the most quoted statement in all of psychology" in his book The Ape and the Sushi Master. One section points to a statement that Morgan later added: "there is nothing really wrong with complex interpretations if an animal species has provided independent signs of high intelligence".[6] It has played a critical role in the growth of the prestige of behaviourism in twentieth century academic psychology.[7] Morgan’s contribution remains a significant framework of animal cognition and is revered as a valued understanding of behavioural execution.[8][9] Various reasons for adherence to the canon have been offered, including fitness analysis, constraints of evolution and phylogeny, and physiological limitations.[10]

With that being said, the canon has gathered substantial criticism. Many modern researchers such as Tobias Starzak suggest that it lacks operationally defined behaviour hierarchies.[11] There is additional concern that the restriction of advanced cognitive explanations dismisses the spectrum of behavioural awareness and opportunity. Due to these problems, Morgan's own interpretation is thought to be oversimplified and ambiguous.[12] Some animal behaviour research poses questions about favouring simplistic reasonings, especially when discussing behaviours from dispersed origins or observing rather sophisticated systems. The quantity of proposed behavioural mechanisms appears to receive less attention than their position on a cognitive scale. Several studies have taken note of this and thus maintained skepticism of Morgan's Canon as a parsimonous principle.[13] Despite these shortcomings, several submitted alternatives, including evidentialism, aim to resolve its complications.[14]

Applications in animal populations

Mating displays

 
King penguins on the Kerguelen Islands are known for their homosexual display behaviours.

Most varieties of animals produce displays for reproductive or courtship purposes. Mating behaviour is often thought to be intentional due to the discriminatory nature of mate selection; that is, pursuit of potential partners anticipates a deliberate choice.[15] Mating processes are frequently disputed under the nature-nurture debate. However, mating procedures may vary across circumstances. Homosexual mating displays such as those noticed in an observation of king penguins on the Kerguelen Islands appear identical to those used to attract opposite sex individuals.[16] The ability of penguins to differentiate between members of the same and opposite sex has been debated within animal behaviour literature, some claiming the phenomenon to be irregular while others considered it more systemic.[17] Nonetheless, environmental conditions such as sex ratios may demonstrate individual differences within the population. As the Kerguelen Island population showed no conscious discernment between individuals, instead choosing mates at random,[16] Morgan's canon possibly presumes that their displays are genetically hardwired and show no evidence of discrimination between sexes.

Competition and external signals

Competition among organisms (usually males) results from unwavering disputes over territory (for mating or general residence), food, or potential mating partners.[18] Individuals may compete using visual signals, as is seen in various butterfly species. Two different combative signals have been recorded: one uses an aerodynamic display that results in surrender of at least one male contestant, the second requires an encounter with an immature cocoon.[19] The latter does not exclude rivals from approaching the same cocoon, but fights can occur in the event that a female is hatched. Similar instances in other species are supported by game theory principles.[20] However, competition between butterflies is a rare occurrence[21] and therefore conflict settlement is not exactly understood. One study used Morgan's canon to identify a third process; the possibility that battles emerge from a mistaken attempt to court other competitors.[19] Since butterflies cannot cause severe injury to opponents nor accurately identify another's sex, the distinction of a mate from a competitor is sometimes nonexistent.[22] Results of several studies conclude that air combat is ideally exclusive to territorial males.[19][22] Likewise, Morgan's canon justifies misguided combat as long as recorded instances of sex differentiation are limited.

 
Intellectual feats accomplished by dolphins may account for their heightened cognitive awareness.

Cognitive awareness

The scope of animal consciousness is not perceived equally by human standards, so obligations to animal species as a whole are unequally distributed.[23] Concerns raised by animal rights activists partly discuss the cognitive abilities of individuals or entire species. Such issues suggest that most species are at least somewhat capable of self-acknowledgement.[24] Dolphins are particularly regarded for bearing high intellectual capacities, and are often the subject of cognitive experiments. Though Morgan's canon usually intends to avoid assumptions based on higher order processes, psychological exceptions arise with dolphins as their perceptions do not imply intentionality on their behalf.[25] There is evidence of both self-directed and otherwise directed states of awareness that are close to those experienced by humans.[25] A 2004 study tested the perceptual concept of uncertainty in dolphins.[26] Subject were acclimated to an unaltered sound clip, then were expected to use their memory to determine a change in pitch. Once a lower or higher pitch was heard, the dolphins touched an oar intended as an indicator of each pitch category. Results reference a discrimination threshold beyond which interpretations of pitch change become doubtful (about 2100 Hz). Given potential errors in distinction, a third "escape" oar was provided for use in the event of uncertainty.[26] While individuals do make use of the "escape", they are often reluctant to do so.[27] Dolphin subjects still chose one of the other two options despite confusion, perhaps as an insistence on their original answer.[26] Based on this type of research, experts have widely agreed on a pattern of ingrained compulsion that further supports Morgan's lower ordered inquiries.

See also

References

  1. ^ Epstein R (1984). "The principle of parsimony and some applications in psychology". Journal of Mind and Behavior. 5 (2): 119–130. ISSN 0271-0137. JSTOR 43853318.
  2. ^ Morgan CL (1903). "Chapter 3. Other minds than ours". An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (2nd ed.). W. Scott. p. 59.
  3. ^ Dawkins MS (October 2006). "Through animal eyes: What behaviour tells us". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 100 (1–2): 4–10. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2006.04.010. ISSN 0168-1591.
  4. ^ Karin-D'Arcy MR (2005-12-31). The Modern Role of Morgan's Canon in Comparative Psychology. eScholarship, University of California. OCLC 1034738815.
  5. ^ Dewsbury DA (1984). Comparative psychology in the twentieth century. doi:10.1037/10875-000. ISBN 0-87933-108-9.
  6. ^ de Waal F (2002). The ape and the sushi master : cultural relfections by a primatologist. Penguin. ISBN 0141003901. OCLC 59389229.
  7. ^ Steward H (2018-06-21). "Morgan's Canon". Oxford Scholarship Online. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199375967.003.0018.
  8. ^ Böhnert M, Hilbert C (July 2018). ""Other minds than ours": a controversial discussion on the limits and possibilities of comparative psychology in the light of C. Lloyd Morgan's work". History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. 40 (3): 44. doi:10.1007/s40656-018-0211-4. PMID 30054748. S2CID 51728405.
  9. ^ Kimler WC (December 2000). "Reading Morgan's Canon: Reduction and Unification in the Forging of a Science of the Mind". American Zoologist. 40 (6): 853–861. doi:10.1093/icb/40.6.853. ISSN 0003-1569.
  10. ^ Fitzpatrick S (April 2008). "Doing Away with Morgan's Canon". Mind & Language. 23 (2): 224–246. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.2007.00338.x.
  11. ^ Starzak T (May 2017). "Interpretations without justification: a general argument against Morgan's Canon". Synthese. 194 (5): 1681–1701. doi:10.1007/s11229-016-1013-4. S2CID 30865639.
  12. ^ Fitzpatrick S (April 2008). "Doing Away with Morgan's Canon". Mind & Language. 23 (2): 224–246. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.2007.00338.x. ISSN 0268-1064.
  13. ^ Bruni D, Perconti P, Plebe A (2018-11-15). "Anti-anthropomorphism and Its Limits". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 2205. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02205. PMC 6249301. PMID 30498465.
  14. ^ Ghiselin MT (September 1983). "Lloyd Morgan's canon in evolutionary context". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 6 (3): 362–363. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00016460. ISSN 0140-525X. S2CID 145363549.
  15. ^ Nolan PM, Stephen Dobson F, Nicolaus M, Karels TJ, McGraw KJ, Jouventin P (April 2010). "Mutual Mate Choice for Colorful Traits in King Penguins". Ethology. 116 (7): 635–644. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01775.x. S2CID 18278748.
  16. ^ a b Pincemy G, Dobson FS, Jouventin P (2010-10-08). "Homosexual Mating Displays in Penguins". Ethology. 116 (12): 1210–1216. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01835.x. ISSN 0179-1613.
  17. ^ Weimerskirch H, Stahl JC, Jouventin P (1992). "The breeding biology and population dynamics of King Penguins Aptenodytes patagonica on the Crozet Islands". Ibis. 134 (2): 107–117. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1992.tb08387.x.
  18. ^ Elwood RW, Arnott G (November 2012). "Understanding how animals fight with Lloyd Morgan's canon". Animal Behaviour. 84 (5): 1095–1102. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.08.035. S2CID 53198330.
  19. ^ a b c Takeuchi T (January 2017). "Agonistic display or courtship behavior? A review of contests over mating opportunity in butterflies". Journal of Ethology. 35 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1007/s10164-016-0487-3. PMC 5215026. PMID 28127115.
  20. ^ Gadagkar R (November 2005). "The logic of animal conflict". Resonance. 10 (11): 5. doi:10.1007/bf02837640. S2CID 120743691.
  21. ^ Peixoto PE, Muniz D, Benson WW (2012-01-05). "Do Feeding Resources Induce the Adoption of Resource Defence Polygyny in a Lekking Butterfly?". Ethology. 118 (3): 311–319. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2011.02015.x. ISSN 0179-1613.
  22. ^ a b Takeuchi T, Imafuku M (September 2005). "Territorial behavior of a green hairstreak Chrysozephyrus smaragdinus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): site tenacity and wars of attrition". Zoological Science. 22 (9): 989–94. doi:10.2108/zsj.22.989. hdl:2433/57198. PMID 16219979. S2CID 31819356.
  23. ^ Broom DM (August 2010). "Cognitive ability and awareness in domestic animals and decisions about obligations to animals". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 126 (1–2): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2010.05.001. ISSN 0168-1591.
  24. ^ Broom DM (1998). "Welfare, Stress, and the Evolution of Feelings". Stress and Behavior. Advances in the Study of Behavior. Vol. 27. Elsevier. pp. 371–403. doi:10.1016/s0065-3454(08)60369-1. ISBN 9780120045273.
  25. ^ a b Bekoff M, Allen C, Burghardt GM, eds. (2002). "Exploring the Cognitive World of the Bottlenosed Dolphin". The Cognitive Animal. The MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/1885.003.0039. ISBN 9780262268028.
  26. ^ a b c Browne D (September 2004). "Do dolphins know their own minds?". Biology & Philosophy. 19 (4): 633–653. doi:10.1007/sBIPH-004-0928-1. ISSN 0169-3867. S2CID 9116792.
  27. ^ Smith JD, Schull J, Strote J, McGee K, Egnor R, Erb L (1995). "The uncertain response in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 124 (4): 391–408. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.4.391. PMID 8530911.

January 30, 2023
morgan, canon, also, known, lloyd, interpretation, principle, parsimony, fundamental, precept, comparative, animal, psychology, coined, 19th, century, british, psychologist, lloyd, morgan, developed, form, states, that, case, animal, activity, interpreted, ter. Morgan s Canon also known as Lloyd Morgan s Canon Morgan s Canon of Interpretation or the principle or law of parsimony is a fundamental precept of comparative animal psychology coined by 19th century British psychologist C Lloyd Morgan 1 In its developed form it states that 2 In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development Morgan s explanation illustrates the supposed fallacy in anthropomorphic approaches to animal behaviour He believed that people should only equate the actions of animals to human states such as emotions intents or conscious awareness if a less advanced description of the behaviour cannot be posed Alternatively animal behaviours can be justified as complex when the animal s initiative involves procedures beyond instinctual practice i e the animal is consciously aware of their own natural behaviours 3 This explanation can be used to understand the context under which the canon was studied as well as its praises and criticisms Several real world applications involving mating competition and cognition exemplify Morgan s preference to simplify animal behaviour as it relates to these processes Contents 1 Context 2 Evaluation 3 Applications in animal populations 3 1 Mating displays 3 2 Competition and external signals 3 3 Cognitive awareness 4 See also 5 ReferencesContext EditMorgan s canon was derived after questioning previous interpretations of animal behaviour specifically the anecdotal approach of George Romanes that he deemed excessively anthropomorphic Its prestige is partly credited to Morgan s behavioural descriptions where those initially interpreted as using higher mental processes could be better explained by simple trial and error learning what is now called operant conditioning One famous observation involves Morgan s terrier Tony who after many attempts had successfully opened a garden gate Though the final result could easily be seen as an insightful act Lloyd Morgan had watched and recorded the approximations leading to the dog s gradual procedural learning and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it Evaluation EditThe widespread study of animal cognition has required a disciplined use of Lloyd Morgan s canon 4 D A Dewsbury called Morgan s Canon perhaps the most quoted statement in the history of comparative psychology 5 Frans de Waal reiterated that it is perhaps the most quoted statement in all of psychology in his book The Ape and the Sushi Master One section points to a statement that Morgan later added there is nothing really wrong with complex interpretations if an animal species has provided independent signs of high intelligence 6 It has played a critical role in the growth of the prestige of behaviourism in twentieth century academic psychology 7 Morgan s contribution remains a significant framework of animal cognition and is revered as a valued understanding of behavioural execution 8 9 Various reasons for adherence to the canon have been offered including fitness analysis constraints of evolution and phylogeny and physiological limitations 10 With that being said the canon has gathered substantial criticism Many modern researchers such as Tobias Starzak suggest that it lacks operationally defined behaviour hierarchies 11 There is additional concern that the restriction of advanced cognitive explanations dismisses the spectrum of behavioural awareness and opportunity Due to these problems Morgan s own interpretation is thought to be oversimplified and ambiguous 12 Some animal behaviour research poses questions about favouring simplistic reasonings especially when discussing behaviours from dispersed origins or observing rather sophisticated systems The quantity of proposed behavioural mechanisms appears to receive less attention than their position on a cognitive scale Several studies have taken note of this and thus maintained skepticism of Morgan s Canon as a parsimonous principle 13 Despite these shortcomings several submitted alternatives including evidentialism aim to resolve its complications 14 Applications in animal populations EditMating displays Edit King penguins on the Kerguelen Islands are known for their homosexual display behaviours Most varieties of animals produce displays for reproductive or courtship purposes Mating behaviour is often thought to be intentional due to the discriminatory nature of mate selection that is pursuit of potential partners anticipates a deliberate choice 15 Mating processes are frequently disputed under the nature nurture debate However mating procedures may vary across circumstances Homosexual mating displays such as those noticed in an observation of king penguins on the Kerguelen Islands appear identical to those used to attract opposite sex individuals 16 The ability of penguins to differentiate between members of the same and opposite sex has been debated within animal behaviour literature some claiming the phenomenon to be irregular while others considered it more systemic 17 Nonetheless environmental conditions such as sex ratios may demonstrate individual differences within the population As the Kerguelen Island population showed no conscious discernment between individuals instead choosing mates at random 16 Morgan s canon possibly presumes that their displays are genetically hardwired and show no evidence of discrimination between sexes Competition and external signals Edit Competition among organisms usually males results from unwavering disputes over territory for mating or general residence food or potential mating partners 18 Individuals may compete using visual signals as is seen in various butterfly species Two different combative signals have been recorded one uses an aerodynamic display that results in surrender of at least one male contestant the second requires an encounter with an immature cocoon 19 The latter does not exclude rivals from approaching the same cocoon but fights can occur in the event that a female is hatched Similar instances in other species are supported by game theory principles 20 However competition between butterflies is a rare occurrence 21 and therefore conflict settlement is not exactly understood One study used Morgan s canon to identify a third process the possibility that battles emerge from a mistaken attempt to court other competitors 19 Since butterflies cannot cause severe injury to opponents nor accurately identify another s sex the distinction of a mate from a competitor is sometimes nonexistent 22 Results of several studies conclude that air combat is ideally exclusive to territorial males 19 22 Likewise Morgan s canon justifies misguided combat as long as recorded instances of sex differentiation are limited Intellectual feats accomplished by dolphins may account for their heightened cognitive awareness Cognitive awareness Edit The scope of animal consciousness is not perceived equally by human standards so obligations to animal species as a whole are unequally distributed 23 Concerns raised by animal rights activists partly discuss the cognitive abilities of individuals or entire species Such issues suggest that most species are at least somewhat capable of self acknowledgement 24 Dolphins are particularly regarded for bearing high intellectual capacities and are often the subject of cognitive experiments Though Morgan s canon usually intends to avoid assumptions based on higher order processes psychological exceptions arise with dolphins as their perceptions do not imply intentionality on their behalf 25 There is evidence of both self directed and otherwise directed states of awareness that are close to those experienced by humans 25 A 2004 study tested the perceptual concept of uncertainty in dolphins 26 Subject were acclimated to an unaltered sound clip then were expected to use their memory to determine a change in pitch Once a lower or higher pitch was heard the dolphins touched an oar intended as an indicator of each pitch category Results reference a discrimination threshold beyond which interpretations of pitch change become doubtful about 2100 Hz Given potential errors in distinction a third escape oar was provided for use in the event of uncertainty 26 While individuals do make use of the escape they are often reluctant to do so 27 Dolphin subjects still chose one of the other two options despite confusion perhaps as an insistence on their original answer 26 Based on this type of research experts have widely agreed on a pattern of ingrained compulsion that further supports Morgan s lower ordered inquiries See also EditAnimal cognition B F Skinner Behavioral ecology Edward Thorndike Mating system Occam s razor Pathetic fallacy Philosophical razor Signalling theoryReferences Edit Epstein R 1984 The principle of parsimony and some applications in psychology Journal of Mind and Behavior 5 2 119 130 ISSN 0271 0137 JSTOR 43853318 Morgan CL 1903 Chapter 3 Other minds than ours An Introduction to Comparative Psychology 2nd ed W Scott p 59 Dawkins MS October 2006 Through animal eyes What behaviour tells us Applied Animal Behaviour Science 100 1 2 4 10 doi 10 1016 j applanim 2006 04 010 ISSN 0168 1591 Karin D Arcy MR 2005 12 31 The Modern Role of Morgan s Canon in Comparative Psychology eScholarship University of California OCLC 1034738815 Dewsbury DA 1984 Comparative psychology in the twentieth century doi 10 1037 10875 000 ISBN 0 87933 108 9 de Waal F 2002 The ape and the sushi master cultural relfections by a primatologist Penguin ISBN 0141003901 OCLC 59389229 Steward H 2018 06 21 Morgan s Canon Oxford Scholarship Online doi 10 1093 oso 9780199375967 003 0018 Bohnert M Hilbert C July 2018 Other minds than ours a controversial discussion on the limits and possibilities of comparative psychology in the light of C Lloyd Morgan s work History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 40 3 44 doi 10 1007 s40656 018 0211 4 PMID 30054748 S2CID 51728405 Kimler WC December 2000 Reading Morgan s Canon Reduction and Unification in the Forging of a Science of the Mind American Zoologist 40 6 853 861 doi 10 1093 icb 40 6 853 ISSN 0003 1569 Fitzpatrick S April 2008 Doing Away with Morgan s Canon Mind amp Language 23 2 224 246 doi 10 1111 j 1468 0017 2007 00338 x Starzak T May 2017 Interpretations without justification a general argument against Morgan s Canon Synthese 194 5 1681 1701 doi 10 1007 s11229 016 1013 4 S2CID 30865639 Fitzpatrick S April 2008 Doing Away with Morgan s Canon Mind amp Language 23 2 224 246 doi 10 1111 j 1468 0017 2007 00338 x ISSN 0268 1064 Bruni D Perconti P Plebe A 2018 11 15 Anti anthropomorphism and Its Limits Frontiers in Psychology 9 2205 doi 10 3389 fpsyg 2018 02205 PMC 6249301 PMID 30498465 Ghiselin MT September 1983 Lloyd Morgan s canon in evolutionary context Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6 3 362 363 doi 10 1017 s0140525x00016460 ISSN 0140 525X S2CID 145363549 Nolan PM Stephen Dobson F Nicolaus M Karels TJ McGraw KJ Jouventin P April 2010 Mutual Mate Choice for Colorful Traits in King Penguins Ethology 116 7 635 644 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0310 2010 01775 x S2CID 18278748 a b Pincemy G Dobson FS Jouventin P 2010 10 08 Homosexual Mating Displays in Penguins Ethology 116 12 1210 1216 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0310 2010 01835 x ISSN 0179 1613 Weimerskirch H Stahl JC Jouventin P 1992 The breeding biology and population dynamics of King Penguins Aptenodytes patagonica on the Crozet Islands Ibis 134 2 107 117 doi 10 1111 j 1474 919X 1992 tb08387 x Elwood RW Arnott G November 2012 Understanding how animals fight with Lloyd Morgan s canon Animal Behaviour 84 5 1095 1102 doi 10 1016 j anbehav 2012 08 035 S2CID 53198330 a b c Takeuchi T January 2017 Agonistic display or courtship behavior A review of contests over mating opportunity in butterflies Journal of Ethology 35 1 3 12 doi 10 1007 s10164 016 0487 3 PMC 5215026 PMID 28127115 Gadagkar R November 2005 The logic of animal conflict Resonance 10 11 5 doi 10 1007 bf02837640 S2CID 120743691 Peixoto PE Muniz D Benson WW 2012 01 05 Do Feeding Resources Induce the Adoption of Resource Defence Polygyny in a Lekking Butterfly Ethology 118 3 311 319 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0310 2011 02015 x ISSN 0179 1613 a b Takeuchi T Imafuku M September 2005 Territorial behavior of a green hairstreak Chrysozephyrus smaragdinus Lepidoptera Lycaenidae site tenacity and wars of attrition Zoological Science 22 9 989 94 doi 10 2108 zsj 22 989 hdl 2433 57198 PMID 16219979 S2CID 31819356 Broom DM August 2010 Cognitive ability and awareness in domestic animals and decisions about obligations to animals Applied Animal Behaviour Science 126 1 2 1 11 doi 10 1016 j applanim 2010 05 001 ISSN 0168 1591 Broom DM 1998 Welfare Stress and the Evolution of Feelings Stress and Behavior Advances in the Study of Behavior Vol 27 Elsevier pp 371 403 doi 10 1016 s0065 3454 08 60369 1 ISBN 9780120045273 a b Bekoff M Allen C Burghardt GM eds 2002 Exploring the Cognitive World of the Bottlenosed Dolphin The Cognitive Animal The MIT Press doi 10 7551 mitpress 1885 003 0039 ISBN 9780262268028 a b c Browne D September 2004 Do dolphins know their own minds Biology amp Philosophy 19 4 633 653 doi 10 1007 sBIPH 004 0928 1 ISSN 0169 3867 S2CID 9116792 Smith JD Schull J Strote J McGee K Egnor R Erb L 1995 The uncertain response in the bottlenosed dolphin Tursiops truncatus Journal of Experimental Psychology General 124 4 391 408 doi 10 1037 0096 3445 124 4 391 PMID 8530911 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Morgan 27s Canon amp oldid 1127134863, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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