fbpx
Wikipedia

Military history of Taiwan

The military history of Taiwan spans at least 400 years and is the history of battles and armed actions that took place in Taiwan and its surrounding islands. The island was the base of Chinese pirates who came into conflict with the Ming dynasty during the 16th century. From 1624 to 1662, Taiwan was the base of Dutch and Spanish colonies. The era of European colonization ended when a Ming general named Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) retreated to Taiwan as a result of the Ming-Qing War and ousted the Dutch in 1661. The Dutch held out in northern Taiwan until 1668 when they left due to indigenous resistance. Koxinga's dynasty ruled southwestern Taiwan as the Kingdom of Tungning and attacked the Qing dynasty during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories (1673-1681).

In 1683, the Qing invaded Taiwan and ousted the Zheng regime, establishing Taiwan Prefecture (later Taiwan Province) in southwestern Taiwan. The Qing administration lasted for over two centuries, during which it rarely tried to conquer the Taiwanese indigenous peoples and instead tried to restrict settlers from entering Taiwan. Despite official restrictions, Han Chinese settlers increased and crossed into indigenous territory across the western Taiwanese plain, leading to conflicts with indigenous peoples in central and northeastern Taiwan. Most rebellions during the Qing period occurred due to Han discontent while the indigenous people were left to their own devices.

The Qing ceded Taiwan and Penghu to the Empire of Japan after losing the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895. There was brief military resistance from Qing forces in Taiwan before retreating, after which decades of Japanese military suppression followed. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan served as a base for invasions of China, and later Southeast Asia and the Pacific during World War II. Some Taiwanese served in the Japanese military, although not in combat positions until in the late stages of the war. Some 207,000 Taiwanese served in the Imperial Japanese military and 50,000 Taiwanese Imperial Japanese Servicemen went missing in action or died.

Following World War II and the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan in 1949, Taiwan's military has been the Republic of China Armed Forces. Until 1972, a primary aim of the Chiang Kai-shek-controlled armed forces was to retake mainland China by large-scale invasion. In the modern era, the focus of Taiwan's military has been national defense to thwart any possible attacks primarily from the People's Republic of China and its People's Liberation Army forces.

Early conflicts edit

Early records refer to an eastern island named Yizhou, to which troops of Three Kingdoms state of Eastern Wu visited as early as 230. Some scholars believe this island was Taiwan, while others dispute the theory.[1] The Book of Sui relates that Emperor Yang of the Sui dynasty sent three expeditions to a place called "Liuqiu" early in the 7th century.[2] Historically, the name Liuqiu (whose characters are read in Japanese as Ryukyu) referred to the island chain to the northeast of Taiwan, but some scholars believe it may have referred to Taiwan in the Sui period. Okinawa Island may have been referred to by the Chinese as "Great Liuqiu" and Taiwan as "Little Liuqiu".[3]

During the Song dynasty, Han Chinese fishermen settled on the Penghu Islands by 1171, when "Bisheye" bandits, a Taiwanese people related to the Bisaya of the Visayas, landed on Penghu and plundered fields planted by Chinese migrants.[4] The Song dynasty sent soldiers after them, and from that time on Song patrols regularly visited Penghu in the spring and summer. A local official, Wang Dayou, stationed troops there to prevent depredations from the Bisheye.[5][6][7]

During the Yuan dynasty, a patrol and inspection agency (Chinese: 巡檢司) was set up in Penghu around 1281,[8] and Han Chinese people were recorded to have visited Taiwan. Yuan emperor Kublai Khan sent officials to the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1292 to demand its loyalty to the Yuan dynasty, but the officials ended up in Taiwan and mistook it for Ryukyu. After three soldiers were killed, the delegation immediately retreated to Quanzhou in China. Another expedition was sent in 1297.[9]

The Chinese pirates Lin Daoqian and Lin Feng visited Taiwan in 1563 and 1574 respectively. Lin Daoqian was a Hakka pirate from Chaozhou who was chased out of Fujian in 1563 by Ming naval forces led by Yu Dayou and fled to Beigang in southwestern Taiwan. He left the next year to ravage the mainland and stayed active in the region until 1578 when he left for Southeast Asia. Lin Feng moved his pirate forces to Wankan (in modern Chiayi County) in Taiwan on 3 November 1574 and used it as a base to launch raids. They left for Penghu after being attacked by natives and the Ming navy dislodged them from their bases. He later returned to Wankan on 27 December 1575 but left for Southeast Asia after losing a naval encounter with Ming forces on 15 January 1576.[10][11] The pirate Yan Siqi also used Taiwan as a base.[12]

Chen Di visited Taiwan in 1603 on an expedition against the Wokou pirates.[13][14] The pirates were defeated and they met a native chieftain who presented them with gifts.[15] Chen recorded these events in an account of Taiwan known as Dongfanji (An Account of the Eastern Barbarians) and described the natives of Taiwan and their lifestyle.[16]

In 1616, the Tokugawa shogunate sent a fleet of 13 ships and 4,000 warriors in an attempt to conquer Taiwan as part of a larger campaign to strengthen Japanese sea power and facilitate its silk trade. Due to a typhoon, the invasion forces were dispersed, and only one ship reached Taiwan.[17][18]

Dutch and Spanish colonies (1624–1662) edit

Early contact edit

In 1542, Portuguese sailors arrived in Taiwan and noted it on their maps as Ilha Formosa (lit. 'beautiful island').[19] In 1582, the survivors of a Portuguese shipwreck spent 45 days battling malaria and aborigines before returning to Macau.[20][21]

Defeated by the Portuguese at the Battle of Macau in 1622, the Dutch East India Company attempted to take Penghu in 1624, building Fengguiwei Fort in Magong. Dutch forces were driven out by Ming authorities and retreated to a sandy peninsula of Tayuan (present-day Anping District) and built a defensive fort to act as a base of operations. This temporary fort was replaced four years later by the more substantial Fort Zeelandia.[22][page needed]

Dutch ships wrecked at Liuqiu in 1624 and 1631; their crews were killed by the inhabitants.[23] In 1633, an expedition consisting of 250 Dutch soldiers, 40 Chinese pirates, and 250 Taiwanese natives were sent against Liuqiu Island but met with little success.[24]

Dutch colonization edit

 
Robert Junius, one of the leaders of the Mattau expedition

The Dutch allied with Sinkan, a small village that provided them with firewood, venison and fish.[25] In 1625, they bought land from the Sinkanders and built the town of Sakam for Dutch and Chinese merchants.[26] Initially the other villages maintained peace with the Dutch. In 1625, the Dutch attacked 170 Chinese pirates in Wankan but were driven off. Encouraged by the Dutch failure, Mattau warriors raided Sinkan. The Dutch returned and drove off the pirates. The people of Sinkan then attacked Mattau and Baccluan, and sought protection from Japan. In 1629, Pieter Nuyts visited Sinkan with 60 musketeers. After Nuyts left, the musketeers were killed in an ambush by Mattau and Soulang warriors.[27] On 23 November 1629, an expedition set out and burned most of Baccluan, killing many of its people, who the Dutch believed harbored proponents of the previous massacre. Baccluan, Mattau, and Soulang people continued to harass company employees until late 1633 when Mattau and Soulang went to war with each other.[27]

In 1635, 475 soldiers from Batavia arrived in Taiwan.[28] By this point even Sinkan was on bad terms with the Dutch. Soldiers were sent into the village and arrested those who plotted rebellion. In the winter of 1635 the Dutch defeated Mattau and Baccluan. In 1636, a large expedition was sent against Liuqiu Island. The Dutch and their allies chased about 300 inhabitants into caves, sealed the entrances, and killed them with poisonous fumes. The native population of 1100 was removed from the island.[29] They were enslaved with the men sent to Batavia while the women and children became servants and wives for the Dutch officers. The Dutch planned to depopulate the outlying islands.[30] The villages of Taccariang, Soulang, and Tevorang were also pacified.[27] In 1642, the Dutch massacred the people of Liuqiu island again.[31]

In 1636, Favorolang, the largest aboriginal village north of Mattau, killed three Chinese and wounded several others. From August to November, Favrolangers appeared near Fort Zeelandia and captured a Chinese fishing vessel. The next year the Dutch and their native allies defeated Favorolang. The expedition was paid for by the Chinese populace. When peace negotiations failed, the Dutch blamed a group of Chinese at Favorolang. The Favorolangers continued their attacks until 1638. In 1640 an incident involving the capture of a Favorolang leader and the ensuing death of three Dutch hunters near Favorolang resulted in the banning of Chinese hunters from Favorolang territory. The Dutch blamed the Chinese and orders were given to restrict Chinese residency and travel. No Chinese vessel was allowed around Taiwan unless it carried a license. An expedition was ordered to chase away the Chinese from the land and to subjugate the natives to the north. In November 1642, an expedition set out northward, killing 19 natives and 11 Chinese. A policy banning any Chinese from living north of Mattau was implemented. Later the Chinese were allowed to conduct trade in Favorolang with a permit. The Favorolangers were told to capture any Chinese who did not possess a permit.[32]

Spanish colony edit

In 1626, Spanish forces landed at Cape Santiago in northern Taiwan. They eventually moved westward to modern-day Keelung, where they established Santisima Trinidad as a base for the new colony.[22][page needed] They seized the territory from aboriginal inhabitants or destroyed their residences, promising to pay for the damages. According to historian Jose Eugenio Borao Mateo, the Spanish colonists did not ask for tribute from the aboriginal inhabitants, "because in practice they did not consider the natives as vassals, but as heathens to be converted, neighbors and service suppliers."[33]

In 1641, governor of Dutch Formosa Paulus Traudenius launched an expedition on the Spanish settlement of San Salvador in modern-day Keelung. The Spanish positions were well-defended, and Dutch forces were not able to breach the walls of Fort San Salvador. In the following year, the Dutch launched a second assault and successfully captured San Salvador.

Guo Huaiyi rebellion edit

On 8 September 1652, a Chinese farmer, Guo Huaiyi, and an army of peasants attacked Sakam. Most of the Dutch were able to find refuge but others were captured and executed. Over the next two days, natives and Dutch killed around 500 Chinese. On 11 September, four or five thousand Chinese rebels clashed with the company soldiers and their native allies. The rebels fled; some 4,000 Chinese were killed.[34] The rebellion and its ensuing massacre destroyed the rural labor force. Although the crops survived almost unscathed, there was a below average harvest for 1653. However thousands of Chinese migrated to Taiwan due to war on the mainland and a modest recovery of agriculture occurred. Anti-Chinese measures increased. Natives were reminded to watch the Chinese and not to engage with them. However in terms of military preparations, little was done.[35]

Koxinga's invasion edit

 
The surrender of Fort Zeelandia in 1662

Zheng Chenggong, known in Dutch sources as Koxinga, studied at the Imperial Academy in Nanjing. When Beijing fell in 1644 to rebels, Chenggong and his followers declared their loyalty to the Ming dynasty and he was bestowed the title Guoxingye (Lord of the Imperial surname). Chenggong continued the resistance against the Qing from Xiamen. In 1650 he planned a major offensive from Guangdong. The Qing deployed a large army to the area and Chenggong decided to ferry his army along the coast but a storm hindered his movements. The Qing launched a surprise attack on Xiamen, forcing him to return to protect it. From 1656 to 1658 he planned to take Nanjing. Chenggong encircled Nanjing on 24 August 1659. Qing reinforcements arrived and broke Chenggong's army, forcing them to retreat to Xiamen. In 1660 the Qing embarked on a coastal evacuation policy to starve Chenggong of his source of livelihood.[36] Some of the rebels during the Guo Huaiyi rebellion had expected aid from Chenggong and some company officials believed that the rebellion had been incited by him.[36]

Chenggong retreated from his stronghold in Amoy (Xiamen city) and attacked the Dutch colony in Taiwan in the hope of establishing a strategic base to marshal his troops to retake his base at Amoy. On 23 March 1661, Zheng's fleet set sail from Kinmen with a fleet carrying around 25,000 soldiers and sailors. The fleet arrived at Tayouan on 2 April. Zheng's forces routed 240 Dutch soldiers at Baxemboy Island in the Bay of Taiwan and landed at the bay of Luermen.[37][38] Three Dutch ships attacked the Chinese junks and destroyed several until their main warship exploded. The remaining ships were unable to keep Zheng from controlling the waters around Taiwan.[39][40]

On 4 April, Fort Provintia surrendered to Zheng's forces. Following a nine-month siege, Chenggong captured the Dutch fortress Zeelandia and established a base in Taiwan.[41] The Dutch held out at Keelung until 1668 when they withdrew from Taiwan completely.[42][43][44]

Kingdom of Tungning (1661–1683) edit

Retreat to Taiwan edit

 
Portrait of Zheng Jing (1642–1681), possibly 17th c.

Following the death of Zheng Chenggong in 1662, his son Zheng Jing's succession was met with dissension in Taiwan, where the leaders made Zheng Miao, Zheng Chenggong's fifth son, the successor. With the support of Xiamen's commanders, Zheng Jing arrived in Taiwan in December 1662 and defeated his political enemies. The political infighting caused some followers to become disillusioned and defect to the Qing. From September 1661 to August 1662, some 290 officers, 4,334 soldiers, and 467 civilians left Zheng Taiwan. Three leading Zheng commanders contacted Qing authorities with the intention to defect but Zheng Jing imprisoned them. The defections continued and by 1663, some 3,985 officials and officers, 40,962 soldiers, 64,230 civilians, and 900 ships in Fujian had defected from Zheng held territory.[45] To combat population decline, Zheng Jing also promoted migration to Taiwan. Between 1665 and 1669 a large number of Fujianese moved to Taiwan under Zheng rule. In a few years, some 9,000 Chinese were brought to Taiwan by Zheng Jing.[46][47]

The Qing dynasty enacted a sea-ban on coastal China to starve out the Zheng forces. In 1663, the writer Xia Lin who lived in Xiamen testified that the Zhengs were short on supplies and the people suffered tremendous hardship due to the Qing sea ban (haijin) policy. After Zheng forces retreated completely from the coast of Fujian in 1669, the Qing started relaxing restrictions on maritime trade.[48] Due to the sea ban policy, which saw the relocation of all southern coastal towns and ports that had been subject to Zheng raids, migration occurred from these areas to Taiwan. About 1,000 previous Ming government officials moved to Taiwan fleeing Qing persecution.[49]

From June to August 1663, Duke Huang Wu of Haicheng and commander Shi Lang of Tongan urged the Qing court to take Xiamen, and made plans for an attack in October. The Dutch too had attacked Zheng ships in Xiamen but failed to take the town. In August the Dutch contacted Qing authorities in Fujian to propose a joint expedition against Zheng Taiwan. The message did not reach the Qing court until 7 January 1663 and it took another four months for a reply. The Kangxi Emperor granted the Dutch permission to set up inland trading posts but declined the proposal for a joint expedition. The Dutch did however assist the Qing in naval combat against the Zheng fleet in October 1663, resulting in the capture of Zheng bases in Xiamen and Kinmen in November. The Zheng admiral Zhou Quanbin surrendered on 20 November. The remaining Zheng forces fled southward and completely evacuated from the mainland coast in the spring of 1664.[50][51]

Qing-Dutch forces attempted to invade Taiwan twice in December 1664. On both occasions Admiral Shi Lang turned back his ships due to adverse weather. Shi Lang tried to attack Taiwan again in 1666 but turned back due to a storm. The Dutch continued to attack Zheng ships from time to time, disrupting trade, and occupied Keelung until 1668, but they were unable to take back the island. Their position at sea was gradually taken over by Great Britain. On 10 September 1670, a representative from the British East India Company signed a trade agreement with Zheng Taiwan.[52][53] However trade with the British was limited because of the Zheng monopoly on sugar cane and deer hide as well as the inability of the British to match the price of East Asian goods for resale. Zheng trade was subject to the Qing sea ban policy throughout its existence, limiting trade with mainland China to smugglers.[49]

Revolt of the Three Feudatories edit

 
Map showing the Revolt of the Three Feudatories (1673–1681)

In 1670 and 1673, Zheng forces seized tributary vessels on their way to the mainland from Ryukyu. In 1671, Zheng forces raided the coast of Zhejiang and Fujian. In 1674, Zheng Jing took advantage of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories on the mainland and recaptured Xiamen and used it as a trading center to fund his efforts to retake mainland China. He imported swords, gun barrels, knives, armours, lead and saltpeter, and other components for gunpowder. Zheng made an alliance with the rebel lord Geng Jingzhong in Fujian, but they fell afoul of each other not long afterward. Zheng captured Quanzhou and Zhangzhou in 1674. In 1675, the commander of Chaozhou, Liu Jingzhong, defected to Zheng. After Geng and other rebels surrendered to the Qing in 1676 and 1677, the tide turned against the Zheng forces. Quanzhou was lost to the Qing on 12 March 1677 and then Zhangzhou and Haicheng on 5 April. Zheng forces counterattacked and retook Haicheng in August. Zheng naval forces blockaded Quanzhou and tried to retake the city in August 1678 but they were forced to retreat in October when Qing reinforcements arrived. Zheng forces suffered heavy casualties in a battle in January 1679.[54]

On 6 March 1680, the Qing fleet led by Admiral Wan Zhengse moved against Zheng naval forces near Quanzhou and defeated them on 20 March with assistance from land-based artillery. The sudden retreat of Zheng naval forces caused widespread panic on land and many Zheng commanders and soldiers defected to the Qing. Xiamen was abandoned. On 10 April, Zheng Jing's war on the mainland came to a close.[55]

Zheng Jing died in early 1681.[56]

Qing invasion edit

Shi Lang edit

 
Shi Lang (1621–1696) in an 18th-century painting

Admiral Shi Lang was the primary leader in advocating and organizing the Qing effort to conquer Zheng Taiwan. Born in Jinjiang, Fujian in 1621, he was a soldier in the service of Zheng Zhilong until he had a falling out with Zheng Chenggong, resulting in Shi's defection to the Qing.[57][58]

The Qing established a naval force in Fujian in 1662 and appointed Shi Lang as the commander. On 15 May 1663, Shi attacked the Zheng fleet and succeeded in capturing 24 Zheng officers, 5 ships, and killing over 200 enemies. Shi planned to attack Xiamen on 19 September, but the Qing court decided to postpone the assault until Dutch naval reinforcements arrived. From 18 to 20 November, the Dutch fought sea battles against the Zheng while Shi took Xiamen. In 1664, Shi assembled a fleet of 240 ships, and in conjunction with 16,500 troops, chased the remaining Zheng forces south. They failed to dislodge the last Zheng stronghold due to the departure of the Dutch fleet. However, after the defection of Zheng commander Zhou Quanbin, Zheng Jing decided to pull out from the remaining mainland stronghold in the spring of 1664.[59]

Shi proposed to the Qing court an invasion of Penghu and Taiwan. In November 1664, Shi's fleet set sail but was turned back by a storm. He tried again in May 1665 but there was too little wind to move the ships and then a few days later the winds reversed direction and forced him to return. Another failed attempt was made in June when they were met with a violent storm, sinking a few small ships, and damaging the masts of several other ships. Shi's flagship was blown to the coast of Guangdong on 30 June. In 1666, the Qing called off the expedition.[60] Shi Lang was removed from office in 1667 during negotiations between the Qing and Zheng Taiwan.[61]

Battle of Penghu edit

 
Map of Penghu, Qing dynasty

Shi Lang was reappointed as the naval chief of Fujian on 10 September 1681.[62]

In Taiwan, Zheng Jing's death resulted in a coup shortly afterward. His illegitimate son, Zheng Keshuang, murdered his brother Zheng Kezang with the support of minister Feng Xifan. Political turmoil, heavy taxes, an epidemic in the north, a large fire that caused the destruction of more than a thousand houses, and suspicion of collusion with the Qing caused more Zheng followers to defect to the Qing. Zheng's deputy Commander Liu Bingzhong surrendered with his ships and men from Penghu.[63][64]

Orders from the Kangxi Emperor to invade Taiwan reached Yao Qisheng and Shi Lang on 6 June 1682. The invasion fleet was met with unfavorable winds and was forced to turn back. Yao proposed a five-month postponement of the invasion to wait for favorable winds in November. Conflict between Yao and Shi led to Yao's removal from power in November.[65]

On 18 November 1682, Shi Lang was authorized to assume the role of supreme commander while Yao was relegated to logistical matters. Supplies arrived for Shi's 21,000 troops, 70 large warships, 103 supply ships, and 65 double mast vessels in early December. Spy ships were sent to scout Penghu and returned safely. Two attempts to sail to Penghu in February 1683 failed due to a shift in winds.[66]

Shi's fleet of 238 ships and over 21,000 men set sail on 8 July 1683. Liu Guoxuan, the commander of 30,000 men at Penghu, considered the movement a false alarm and believed Shi would turn back. The next day, Shi's fleet was sighted at small islands to the northwest of Penghu. The Qing forces were met by 200 Zheng ships. Following an exchange of gunfire, the Qing were forced to retreat with two Zheng naval commanders, Qiu Hui and Jiang Sheng, in pursuit. The Qing vanguard led by Admiral Lan Li provided cover fire for a withdrawal. Shi was hit in the right eye and Lan was wounded in the stomach during the fighting. The Zheng side also suffered heavy losses, making Liu reluctant to pursue the disarrayed Qing forces. He reported a "great victory" back to Taiwan.[67]

On 11 July, Shi regrouped his squadrons and requested reinforcements at Bazhao. On 16 July, a reinforcement of large ships arrived. Shi divided the main striking force into eight squadrons of seven ships with himself leading from the middle. Two flotillas of 50 small ships sailed in two different directions as a diversion. The remaining vessels served as rear reinforcements.[68]

The battle took place in the bay of Magong. The Zheng garrison fired at the Qing ships and then set sail from the harbor with about 100 ships to meet the Qing forces. Shi concentrated fire on one big enemy ship at a time until all of Zheng's battle ships were sunk by the end of 17 July. Liu escaped to Taiwan with dozens of small vessels. Approximately 12,000 Zheng men perished. The garrison commanders surrendered after hearing of Liu's escape. The Qing captured Penghu on 18 July.[69]

Qing dynasty (1683–1895) edit

 
Depiction of Qing ships crossing the ocean to suppress the Lin Shuangwen rebellion, 1787–1788
 
Conquest of Douliumen (Zhuluo)
 
Battle of Fangliao during the Lin Shuangwen rebellion of 1787–1788

Indigenous rebellions (1723–1733) edit

In 1723, aborigines living in Dajiaxi village along the central coastal plain rebelled. Government troops from southern Taiwan were sent to put down this revolt, but in their absence, Han settlers in Fengshan County rose up in revolt under the leadership of Wu Fusheng, a settler from Zhangzhou.[70] By 1732, five different ethnic groups were in revolt but the rebellion was defeated by the end of the year.[70]

During the Qianlong period (1735–1796), the 93 shufan acculturated aborigine villages never rebelled and over 200 non-acculturated aboriginal villages submitted.[71] In fact, during the 200 years of Qing rule in Taiwan, the plains aborigines rarely rebelled against the government and the mountain aborigines were left to their own devices until the last 20 years of Qing rule. Most of the rebellions, of which there were more than 100 during the Qing period, were caused by Han settlers.[72][73] The idom, "Every three years an uprising, every five years a rebellion" (三年一反、五年一亂), was used primarily to describe commotions that occurred during the 30-year period between 1820-1850.[74][75]

Zhu Yigui rebellion edit

Zhu Yigui, also known as the "Duck King",[76] was a settler from Fujian. He became the owner of a duck farm in Taiwan's Luohanmen (modern Kaohsiung). Zhu was known among locals for his generous conduct and persistent fight against immoral conduct. In 1720, there was an upset among merchants, fishermen, and farmers in Taiwan due to increased taxation. They gathered around Zhu, who shared the same surname with the Ming dynasty's royal family, and supported him in mobilizing discontent Chinese into an anti-Qing rebellion.[77] Zhu was declared the Ming Emperor and efforts were made to imitate Ming style clothing with performance costumes.[76] Hakka leader Lin Junying from the south also joined the rebellion. In March 1720, Zhu and Lin attacked the Qing garrison at Taiwan County and defeated them in April. In less than two weeks, the rebels had defeated Qing forces in all of Taiwan. The Hakka troops left Zhu to follow Lin north. The Qing sent a fleet under the command of Shi Shibian (son of Shi Lang) with an army of 22,000 troops. A month later, the rebellion was defeated and Zhu was executed in Beijing.[77]

Lin Shuangwen rebellion edit

In 1786, members of the Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth society) secret society were arrested for failing to make tax payments. The Tiandihui broke into the jail, killed the guards, and rescued their members. When Qing troops were sent into the village and tried to arrest Lin Shuangwen, the leader of the Tiandihui and a settler from Fujian, led his forces to defeat the Qing troops.[78] Many of the rebel army's troops came from new arrivals from mainland China who could not find land to farm. They joined the Tiandihui for protection.[76] Lin attacked Changhua County, killing 2,000 civilians. In early 1787, 50,000 Qing troops under Li Shiyao from the mainland were sent to put down the rebellion. The two sides fought to a stalemate for six months. Lin tried to enlist the support of the Hakka people but not only did they refuse, they sent their troops to support the Qing.[78] Despite the Tiandihui's ostensibly anti-Qing stance, its members were generally anti-government and were not motivated by ethnic or national interest, resulting in social discord and political chaos. Some civilians aided the Qing against the rebels.[76] In 1788, a fresh force of 10,000 Qing troops led by Fuk'anggan and Hailanqa were sent to Taiwan.[79] They successfully defeated the rebellion shortly after arriving. Lin was executed in Beijing in April 1788.[78] The Qianlong Emperor gave Zhuluo County its modern name Chiayi (lit. commendable righteousness) for resisting the rebels.[76]

Colonization of Kavalan edit

The Gamalan or Kavalan people were situated in modern Yilan County in northeastern Taiwan. It was separated from the western plains and Tamsui (Danshui) by mountains. There were 36 aboriginal villages in the area and the Kavalan people had started paying taxes as early as the Kangxi period (r. 1661–1722), but they were non-acculturated guihua shengfan aborigines. In 1787, a Chinese settler named Wu Sha tried to reclaim land in Gamalan but was defeated by aborigines. The next year, the Tamsui sub-prefect convinced the Taiwan prefect, Yang Tingli, to support Wu Sha. Yang recommended subjugating the natives and opening Gamalan for settlement to the Fujian governor but the governor refused to act due to fear of conflict. In 1797, a new Tamsui sub-prefect issued permit and financial support for Wu to recruit settlers for land reclamation, which was illegal. Wu's successors were unable to register the reclaimed land on government registers. Local officials supported land reclamation but could not officially recognize it.[80]

In 1806 it was reported that a pirate, Cai Qian, was within the vicinity of Gamalan. Taiwan Prefect Yang once again recommended opening up Gamalan, arguing that to abandon it would cause trouble on the frontier. Later another pirate band tried to occupy Gamalan. Yang recommended to the Fuzhou General Saichong'a the establishment of administration and land surveys in Gamalan. Saichong'a initially refused but then changed his mind and sent a memorial to the emperor in 1808 recommending the incorporation of Gamalan. The issue was discussed by the central government officials and for the first time, one official went on record saying that if aboriginal territory was incorporated, not only would it end the pirate threat but the government would stand to profit from the land itself. In 1809, the emperor ordered for Gamalan to be incorporated. The next year an imperial decree for the formal incorporation of Gamalan was issued and a Gamalan sub-prefect was appointed.[81]

Opium War edit

By 1831, the East India Company decided it no longer wanted to trade with the Chinese on their terms and planned more aggressive measures. A Prussian missionary and linguist, Karl F.A. Gutzlaff, was sent to explore Taiwan. He published his experiences in Taiwan in 1833 confirming its rich resources and trade potential. Given the strategic and commercial value of Taiwan, there were British suggestions in 1840 and 1841 to seize the island. William Huttman wrote to Lord Palmerston pointing out "China’s benign rule over Taiwan and the strategic and commercial importance of the island."[82] He suggested that Taiwan could be occupied with only a warship and less than 1,500 troops, and the English would be able to spread Christianity among the natives as well as develop trade.[83]

In September 1841, during the First Opium War, the British transport ship Nerbudda became shipwrecked near Keelung Harbour due to a typhoon. The captain and a handful of English officers escaped safely, however most of the crew including 29 Europeans, 5 Filipinos, and 240 Indian lascars, were rescued by locals and handed over to Qing officials in Tainan, the capital of Taiwan. In October 1841, HMS Nimrod sailed to Keelung to search for the Nerbudda survivors, but after Captain Joseph Pearse found out that they were sent south for imprisonment, he ordered the bombardment of the harbour and destroyed 27 sets of cannon before returning to Hong Kong. The brig Ann also shipwrecked in March 1842 and another 54 survivors were taken.The Taiwan Qing commanders, Dahonga and Yao Ying, filed a disingenuous report to the emperor, claiming to have defended against an attack from the Keelung fort. Most of the survivors—over 130 from the Nerbudda and 54 from the Ann—were executed in Tainan in August 1842. The false report was later discovered and the officials in Taiwan punished. The British wanted them executed but they were only given different postings on the mainland, which the British were not aware of until 1845.[82]

Rover incident edit

 
American expedition to Taiwan in 1867

On 12 March 1867, the American barque Rover shipwrecked offshore at the southern tip of Taiwan. The vessel sank but the captain, his wife, and some men escaped on two boats. One boat landed at a small bay near the Bi Mountains inhabited by the Koaluts (Guizaijiao) tribe of the Paiwan people. The Koaluts aborigines captured them and mistook the captain's wife for a man. They killed her. The captain, two white men, and the Chinese sailors save for one who managed to escape to Takau, were also killed. The Cormorant, a British steamer, tried to help and landed near the shipwreck on 26 March. The aborigines fired muskets and shot arrows at them, forcing them to retreat. The American Asiatic Fleet's Admiral Bell also landed at the Bi Mountains where they got lost, suffered heatstroke, and then was ambushed by the aborigines, losing an officer.[84][85]

Le Gendre, the US Consul, blamed the Qing dynasty for the failure and demanded that they send troops to help him negotiate with the aborigines. He also hoped that the Qing would permanently station troops to prevent further killings by the aborigines. On 10 September, Garrison Commander Liu Mingcheng led 500 Qing troops to southern Taiwan with Le Gendre. The remains were recovered. The aboriginal chief, Tanketok (Toketok), explained that a long time ago the white men came and almost exterminated the Koaluts tribe and their ancestors passed down their desire for revenge. They came to an oral agreement that the mountain aborigines would not kill any more castaways, would care for them and hand them over to the Chinese at Langqiao.[86]

Le Gendre visited the tribe again in February 1869 and signed an agreement with them in English. It was later discovered that Tanketok did not have absolute control over the tribes and some of them paid him no heed. Le Gendre castigated China as a semi-civilized power for not fulfilling the obligation of the law of nations, which is to seize the territory of a "wild race" and to confer upon it the benefits of civilization. Since China failed to prevent the aborigines from killing subjects or citizens of civilized countries, "we see the rights of the Emperor of China over aboriginal Formosa, such as we have said, are not absolute, as long as she remains uncivilized..."[87] Le Gendre later moved to Japan and worked with the Japanese government as a foreign advisor on their China policy, including the development of the concept of the "East Asian crescent". According to the "East Asian crescent" concept, Japan should control Korea, Taiwan, and Ryukyu to affirm its position in East Asia.[88]

Mudan incident edit

In December 1871, a Ryukyuan vessel shipwrecked on the southeastern tip of Taiwan and 54 sailors were killed by aborigines. Four tribute ships were returning to the Ryukyu Islands when they were blown off course on 12 December. Two ships were pushed towards Taiwan. One of them landed on Taiwan's western coast and made it back home with the help of Qing officials. The other one crashed into the eastern coast of southern Taiwan near Bayao Bay. There were 69 passengers and 66 managed to make it to shore. They met two Chinese men who told them not to travel inland where the dangerous Paiwan people were.[89]

According to the survivors, the Chinese robbed them and they decided to part ways. On 18 December they headed westward and encountered aboriginal men, presumably Paiwanese. They followed the Paiwanese to a small settlement, Kuskus, where they were given food and water. According to Kuskus local Valjeluk Mavalu, the water was a symbol of protection and friendship. The deposition claims they were robbed by their Kuskus hosts during the night. In the morning they were ordered to stay put while hunters left to search for game to provide a feast. Alarmed by the armed men and rumors of head hunting, the Ryukyuans departed while the hunting party was away. They found shelter in the home of a 73 year old Hakka trading-post serviceman, Deng Tianbao. The Paiwanese men found the Ryukyuans and dragged them out, slaughtering them, while others died in a fight or were caught trying to escape. Nine Ryukyuans hid in Deng's home. They moved to another Hakka settlement Poliac (Baoli) where they found refuge with Deng's son-in-law, Yang Youwang. Yang arranged for the ransom of three men and sheltered the survivors for 40 days before sending them to Taiwan Prefecture (modern Tainan). The Ryukuans headed home in July 1872.[90]

It is uncertain what caused the Paiwanese to murder the Ryukyuans. Some say the Ryukyuans did not understand Paiwanese guest etiquette, they ate and ran, or that their captors could not find ransom and therefore killed them. According to Lianes Punanang, a Mudan local, 66 men who could not understand the local languages entered Kuskus and began taking food and drink, disregarding village boundaries. Efforts to aid the strangers with food and drink strained Kuskus resources. They were finally killed for their misdeeds. The shipwreck and murder of the sailors came to be known as the Mudan incident although it did not take place in Mudan (J. Botan), but at Kuskus (Gaoshifo).[91]

The Mudan incident did not immediately cause any concern in Japan. A few officials knew of it by mid-1872 but it was not until April 1874 that it became an international concern. The repatriation procedure in 1872 was by the books and had been a regular affair for several centuries. From the 17th to 19th centuries, the Qing had settled 401 Ryukyuan shipwreck incidents both on the coast of mainland China and Taiwan. The Ryukyu Kingdom did not ask Japanese officials for help regarding the shipwreck. Instead its king, Shō Tai, sent a reward to Chinese officials in Fuzhou for the return of the 12 survivors.[92]

Japanese invasion (1874) edit

 
Saigō with leaders of the Seqalu tribe in Taiwan
 
Japanese woodblock print of the expedition forces attacking the Mudan tribe, 1874

On 30 August 1872, Sukenori Kabayama, a general of the Imperial Japanese Army, urged the Japanese government to invade Taiwan's tribal areas. The Foreign Minister Sakimitsu Yanagihara believed that the perpetrators of the Mudan incident were "all Taiwan savages beyond Chinese education and law."[93] Japan justified sending an expedition to Taiwan through linguistic interpretation of "化外之民" to mean not part of China. Chinese diplomat Li Hongzhang rejected the claim that the murder of Ryukyuans had anything to do with Japan once he learned of Japan's aspirations.[94] However, after communications between the Qing and Yanagihara, the Japanese took their explanation to mean that the Qing government had not opposed Japan's claims to sovereignty over the Ryukyu Islands, disclaimed any jurisdiction over Aboriginal Taiwanese, and had indeed consented to Japan's expedition to Taiwan.[95] In the eyes of Japan and the foreign advisor Le Gendre, the aborigines were "savages" who had no sovereign or international status, and therefore their territory was "terra nullius", free to be seized for Japan.[96]

On 9 March 1874, the Taiwan Expedition prepared for its mission. The magistrate of the Taiwan Circuit learned of the impending Japanese invasion from a Hong Kong newspaper quoting a Japanese news item and reported it to Fujian authorities.[97] Qing officials were taken by complete surprise due to the seemingly cordial relations with Japan at the time. On 17 May, Saigō Jūdō led the main force, 3,600 strong, aboard four warships in Nagasaki headed to Tainan.[98] On 6 June, the Japanese emperor issued a certificate condemning the Taiwan "savages" for killing our "nationals", the Ryukyuans killed in southeastern Taiwan.[99]

On 3 May 1874, Kusei Fukushima delivered a note to Fujian-Zhejiang Governor Li Henian announcing that they were heading to savage territory to punish the culprits. On 7 May, a Chinese translator, Zhan Hansheng, was sent ashore to establish peaceful relations with tribes other than the Mudan and Kuskus. Afterwards American foreign officers and Fukushima landed at Checheng and Xinjie. They tried to use Baxian Bay at Qinggangpu as their barracks but heavy rain flooded the site a few days later so the Japanese moved to the southern end of Langqiao Bay on 11 May. They learned that Tanketok had died and invited the Shemali tribe for talks. Japanese scouts fanned out and were met by attacks by aborigines. On 21 May, a 12-member scout party was ambushed and two were wounded. The Japanese camp sent 250 reinforcements and searched the villages. The next day, Samata Sakuma encountered Mudan fighters, around 70 strong, occupying a commanding height. A twenty-men party climbed the cliffs and shot at the Mudan people, forcing them to flee. The Mudan lost 16 men including their tribal leader, Agulu. The Japanese lost seven with 30 injured.[100]

The Japanese army split into three forces and headed in different directions, the south, north, and central routes. The south route army was ambushed by the Kuskus tribe and lost three soldiers. A counterattack defeated the Kuskus fighter and the Japanese burnt their villages. The central route was attacked by Mudan and two or three soldiers were wounded. The Japanese burnt their villages. The north route attacked the Nünai village. On 3 June, they burnt all the villages that had been occupied. On 1 July, the new leader of the Mudan tribe and the chief of Kuskus admitted defeat and promised not to harm shipwrecked castaways.[101] Surrendered aborigines were given Japanese flags to fly over their villages. They were viewed as a symbol of peace with Japan and protection from rival tribes by the aborigines. To the Japanese, it was a symbol of jurisdiction over the aborigines.[102] Chinese forces arrived on 17 June and a report by Fujian Administration Commissioner reported that all 56 representatives of the tribes except for Mudan, Zhongshe and Linai, who were not present due to fleeing from the Japanese, complained about Japanese bullying.[103]

A Chinese representative, Pan Wei, met with Saigō four times between 22 and 26 June but nothing came of it. The Japanese settled in and established large camps with no intention of withdrawing, but in August and September 600 soldiers fell ill. They started dying 15 a day. The death toll rose to 561. Toshimichi Okubo arrived in Beijing on 10 September and seven negotiating sessions occurred over a month long period. The Western Powers pressured China not to cause bloodshed with Japan as it would negatively impact the coastal trade. The resulting Peking Agreement was signed on 30 October. Japan gained the recognition of Ryukyu as its vassal and an indemnity payment of 500,000 taels. Japanese troops withdrew from Taiwan on 3 December.[104]

Sino-French War edit

 
Evacuation of Keelung by the French forces, image created 1887

During the Sino-French War, the French invaded Taiwan during the Keelung Campaign in 1884. The Chinese had already been aware of French plans to attack Taiwan and sent Liu Mingchuan, the governor of Fujian, to strengthen Taiwan's defenses on 16 July. On 5 August 1884, Sébastien Lespès bombarded Keelung's harbor and destroyed the gun placements. The next day, the French attempted to take Keelung but failed to defeat the larger Chinese force led by Liu Mingchuan and were forced to withdraw to their ships. On 1 October, Amédée Courbet landed with 2,250 French forces and defeated a smaller Chinese force, though equipped with Krupp guns, capturing Keelung. French efforts to capture Tamsui failed. The port of Tamsui had been filled with debris by the Chinese and the French were unable to sustain a landing. The French shelled Tamsui, destroying not only the forts but also foreign buildings. Some 800 French troops landed on Shalin beach near Tamsui but they were repelled by Chinese forces.[105]

The French imposed a blockade on Taiwan from 23 October 1884 until April 1885 but the execution was not completely effective. Foreign vessels were barred from docking in blockaded harbors. Some believed that the blockade was almost directed at the British. The French did not have enough ships to impose a complete blockade on Taiwan and only concentrated on the major ports, leaving smaller Chinese vessels to enter lesser ports with troops and supplies. The first Chinese relief effort, a fleet of five ships, was repelled by the French with two ships sunk. On 21 December 1884, five battalions in southern China were ordered to reinforce Taiwan.[106] French ships around mainland China's coast attacked any junk they could find and captured its occupants to be shipped to Keelung for constructing defensive works. However the blockade failed to stop Chinese junks from reaching Taiwan. For every junk the French captured, another five junks arrived with supplies at Takau and Anping. The immediate effect of the blockade was a sharp decline in legal trade and income.[107]

In late January 1885, Chinese forces suffered a serious defeat around Keelung. Although the French captured Keelung they were unable to move beyond its perimeters. In March the French tried to take Tamsui again and failed. At sea, the French bombarded Penghu on 28 March.[108] Penghu surrendered on 31 March but many of the French soon grew ill and 1,100 soldiers and later 600 more were debilitated. The French commander died from illness in Penghu.[109]

An agreement was reached on 15 April 1885 and an end to hostilities was announced. The French evacuation from Keelung was completed on 21 June 1885 and Penghu remained under Chinese control.[110]

Liu Mingchuan's colonization campaign edit

After the Sino-French War, efforts to settle in aboriginal territories were renewed under the governance of Liu Mingchuan, the Fujian governor and Taiwan defense commissioner. Administering Taiwan became his sole focus in 1885 and the administration of Fujian was left to the governor-general. Another prefecture, Taiwan Prefecture, was created in the western plains, while the former Taiwan Prefecture was renamed Tainan. Three new counties were created, a new Taitung Department (eastern Taiwan department) was created, and in the subsequent years, three new subprefectures were added.[111] In 1887, Taiwan became its own province.[112]

A Taiwan Pacification and Reclamation Head Office was established with eight pacification and reclamation bureaus. Four bureaus were located in eastern Taiwan, two in Puli (inner Shuishalian), one in the north, and one on the western border of the mountains. By 1887, about 500 aboriginal villages, or roughly 90,000 aborigines had formally submitted to Qing rule. This number increased to 800 villages with 148,479 aborigines over the following years. However the cost of getting them to submit was exorbitant. The Qing offered them materials and paid village chiefs monthly allowances. Not all the aborigines were under effective control and land reclamation in eastern Taiwan occurred at a slow pace.[113] From 1884 to 1891, Liu launched more than 40 military campaigns against the aborigines with 17,500 soldiers. The eastward expansion ended after the defeat of the Mkgogan and Msbtunux due to the fierceness of their resistance. A third of the invasion force was killed or disabled in the conflict, amounting to a costly failure.[114][115]

Sino-Japanese War edit

As part of the settlement for losing the Sino-Japanese War, the Qing dynasty ceded the islands of Taiwan and Penghu to Japan on April 17, 1895, according to the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The loss of Taiwan would become a rallying point for the Chinese nationalist movement in the years that followed.[116] The pro-Qing officials and elements of the local gentry declared an independent Republic of Formosa in 1895, but failed to win international recognition. The Japanese spent the next twenty years fighting rebellions in Taiwan while encouraging Japanese colonists to settle there. However, due to lack of infrastructure and fear of disease such as leprosy and malaria, few moved to Taiwan in the early years.[117]

Japanese Empire (1895–1945) edit

 
Painting of Japanese soldiers entering the city of Taipeh (Taipei) in 1895 after the Treaty of Shimonoseki

Invasion and suppression edit

 
Insurgents captured during the Seirai-an Temple Incident, 1915

The colonial authorities encountered violent opposition in much of Taiwan. Five months of sustained warfare occurred after the invasion of Taiwan in 1895 and partisan attacks continued until 1902. For the first two years the colonial authority relied mainly on military force and local pacification efforts. Disorder and panic were prevalent in Taiwan after Penghu was seized by Japan in March 1895. On 20 May, Qing officials were ordered to leave their posts. General mayhem and destruction ensued in the following months.[118]

Japanese forces landed on the coast of Keelung on 29 May and Tamsui's harbor was bombarded. Remnant Qing units and Guangdong irregulars briefly fought against Japanese forces in the north. After the fall of Taipei on 7 June, local militia and partisan bands continued the resistance. In the south, a small Black Flag force led by Liu Yongfu delayed Japanese landings. Governor Tang Jingsong attempted to carry out anti-Japanese resistance efforts as the Republic of Formosa, however he still professed to be a Qing loyalist. The declaration of a republic was, according to Tang, to delay the Japanese so that Western powers might be compelled to defend Taiwan.[118] The plan quickly turned to chaos as the Green Standard Army and Yue soldiers from Guangxi took to looting and pillaging Taiwan. Given the choice between chaos at the hands of bandits or submission to the Japanese, Taipei's gentry elite sent Koo Hsien-jung to Keelung to invite the advancing Japanese forces to proceed to Taipei and restore order.[119] The Republic, established on 25 May, disappeared 12 days later when its leaders left for the mainland.[118] Liu Yongfu formed a temporary government in Tainan but escaped to the mainland as well as Japanese forces closed in.[120] Between 200,000 and 300,000 people fled Taiwan in 1895.[121][122] Chinese residents in Taiwan were given the option of selling their property and leaving by May 1897, or become Japanese citizens. From 1895 to 1897, an estimated 6,400 people, mostly gentry elites, sold their property and left Taiwan. The vast majority did not have the means or will to leave.[123][124][125]

Upon Tainan's surrender, Kabayama declared Taiwan pacified, however his proclamation was premature. In December, a series of anti-Japanese uprisings occurred in northern Taiwan, and would continue to occur at a rate of roughly one per month. Armed resistance by Hakka villagers broke out in the south. A series of prolonged partisan attacks, led by "local bandits" or "rebels", lasted throughout the next seven years. After 1897, uprisings by Chinese nationalists were commonplace. Luo Fuxing [zh], a member of the Tongmenghui organization preceding the Kuomintang, was arrested and executed along with two hundred of his comrades in 1913.[126] Japanese reprisals were often more brutal than the guerilla attacks staged by the rebels. In June 1896, 6,000 Taiwanese were slaughtered in the Yunlin Massacre. From 1898 to 1902, some 12,000 "bandit-rebels" were killed in addition to the 6,000–14,000 killed in the initial resistance war of 1895.[120][127][128] During the conflict, 5,300 Japanese were killed or wounded, and 27,000 were hospitalized.[129]

Rebellions were often caused by a combination of unequal colonial policies on local elites and extant millenarian beliefs of the local Taiwanese and plains indigenous.[130] Ideologies of resistance drew on different ideals such as Taishō democracy, Chinese nationalism, and nascent Taiwanese self-determination.[116] Support for resistance was partly class-based and many of the wealthy Han people in Taiwan preferred the order of colonial rule to the lawlessness of insurrection.[131]

Major armed resistance was largely crushed by 1902 but minor rebellions started occurring again in 1907, such as the Beipu uprising by Hakka and Saisiyat people in 1907, Luo Fuxing in 1913 and the Tapani Incident of 1915.[130][132] The Beipu uprising occurred on 14 November 1907 when a group of Hakka insurgents killed 57 Japanese officers and members of their family. In the following reprisal, 100 Hakka men and boys were killed in the village of Neidaping.[133] Luo Fuxing was an overseas Taiwanese Hakka involved with the Tongmenghui. He planned to organize a rebellion against the Japanese with 500 fighters, resulting in the execution of more than 1,000 Taiwanese by Japanese police. Luo was killed on 3 March 1914.[127][134] In 1915, Yu Qingfang organized a religious group that openly challenged Japanese authority. Indigenous and Han forces led by Chiang Ting and Yu stormed multiple Japanese police stations. In what is known as the Tapani incident, 1,413 members of Yu's religious group were captured. Yu and 200 of his followers were executed.[135] After the Tapani rebels were defeated, Andō Teibi ordered Tainan's Second Garrison to retaliate through massacre. Military police in Tapani and Jiasian announced that they would pardon any anti-Japanese militants and that those who had fled into the mountains should return to their village. Once they returned, the villagers were told to line up in a field, dig holes, and were then executed by firearm. According to oral tradition, at least 5,000–6,000 people died in this incident.[136][137][138]

Indigenous people's resistance edit

 
Mikata-Ban, a force of pro-Japanese aborigines.
 
Beheaded Seediq at Second Musha Incident

Indigenous resistance to the heavy-handed Japanese policies of acculturation and pacification lasted up until the early 1930s.[130] By 1903, indigenous rebellions had resulted in the deaths of 1,900 Japanese in 1,132 incidents.[131] In 1911 a large military force invaded Taiwan's mountainous areas to gain access to timber resources. By 1915, many indigenous villages had been destroyed. The Atayal and Bunun resisted the hardest against colonization.[139] The Bunun and Atayal were described as the "most ferocious" indigenous peoples, and police stations were targeted by indigenous in intermittent assaults.[140]

The Bunun under Chief Raho Ari engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese for twenty years. Raho Ari's revolt, called the Taifun Incident was sparked when the Japanese implemented a gun control policy in 1914 against the indigenous peoples in which their rifles were impounded in police stations when hunting expeditions were over. The revolt began at Taifun when a police platoon was slaughtered by Raho Ari's clan in 1915. A settlement holding 266 people called Tamaho was created by Raho Ari and his followers near the source of the Rōnō River and attracted more Bunun rebels to their cause. Raho Ari and his followers captured bullets and guns and slew Japanese in repeated hit and run raids against Japanese police stations by infiltrating over the Japanese "guardline" of electrified fences and police stations as they pleased.[141] As a result, head hunting and assaults on police stations by indigenous still continued after that year.[142][143] In one of Taiwan's southern towns nearly 5,000 to 6,000 were slaughtered by Japanese in 1915.[144]

As resistance to the long-term oppression by the Japanese government, many Taivoan people from Kōsen led the first local rebellion against Japan in July 1915, called the Jiasian Incident (Japanese: 甲仙埔事件, Hepburn: Kōsenpo jiken). This was followed by a wider rebellion from Tamai in Tainan to Kōsen in Takao in August 1915, known as the Seirai-an Incident (Japanese: 西来庵事件, Hepburn: Seirai-an jiken) in which more than 1,400 local people died or were killed by the Japanese government. Twenty-two years later, the Taivoan people struggled to carry on another rebellion; since most of the indigenous people were from Kobayashi, the resistance taking place in 1937 was named the Kobayashi Incident (Japanese: 小林事件, Hepburn: Kobayashi jiken).[145] Between 1921 and 1929 indigenous raids died down, but a major revival and surge in indigenous armed resistance erupted from 1930 to 1933 for four years during which the Musha incident occurred and Bunun carried out raids, after which armed conflict again died down.[146] The 1930 "New Flora and Silva, Volume 2" said of the mountain indigenous that "the majority of them live in a state of war against Japanese authority".[147]

The last major indigenous rebellion, the Musha Incident, occurred on 27 October 1930 when the Seediq people, angry over their treatment while laboring in camphor extraction, launched the last headhunting party. Groups of Seediq warriors led by Mona Rudao attacked policed stations and the Musha Public School. Approximately 350 students, 134 Japanese, and 2 Han Chinese dressed in Japanese garbs were killed in the attack. The uprising was crushed by 2,000–3,000 Japanese troops and indigenous auxiliaries with the help of poison gas. The armed conflict ended in December when the Seediq leaders committed suicide. According to Japanese colonial records, 564 Seediq warriors surrendered and 644 were killed or committed suicide.[148][149] The incident caused the government to take a more conciliatory stance towards the indigenous, and during World War 2, the government tried to assimilate them as loyal subjects.[150] According to a 1933-year book, wounded people in the war against the indigenous numbered around 4,160, with 4,422 civilians dead and 2,660 military personnel killed.[151] According to a 1935 report, 7,081 Japanese were killed in the armed struggle from 1896 to 1933 while the Japanese confiscated 29,772 Aboriginal guns by 1933.[152]

World War II edit

War edit

As Japan embarked on full-scale war with China in 1937, it expanded Taiwan's industrial capacity to manufacture war material. By 1939, industrial production had exceeded agricultural production in Taiwan. The Imperial Japanese Navy operated heavily out of Taiwan. The "South Strike Group" was based out of the Taihoku Imperial University (now National Taiwan University) in Taiwan. Taiwan was used as a launchpad for the invasion of Guangdong in late 1938 and for the occupation of Hainan in February 1939. A joint planning and logistical center was established in Taiwan to assist Japan's southward advance after the bombing of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941.[153] Taiwan served as a base for Japanese naval and air attacks on the island Luzon until the surrender of the Philippines in May 1942. It also served as a rear staging ground for further attacks on Myanmar. As the war turned against Japan in 1943, Taiwan suffered due to Allied submarine attacks on Japanese shipping, and the Japanese administration prepared to be cut off from Japan. In the latter part of 1944, Taiwan's industries, ports, and military facilities were bombed in U.S. air raids.[154] By the end of the war in 1945, industrial and agricultural output had dropped far below prewar levels, with agricultural output 49% of 1937 levels and industrial output down by 33%. Coal production dropped from 200,000 metric tons to 15,000 metric tons.[155] An estimated 16,000–30,000 civilians died from the bombing.[156] By 1945, Taiwan was isolated from Japan and its government prepared to defend against an expected invasion.[154]

During WWII the Japanese authorities maintained prisoner of war camps in Taiwan. Around 4,350 Allied prisoners of war (POW) were used as forced labor in camps throughout Taiwan between 1942 and 1945. The camp served the copper mines at Jinguashi being especially heinous.[157] Of the 430 Allied POW deaths across all fourteen Japanese POW camps on Taiwan, the majority occurred at Jinguashi.[158]

Taiwanese military servicemen edit

 
Taiwanese servicemen in the Imperial Japanese Army

Starting in July 1937, Taiwanese began to play a role on the battlefield, initially in noncombatant positions. Taiwanese people were not recruited for combat until late in the war. In 1942, the Special Volunteer System was implemented, allowing even aborigines to be recruited as part of the Takasago Volunteers. From 1937 to 1945, over 207,000 Taiwanese were employed by the Japanese military. Roughly 50,000 went missing in action or died, another 2,000 were disabled, 21 were executed for war crimes, and 147 were sentenced to imprisonment for two or three years.[159][160]

Some Taiwanese ex-Japanese soldiers claim they were coerced and did not choose to join the army. Accounts range from having no way to refuse recruitment, to being incentivized by the salary, to patriotism for Japan.[161] In one account, a man named Chen Chunqing said he was motivated by his desire to fight the British and Americans but became disillusioned after being sent to China and tried to defect, although the effort was fruitless.[162] Racial discrimination was commonplace despite rare occasions of camaraderie. Some experienced greater equality during their time in the military. One Taiwanese serviceman recalled being called "chankoro" (Qing slave)[163] by a Japanese soldier.[162]

After Japan's surrender, the Taiwanese ex-Japanese soldiers were abandoned by Japan and no transportation back to Taiwan or Japan was provided. Many of them faced difficulties in mainland China, Taiwan, and Japan due to anti-rightist and anti-communist campaigns in addition to accusations of taking part in the February 28 incident. In Japan they were faced with ambivalence. An organization of Taiwanese ex-Japanese soldiers tried to get the Japanese government to pay their unpaid wages several decades later. They failed.[164]

Only after a petition in 1987 was a decision made to offer 2 million yen to former Taiwanese soldiers who had suffered severe injury in battle and to the families of those who died. The 2 million yen per claim, a minute fraction of that paid to Japanese soldiers, amounted to very little of the unpaid military salary as a result of inflation according to the organization's calculations. The Japanese government refused to take into account the calculations and refused to pay the wartime debts. Nor did they offer an annual allowance like that paid to Japanese soldiers. According to one Taiwanese ex-Japanese soldier, Chen Junqing, he was very shocked by his trip to Japan in 1973. He had believed he would be warmly welcomed as a soldier who fought for the emperor.[165] One Taiwanese ex-Japanese soldier, Teng Sheng, had difficulty obtaining his injury record from the Japanese and even afterward he was still refused compensation for his injuries.[166][167]

Republic of China and martial law (1945–1987) edit

On 26 July 1945, the United States, United Kingdom, and Republic of China jointly released the Potsdam Declaration, calling for Japan's surrender. Under the terms, Japan was to be reduced to her pre-1894 territory and stripped of her pre-war empire including Korea and Taiwan, as well as all her recent conquests. On 15 August, Emperor Hirohito announced the Japan’s unconditional surrender. On 2 September, the surrender was formalized in the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.

On 25 October 1945, Governor-General Rikichi Andō handed over the administration of Taiwan and the Penghu islands to Kuomintang official Chen Yi, who accepted the surrender on behalf of the Allied forces under the authorization of General Douglas MacArthur’s General Order No. 1.

As part of the Treaty of San Francisco signed in 1951, “Japan renounces all right, title and claim to Formosa and the Pescadores.” Though the legal status of Taiwan remained undetermined, the treaty’s travaux préparatoires showed a consensus among the states present at the San Francisco Peace Conference that this status would be resolved at a later time in accordance with the principles of peaceful settlement of disputes and self-determination.[168]

Modern era edit

When the United States Congress enacted the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FY 2003 on 30 September 2002, it required that Taiwan be "treated as though it were designated a major non-NATO ally." The Bush administration subsequently submitted a letter to Congress on 29 August 2003, designating Taiwan as an MNNA.[169]

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, public interest in civil defense saw a resurgence due to the threat from China. As of 2022, the Taiwanese civil defense units had 420,000 registered volunteers.[170] In 2023, training shifted to more of a wartime focus with 70% of exercises dedicated to wartime scenarios and 30% of exercises dedicated to natural disaster scenarios, from a previous 50–50 split.[171] Private organizations like Kuma Academy and Forward Alliance provide civil defense and disaster response training to civilians in Taiwan.[172][173][174]

In September 2023, President Tsai Ing-wen launched Taiwan's first domestically built submarine into the harbor of Kaohsiung. The submarine, named Haikun (Chinese: 海鯤), cost $1.54 billion and was set to be delivered to the Republic of China Navy by the end of 2024. The goal of Taiwan's domestic submarine program, according to the head of the program Huang Shu-kuang, was to fend off any attempt from China to encircle Taiwan for an invasion or impose a naval blockade. The Haikun uses a Lockheed Martin combat system and will carry American-made torpedoes.[175]

In 2023, China deployed 1,709 military jets into Taiwan’s air defense identification zone, compared to 1,738 in 2022 and 972 in 2021. Analysts see the flights as a form of gray-zone activity.[176]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Knapp, Ronald G. (1980). China's Island Frontier: Studies in the Historical Geography of Taiwan. The University of Hawaii. p. 5.
  2. ^ Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2012), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-8268-1
  3. ^ Tanaka Fumio 田中史生 (2008). "Kodai no Amami Okinawa shotō to kokusai shakai" 古代の奄美・沖縄諸島と国際社会. In Ikeda Yoshifumi (ed.). Kodai chūsei no kyōkai ryōiki 古代中世の境界領域. pp. 49–70.
  4. ^ Isorena 2004.
  5. ^ Liu 2012, pp. 170–171.
  6. ^ Hsu 1980, p. 6.
  7. ^ Wills 2007, p. 86.
  8. ^ "歷史沿革". 澎湖縣政府全球資訊網. Penghu County Government. from the original on 2021-03-01. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  9. ^ Knapp 1980, p. 8.
  10. ^ Hsu 1980, pp. 9–10.
  11. ^ Hang 2015, pp. 33–34.
  12. ^ Andrade 2008, ch. 6.
  13. ^ Jenco, Leigh K. (2020). "Chen Di's Record of Formosa (1603) and an Alternative Chinese Imaginary of Otherness". The Historical Journal. 64: 17–42. doi:10.1017/S0018246X1900061X. S2CID 225283565.
  14. ^ "閩海贈言". National Central Library (in Chinese). p. 26. Retrieved 16 July 2023. 萬曆壬寅臘月初旬,將軍沈有容率師渡海,破賊東番。海波盪定,除夕班師
  15. ^ Thompson 1964, p. 178.
  16. ^ Thompson 1964, pp. 170–171.
  17. ^ Jansen, Marius B. (1992). China in the Tokugawa World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-06-7411-75-32
  18. ^ Recent Trends in Scholarship on the History of Ryukyu's Relations with China and Japan Gregory Smits, Pennsylvania State University, p.13 [1] 2012-03-02 at the Wayback Machine
  19. ^ . National Palace Museum. Archived from the original on 14 April 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  20. ^ Borao Mateo (2002), pp. 2–9.
  21. ^ Andrade 2008a.
  22. ^ a b Davidson 1903.
  23. ^ Blussé 2000, p. 144–145.
  24. ^ Blussé 2000.
  25. ^ van Veen (2003), p. 142.
  26. ^ Shepherd (1993), p. 37.
  27. ^ a b c Andrade 2008b.
  28. ^ van Veen (2003), p. 149.
  29. ^ Blusse & Everts (2000).
  30. ^ Everts (2000), pp. 151–155.
  31. ^ Lee, Yuchung. . Council for Cultural Affairs. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved September 29, 2012.
  32. ^ Andrade 2008g.
  33. ^ Cheung, Han (20 August 2017). "Taiwan in Time: When colonial powers collide". Taipei Times. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
  34. ^ Andrade 2008h.
  35. ^ Andrade 2008i.
  36. ^ a b Andrade 2008j.
  37. ^ Clodfelter (2017), p. 63.
  38. ^ Campbell (1903), p. 544.
  39. ^ Andrade 2011, p. 138.
  40. ^ Campbell (1903), p. 482.
  41. ^ Clements (2004), pp. 188–201.
  42. ^ Blussé, Leonard (1 January 1989). "Pioneers or cattle for the slaughterhouse? A rejoinder to A.R.T. Kemasang". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 145 (2): 357. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003260. S2CID 57527820.
  43. ^ Andrade 2016, p. 207.
  44. ^ Hang, Xing (2016). Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c.1620–1720. Cambridge University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-1316453841.
  45. ^ Wong 2017, p. 110.
  46. ^ Wong 2017, p. 106.
  47. ^ Lin, A.; Keating, J. (2008). (4th ed.). Taipei: SMC Pub. ISBN 9789576387050. Archived from the original on 2016-08-17. Retrieved 2016-10-06.
  48. ^ Wong 2017, p. 109.
  49. ^ a b Wills, John E. Jr. (2006). "The Seventeenth-century Transformation: Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime". In Rubinstein, Murray A. (ed.). Taiwan: A New History. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 84–106. ISBN 9780765614957.
  50. ^ Wong 2017, p. 111–113.
  51. ^ Hang, Xing (2016). Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c. 1620–1720. Cambridge University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-1316453841. from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2019-05-26.
  52. ^ Wong 2017, p. 113–114.
  53. ^ Wong 2017, p. 138.
  54. ^ Wong 2017, p. 118–122.
  55. ^ Wong 2017, p. 124–125.
  56. ^ Wong 2017, p. 157.
  57. ^ Wong 2017, p. 144–147.
  58. ^ Twitchett 2002, p. 146.
  59. ^ Wong 2017, p. 148–150.
  60. ^ Wong 2017, p. 150–151.
  61. ^ Wong 2017, p. 152–153.
  62. ^ Wong 2017, p. 155–158.
  63. ^ Wong 2017, p. 166–167.
  64. ^ Copper, John F. (2000). Historical Dictionary of Taiwan (Republic of China) (2nd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780810836655. OL 39088M.
  65. ^ Wong 2017, p. 162–163.
  66. ^ Wong 2017, p. 165–166.
  67. ^ Wong 2017, p. 168–169.
  68. ^ Wong 2017, p. 169–170.
  69. ^ Wong 2017, p. 170–171.
  70. ^ a b Twitchett 2002, p. 228.
  71. ^ Ye 2019, p. 91.
  72. ^ Ye 2019, p. 106.
  73. ^ van der Wees, Gerrit. "Has Taiwan Always Been Part of China?". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  74. ^ Skoggard, Ian A. (1996). The Indigenous Dynamic in Taiwan's Postwar Development: The Religious and Historical Roots of Entrepreneurship. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9781563248467. OL 979742M. p. 10
  75. ^ [Civil Strife]. Encyclopedia of Taiwan (台灣大百科). Taiwan Ministry of Culture. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021. 臺灣有「三年一小反,五年一大反」之謠。但是根據研究,這句俗諺所形容民變迭起的現象,以道光朝(1820-1850)的三十多年間為主 [The rumor of "every three years a small uprising, five years a large rebellion" circulated around Taiwan. According to research, the repeated commotions described by this idiom occurred primarily during the 30-year period between 1820 and 1850.].
  76. ^ a b c d e "Taiwan in Time: Rebels of heaven and earth – Taipei Times". 17 April 2016. from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
  77. ^ a b Li 2019, p. 82–83.
  78. ^ a b c Standaert 2022, p. 225.
  79. ^ Li 2019, p. 83.
  80. ^ Ye 2019, p. 56.
  81. ^ Ye 2019, p. 56–57.
  82. ^ a b Shih-Shan Henry Tsai (2009). Maritime Taiwan: Historical Encounters with the East and the West. Routledge. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-1-317-46517-1. from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2016-01-13.
  83. ^ Leonard H. D. Gordon (2007). Confrontation Over Taiwan: Nineteenth-Century China and the Powers. Lexington Books. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7391-1869-6. from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
  84. ^ Barclay 2018, p. 56.
  85. ^ Wong 2022, p. 119.
  86. ^ Wong 2022, p. 119–120.
  87. ^ Wong 2022, p. 121–122.
  88. ^ Wong 2022, p. 123.
  89. ^ Barclay 2018, p. 50.
  90. ^ Barclay 2018, p. 51–52.
  91. ^ Barclay 2018, p. 52.
  92. ^ Barclay 2018, p. 53–54.
  93. ^ Wong 2022, p. 124–126.
  94. ^ Wong 2022, p. 127–128.
  95. ^ Leung (1983), p. 270.
  96. ^ Ye 2019, p. 185–186.
  97. ^ Wong 2022, p. 129.
  98. ^ Wong 2022, p. 132.
  99. ^ Wong 2022, p. 130.
  100. ^ Wong 2022, p. 134–137.
  101. ^ Wong 2022, p. 137–138.
  102. ^ . Archived from the original on 2010-12-12. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
  103. ^ Wong 2022, p. 138.
  104. ^ Wong 2022, p. 141–143.
  105. ^ Gordon 2007, p. 142–145.
  106. ^ Gordon 2007, p. 146–49.
  107. ^ Gordon 2007, p. 149–151, 154.
  108. ^ Gordon 2007, p. 149–151.
  109. ^ Gordon 2007, p. 161–162.
  110. ^ Gordon 2007, p. 162.
  111. ^ Ye 2019, p. 64–65.
  112. ^ Rubinstein 1999, p. 187–190.
  113. ^ Ye 2019, p. 65.
  114. ^ Rubinstein 1999, p. 191.
  115. ^ Cheung, Han (2 May 2021). "Taiwan in Time: The fall of the northern Atayal". www.taipeitimes.com. Taipei Times. from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  116. ^ a b Zhang (1998), p. 514.
  117. ^ Matsuda 2019, p. 103–104.
  118. ^ a b c Rubinstein 1999, p. 205–206.
  119. ^ Morris (2002), pp. 4–18.
  120. ^ a b Rubinstein 1999, p. 207.
  121. ^ Wang 2006, p. 95.
  122. ^ Davidson 1903, p. 561.
  123. ^ Rubinstein 1999, p. 208.
  124. ^ Brooks 2000, p. 110.
  125. ^ Dawley, Evan. "Was Taiwan Ever Really a Part of China?". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. from the original on June 10, 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
  126. ^ Zhang (1998), p. 515.
  127. ^ a b Chang 2003, p. 56.
  128. ^ "Taiwan – History". Windows on Asia. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. from the original on December 22, 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-22.
  129. ^ Rubinstein 1999, p. 207–208.
  130. ^ a b c Katz (2005).
  131. ^ a b Price 2019, p. 115.
  132. ^ Huang-wen lai (2015). "The turtle woman's voices: Multilingual strategies of resistance and assimilation in Taiwan under Japanese colonial rule" (pdf published=2007). p. 113. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
  133. ^ Lesser Dragons: Minority Peoples of China. Reaktion Books. 15 May 2018. ISBN 9781780239521.
  134. ^ Place and Spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the Stories, Strategies and Memories of Everyday Life. Routledge. 29 August 2003. ISBN 9781135790394.
  135. ^ Tsai 2009, p. 134.
  136. ^ Wang 2000, p. 113.
  137. ^ Su 1980, p. 447–448.
  138. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 24, 2007.
  139. ^ Rubinstein 1999, p. 211–212.
  140. ^ The Japan Year Book 1937 April 10, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, p. 1004.
  141. ^ Crook 2014 April 10, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, p. 16.
  142. ^ The Japan Year Book 1937 April 10, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, p. 1004.
  143. ^ ed. Inahara 1937, p. 1004.
  144. ^ Tay-sheng Wang (28 April 2015). Legal Reform in Taiwan under Japanese Colonial Rule, 1895–1945: The Reception of Western Law. University of Washington Press. pp. 113–. ISBN 978-0-295-80388-3. from the original on April 10, 2023. Retrieved October 29, 2020.
  145. ^ 種回小林村的記憶 : 大武壠民族植物暨部落傳承400年人文誌 (A 400-Year Memory of Xiaolin Taivoan: Their Botany, Their History, and Their People). Kaohsiung City: 高雄市杉林區日光小林社區發展協會 (Sunrise Xiaolin Community Development Association). 2017. ISBN 978-986-95852-0-0.
  146. ^ ed. Lin 1995 April 10, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, p. 84.
  147. ^ ed. Cox 1930 April 10, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, p. 94.
  148. ^ Matsuda 2019, p. 106.
  149. ^ Ching (2001), pp. 137–140.
  150. ^ Ye 2019, p. 193.
  151. ^ The Japan Year Book 1933, p. 1139.
  152. ^ Japan's progress number ... July 1935 February 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, p. 19.
  153. ^ Rubinstein 1999, p. 235.
  154. ^ a b Rubinstein 1999, p. 235–236.
  155. ^ . Taipower Corporation. Archived from the original on 2007-05-14. Retrieved 2006-08-06.
  156. ^ Economic Development of Emerging East Asia: Catching up of Taiwan and South Korea. Anthem Press. 27 September 2017. ISBN 9781783086887.
  157. ^ Sui, Cindy (June 15, 2021). "WW2: Unearthing Taiwan's forgotten prisoner of war camps". BBC News. from the original on June 16, 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  158. ^ Prentice, David (30 October 2015). "The Forgotten POWs of the Pacific: The Story of Taiwan's Camps". Thinking Taiwan. from the original on April 10, 2023. Retrieved 21 December 2020.
  159. ^ Chen 2001, p. 182.
  160. ^ Cheung, Han (16 September 2018). "Taiwan in Time: Abandoned by the rising sun". Taipei Times. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  161. ^ Chen 2001, p. 183–184.
  162. ^ a b Chen 2001, p. 186–187.
  163. ^ Shih 2022, p. 327.
  164. ^ Chen 2001, p. 192–195.
  165. ^ Chen 2001, p. 194-195.
  166. ^ "Taiwan in Time: Abandoned by the rising sun – Taipei Times". 16 September 2018.
  167. ^ Okubo, Maki (12 September 2020). "Ex-soldier wants memorial erected for Taiwanese war dead". Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
  168. ^ Chen, Lung-chu (2016). The U.S.-Taiwan-China Relationship in International Law and Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0190601126.
  169. ^ Kan, Shirley (December 2009). Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990. DIANE Publishing. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-4379-2041-3.
  170. ^ "Civil defense reform needed, experts say". Taipei Times. 26 January 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  171. ^ Yu, Matt; Yang, Evelyn (12 April 2023). "Taiwan to stage the year's first civil defense drill in Taichung". Focus Taiwan. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  172. ^ Wang, Joyu (4 March 2022). "In Taiwan, Russia's War in Ukraine Stirs New Interest in Self-Defense". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 10 October 2022.
  173. ^ Davidson, Helen (22 September 2021). "Second line of defence: Taiwan's civilians train to resist invasion". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  174. ^ Kwan, Rhoda; Jett, Jennifer. "China is not about to invade Taiwan, experts say, but both are watching Ukraine". NBC News. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  175. ^ Wong, Tessa (28 September 2023). "Haikun: Taiwan unveils new submarine to fend off China". BBC. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
  176. ^ McCartney, Micah (5 January 2024). "China Deployed Over 1,700 Military Planes Around Taiwan in 2023". Newsweek. Retrieved 6 January 2024.

Bibliography edit

  • Andrade, Tonio (2008). How Taiwan Became Chinese (Project Gutenberg ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12855-1.
  • ——— (2011), Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory Over the West (illustrated ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14455-9
  • ——— (2016), The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13597-7
  • Andrade, Tonio (2008a), "Chapter 1: Taiwan on the Eve of Colonization", How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century, Columbia University Press
  • Andrade, Tonio (2008g), "Chapter 7: The Challenges of a Chinese Frontier", How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century, Columbia University Press
  • Andrade, Tonio (2008h), "Chapter 8: "The Only Bees on Formosa That Give Honey"", How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century, Columbia University Press
  • Andrade, Tonio (2008i), "Chapter 9: Lord and Vassal: Company Rule over the Aborigines", How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century, Columbia University Press
  • Andrade, Tonio (2008j), "Chapter 10: The Beginning of the End", How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century, Columbia University Press
  • Barclay, Paul D. (2018), Outcasts of Empire: Japan's Rule on Taiwan's "Savage Border," 1874-1945, University of California Press
  • Blussé, Leonard (2000). "The Cave of the Black Spirits". In Blundell, David (ed.). Austronesian Taiwan. California: University of California. ISBN 0-936127-09-0.
  • van Veen, Ernst (2003). "How the Dutch Ran a Seventeenth-Century Colony: The Occupation and Loss of Formosa 1624–1662". In Blussé, Leonard (ed.). Around and About Formosa. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. ISBN 9789867602008. OL 14547859M.
  • Blusse, Leonard; Everts, Natalie (2000), The Formosan Encounter: Notes on Formosa's Aboriginal Society – A selection of Documents from Dutch Archival Sources Vol. I & II, Taipei: Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines, ISBN 957-99767-2-4 and ISBN 957-99767-7-5.
  • Borao Mateo, Jose Eugenio (2002), Spaniards in Taiwan Vol. II:1642–1682, Taipei: SMC Publishing, ISBN 978-957-638-589-6.
  • Brooks, Barbara J. (2000), Japanese colonial citizenship in treaty port China: the location of Koreans and Taiwanese in the imperial order
  • Campbell, William (1903). Formosa under the Dutch: described from contemporary records, with explanatory notes and a bibliography of the island. London: Kegan Paul. OCLC 644323041.
  • Campbell, Rev. William (1915), Sketches of Formosa, London, Edinburgh, New York: Marshall Brothers Ltd. reprinted by SMC Publishing Inc 1996, ISBN 957-638-377-3, OL 7051071M.
  • Chang, K.C. (1989), (PDF), Kaogu, 6, translated by W. Tsao, ed. by B. Gordon: 541–550, 569, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-18.
  • Chang, Mau-kuei (2003), On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity
  • Chen, Yingzhen (2001), Imperial Army Betrayed
  • Ching, Leo T.S. (2001). Becoming "Japanese" : Colonial Taiwan and the Politics of Identity Formation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22551-0.
  • Clements, Jonathan (2004), Pirate King: Coxinga and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty, United Kingdom: Muramasa Industries Limited, ISBN 978-0-7509-3269-1.
  • Clodfelter, M. (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 978-0786474707.
  • Davidson, James Wheeler (1903). The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : History, people, resources, and commercial prospects : Tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. OL 6931635M.
  • Everts, Natalie (2000), "Jacob Lamay van Taywan: An Indigenous Formosan Who Became an Amsterdam Citizen", Ed. David Blundell; Austronesian Taiwan:Linguistics' History, Ethnology, Prehistory, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  • Gordon, Leonard H.D. (2007), Confrontation Over Taiwan, Lexington Books
  • Hang, Xing (2010), Between Trade and Legitimacy, Maritime and Continent
  • ——— (2015), Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c. 1620–1720
  • Hsu, Wen-hsiung (1980). "From Aboriginal Island to Chinese Frontier: The Development of Taiwan before 1683". In Knapp, Ronald G. (ed.). China's Island Frontier: Studies in the Historical Geography of Taiwan. The University of Hawaii. pp. 3–28. hdl:10125/62865. ISBN 978-0-8248-8004-0.
  • Isorena, Efren B. (2004). "The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 32 (2): 73–95. JSTOR 29792550.
  • Katz, Paul (2005), When The Valleys Turned Blood Red: The Ta-pa-ni Incident in Colonial Taiwan, Honolulu, HA: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2915-5.
  • Leung, Edwin Pak-Wah (1983), "The Quasi-War in East Asia: Japan's Expedition to Taiwan and the Ryūkyū Controversy", Modern Asian Studies, 17 (2): 257–281, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00015638, S2CID 144573801.
  • Li, Xiaobing (2019), The History of Taiwan, Greenwood
  • Liu, Yingsheng (2012), "The Taiwan Strait between the Twelfth and Sixteenth Centuries and the Maritime Route to Luzon", Journal of Asian History, 46 (2): 167–180, JSTOR 41933619
  • Matsuda, Hiroko (2019), Liminality of the Japanese Empire, University of Hawi'i Press
  • Morris, Andrew (2002), "The Taiwan Republic of 1895 and the Failure of the Qing Modernizing Project", in Stephane Corcuff (ed.), Memories of the Future: National Identity issues and the Search for a New Taiwan, New York: M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 978-0-7656-0791-1.
  • Morris, Andrew D, ed. (July 30, 2015). Japanese Taiwan: Colonial Rule and its Contested Legacy. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781472576729.
  • Price, Gareth (2019), Language, Society, and the State: From Colonization to Globalization in Taiwan, De Gruyter
  • Rubinstein, Murray A. (1999), Taiwan: A New History, East Gate Books
  • Shepherd, John R. (1993), Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press., ISBN 978-0-8047-2066-3. Reprinted 1995, SMC Publishing, Taipei. ISBN 957-638-311-0
  • Shih, Chien-sheng (1968), Economic Development in Taiwan after the Second World War
  • Shih, Fang-long (2022), A century of struggle over Taiwan's cultural self-consciousness: the life and afterlife of Chiang Wei-shui and the Taiwan Cultural Association
  • Standaert, Nicolas (2022), The Chinese Gazette in European Sources, Brill
  • Su, Beng (1980), 台灣人四百年史 [Taiwanese People's 400 Year History], Paradise Culture Associates
  • Thompson, Lawrence G. (1964). "The earliest eyewitness accounts of the Formosan aborigines". Monumenta Serica. 23: 163–204. doi:10.1080/02549948.1964.11731044. JSTOR 40726116.
  • Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (2009), Maritime Taiwan: Historical Encounters with the East and West, M.E. Sharpe, Inc.
  • Twitchett, Denis (2002), The Cambridge History of China 9 Volume 1
  • Wang, Tay-sheng (2000), Legal Reform in Taiwan under Japanese Colonial Rule, 1895-1945: The Reception of Western law, University of Washington Press
  • Wang, Gabe T. (2006), China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait, University Press of America
  • Wills, John E. Jr. (2007). "The Seventeenth-century Transformation: Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime". In Rubinstein, Murray A. (ed.). Taiwan: A New History (expanded ed.). M.E. Sharpe. pp. 84–106. ISBN 978-0-7656-1495-7.
  • Wong, Young-tsu (2017), China's Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century: Victory at Full Moon, Springer
  • Wong, Tin (2022), Approaching Sovereignty over the Diaoyu Islands, Springer
  • Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2012), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-8268-1.
  • Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2012), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-8268-1.
  • Ye, Ruiping (2019), The Colonisation and Settlement of Taiwan, Routledge
  • Zhang, Yufa (1998), Zhonghua Minguo shigao 中華民國史稿, Taipei, Taiwan: Lian jing (聯經), ISBN 957-08-1826-3.

military, history, taiwan, official, military, forces, taiwan, republic, china, armed, forces, military, history, taiwan, spans, least, years, history, battles, armed, actions, that, took, place, taiwan, surrounding, islands, island, base, chinese, pirates, ca. For the official military forces of Taiwan see Republic of China Armed Forces The military history of Taiwan spans at least 400 years and is the history of battles and armed actions that took place in Taiwan and its surrounding islands The island was the base of Chinese pirates who came into conflict with the Ming dynasty during the 16th century From 1624 to 1662 Taiwan was the base of Dutch and Spanish colonies The era of European colonization ended when a Ming general named Koxinga Zheng Chenggong retreated to Taiwan as a result of the Ming Qing War and ousted the Dutch in 1661 The Dutch held out in northern Taiwan until 1668 when they left due to indigenous resistance Koxinga s dynasty ruled southwestern Taiwan as the Kingdom of Tungning and attacked the Qing dynasty during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories 1673 1681 In 1683 the Qing invaded Taiwan and ousted the Zheng regime establishing Taiwan Prefecture later Taiwan Province in southwestern Taiwan The Qing administration lasted for over two centuries during which it rarely tried to conquer the Taiwanese indigenous peoples and instead tried to restrict settlers from entering Taiwan Despite official restrictions Han Chinese settlers increased and crossed into indigenous territory across the western Taiwanese plain leading to conflicts with indigenous peoples in central and northeastern Taiwan Most rebellions during the Qing period occurred due to Han discontent while the indigenous people were left to their own devices The Qing ceded Taiwan and Penghu to the Empire of Japan after losing the First Sino Japanese War in 1895 There was brief military resistance from Qing forces in Taiwan before retreating after which decades of Japanese military suppression followed During the Second Sino Japanese War Taiwan served as a base for invasions of China and later Southeast Asia and the Pacific during World War II Some Taiwanese served in the Japanese military although not in combat positions until in the late stages of the war Some 207 000 Taiwanese served in the Imperial Japanese military and 50 000 Taiwanese Imperial Japanese Servicemen went missing in action or died Following World War II and the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan in 1949 Taiwan s military has been the Republic of China Armed Forces Until 1972 a primary aim of the Chiang Kai shek controlled armed forces was to retake mainland China by large scale invasion In the modern era the focus of Taiwan s military has been national defense to thwart any possible attacks primarily from the People s Republic of China and its People s Liberation Army forces Contents 1 Early conflicts 2 Dutch and Spanish colonies 1624 1662 2 1 Early contact 2 2 Dutch colonization 2 3 Spanish colony 2 4 Guo Huaiyi rebellion 2 5 Koxinga s invasion 3 Kingdom of Tungning 1661 1683 3 1 Retreat to Taiwan 3 2 Revolt of the Three Feudatories 3 3 Qing invasion 3 3 1 Shi Lang 3 3 2 Battle of Penghu 4 Qing dynasty 1683 1895 4 1 Indigenous rebellions 1723 1733 4 2 Zhu Yigui rebellion 4 3 Lin Shuangwen rebellion 4 4 Colonization of Kavalan 4 5 Opium War 4 6 Rover incident 4 7 Mudan incident 4 8 Japanese invasion 1874 4 9 Sino French War 4 10 Liu Mingchuan s colonization campaign 4 11 Sino Japanese War 5 Japanese Empire 1895 1945 5 1 Invasion and suppression 5 2 Indigenous people s resistance 5 3 World War II 5 3 1 War 5 3 2 Taiwanese military servicemen 6 Republic of China and martial law 1945 1987 7 Modern era 8 See also 9 References 10 BibliographyEarly conflicts editSee also Early Chinese contact with Taiwan Early records refer to an eastern island named Yizhou to which troops of Three Kingdoms state of Eastern Wu visited as early as 230 Some scholars believe this island was Taiwan while others dispute the theory 1 The Book of Sui relates that Emperor Yang of the Sui dynasty sent three expeditions to a place called Liuqiu early in the 7th century 2 Historically the name Liuqiu whose characters are read in Japanese as Ryukyu referred to the island chain to the northeast of Taiwan but some scholars believe it may have referred to Taiwan in the Sui period Okinawa Island may have been referred to by the Chinese as Great Liuqiu and Taiwan as Little Liuqiu 3 During the Song dynasty Han Chinese fishermen settled on the Penghu Islands by 1171 when Bisheye bandits a Taiwanese people related to the Bisaya of the Visayas landed on Penghu and plundered fields planted by Chinese migrants 4 The Song dynasty sent soldiers after them and from that time on Song patrols regularly visited Penghu in the spring and summer A local official Wang Dayou stationed troops there to prevent depredations from the Bisheye 5 6 7 During the Yuan dynasty a patrol and inspection agency Chinese 巡檢司 was set up in Penghu around 1281 8 and Han Chinese people were recorded to have visited Taiwan Yuan emperor Kublai Khan sent officials to the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1292 to demand its loyalty to the Yuan dynasty but the officials ended up in Taiwan and mistook it for Ryukyu After three soldiers were killed the delegation immediately retreated to Quanzhou in China Another expedition was sent in 1297 9 The Chinese pirates Lin Daoqian and Lin Feng visited Taiwan in 1563 and 1574 respectively Lin Daoqian was a Hakka pirate from Chaozhou who was chased out of Fujian in 1563 by Ming naval forces led by Yu Dayou and fled to Beigang in southwestern Taiwan He left the next year to ravage the mainland and stayed active in the region until 1578 when he left for Southeast Asia Lin Feng moved his pirate forces to Wankan in modern Chiayi County in Taiwan on 3 November 1574 and used it as a base to launch raids They left for Penghu after being attacked by natives and the Ming navy dislodged them from their bases He later returned to Wankan on 27 December 1575 but left for Southeast Asia after losing a naval encounter with Ming forces on 15 January 1576 10 11 The pirate Yan Siqi also used Taiwan as a base 12 Chen Di visited Taiwan in 1603 on an expedition against the Wokou pirates 13 14 The pirates were defeated and they met a native chieftain who presented them with gifts 15 Chen recorded these events in an account of Taiwan known as Dongfanji An Account of the Eastern Barbarians and described the natives of Taiwan and their lifestyle 16 In 1616 the Tokugawa shogunate sent a fleet of 13 ships and 4 000 warriors in an attempt to conquer Taiwan as part of a larger campaign to strengthen Japanese sea power and facilitate its silk trade Due to a typhoon the invasion forces were dispersed and only one ship reached Taiwan 17 18 Dutch and Spanish colonies 1624 1662 editSee also Dutch pacification campaign on Formosa Early contact edit In 1542 Portuguese sailors arrived in Taiwan and noted it on their maps as Ilha Formosa lit beautiful island 19 In 1582 the survivors of a Portuguese shipwreck spent 45 days battling malaria and aborigines before returning to Macau 20 21 Defeated by the Portuguese at the Battle of Macau in 1622 the Dutch East India Company attempted to take Penghu in 1624 building Fengguiwei Fort in Magong Dutch forces were driven out by Ming authorities and retreated to a sandy peninsula of Tayuan present day Anping District and built a defensive fort to act as a base of operations This temporary fort was replaced four years later by the more substantial Fort Zeelandia 22 page needed Dutch ships wrecked at Liuqiu in 1624 and 1631 their crews were killed by the inhabitants 23 In 1633 an expedition consisting of 250 Dutch soldiers 40 Chinese pirates and 250 Taiwanese natives were sent against Liuqiu Island but met with little success 24 Dutch colonization edit nbsp Robert Junius one of the leaders of the Mattau expeditionThe Dutch allied with Sinkan a small village that provided them with firewood venison and fish 25 In 1625 they bought land from the Sinkanders and built the town of Sakam for Dutch and Chinese merchants 26 Initially the other villages maintained peace with the Dutch In 1625 the Dutch attacked 170 Chinese pirates in Wankan but were driven off Encouraged by the Dutch failure Mattau warriors raided Sinkan The Dutch returned and drove off the pirates The people of Sinkan then attacked Mattau and Baccluan and sought protection from Japan In 1629 Pieter Nuyts visited Sinkan with 60 musketeers After Nuyts left the musketeers were killed in an ambush by Mattau and Soulang warriors 27 On 23 November 1629 an expedition set out and burned most of Baccluan killing many of its people who the Dutch believed harbored proponents of the previous massacre Baccluan Mattau and Soulang people continued to harass company employees until late 1633 when Mattau and Soulang went to war with each other 27 In 1635 475 soldiers from Batavia arrived in Taiwan 28 By this point even Sinkan was on bad terms with the Dutch Soldiers were sent into the village and arrested those who plotted rebellion In the winter of 1635 the Dutch defeated Mattau and Baccluan In 1636 a large expedition was sent against Liuqiu Island The Dutch and their allies chased about 300 inhabitants into caves sealed the entrances and killed them with poisonous fumes The native population of 1100 was removed from the island 29 They were enslaved with the men sent to Batavia while the women and children became servants and wives for the Dutch officers The Dutch planned to depopulate the outlying islands 30 The villages of Taccariang Soulang and Tevorang were also pacified 27 In 1642 the Dutch massacred the people of Liuqiu island again 31 In 1636 Favorolang the largest aboriginal village north of Mattau killed three Chinese and wounded several others From August to November Favrolangers appeared near Fort Zeelandia and captured a Chinese fishing vessel The next year the Dutch and their native allies defeated Favorolang The expedition was paid for by the Chinese populace When peace negotiations failed the Dutch blamed a group of Chinese at Favorolang The Favorolangers continued their attacks until 1638 In 1640 an incident involving the capture of a Favorolang leader and the ensuing death of three Dutch hunters near Favorolang resulted in the banning of Chinese hunters from Favorolang territory The Dutch blamed the Chinese and orders were given to restrict Chinese residency and travel No Chinese vessel was allowed around Taiwan unless it carried a license An expedition was ordered to chase away the Chinese from the land and to subjugate the natives to the north In November 1642 an expedition set out northward killing 19 natives and 11 Chinese A policy banning any Chinese from living north of Mattau was implemented Later the Chinese were allowed to conduct trade in Favorolang with a permit The Favorolangers were told to capture any Chinese who did not possess a permit 32 Spanish colony edit Main article Spanish expedition to Formosa In 1626 Spanish forces landed at Cape Santiago in northern Taiwan They eventually moved westward to modern day Keelung where they established Santisima Trinidad as a base for the new colony 22 page needed They seized the territory from aboriginal inhabitants or destroyed their residences promising to pay for the damages According to historian Jose Eugenio Borao Mateo the Spanish colonists did not ask for tribute from the aboriginal inhabitants because in practice they did not consider the natives as vassals but as heathens to be converted neighbors and service suppliers 33 In 1641 governor of Dutch Formosa Paulus Traudenius launched an expedition on the Spanish settlement of San Salvador in modern day Keelung The Spanish positions were well defended and Dutch forces were not able to breach the walls of Fort San Salvador In the following year the Dutch launched a second assault and successfully captured San Salvador Guo Huaiyi rebellion edit On 8 September 1652 a Chinese farmer Guo Huaiyi and an army of peasants attacked Sakam Most of the Dutch were able to find refuge but others were captured and executed Over the next two days natives and Dutch killed around 500 Chinese On 11 September four or five thousand Chinese rebels clashed with the company soldiers and their native allies The rebels fled some 4 000 Chinese were killed 34 The rebellion and its ensuing massacre destroyed the rural labor force Although the crops survived almost unscathed there was a below average harvest for 1653 However thousands of Chinese migrated to Taiwan due to war on the mainland and a modest recovery of agriculture occurred Anti Chinese measures increased Natives were reminded to watch the Chinese and not to engage with them However in terms of military preparations little was done 35 Koxinga s invasion edit nbsp The surrender of Fort Zeelandia in 1662Zheng Chenggong known in Dutch sources as Koxinga studied at the Imperial Academy in Nanjing When Beijing fell in 1644 to rebels Chenggong and his followers declared their loyalty to the Ming dynasty and he was bestowed the title Guoxingye Lord of the Imperial surname Chenggong continued the resistance against the Qing from Xiamen In 1650 he planned a major offensive from Guangdong The Qing deployed a large army to the area and Chenggong decided to ferry his army along the coast but a storm hindered his movements The Qing launched a surprise attack on Xiamen forcing him to return to protect it From 1656 to 1658 he planned to take Nanjing Chenggong encircled Nanjing on 24 August 1659 Qing reinforcements arrived and broke Chenggong s army forcing them to retreat to Xiamen In 1660 the Qing embarked on a coastal evacuation policy to starve Chenggong of his source of livelihood 36 Some of the rebels during the Guo Huaiyi rebellion had expected aid from Chenggong and some company officials believed that the rebellion had been incited by him 36 Chenggong retreated from his stronghold in Amoy Xiamen city and attacked the Dutch colony in Taiwan in the hope of establishing a strategic base to marshal his troops to retake his base at Amoy On 23 March 1661 Zheng s fleet set sail from Kinmen with a fleet carrying around 25 000 soldiers and sailors The fleet arrived at Tayouan on 2 April Zheng s forces routed 240 Dutch soldiers at Baxemboy Island in the Bay of Taiwan and landed at the bay of Luermen 37 38 Three Dutch ships attacked the Chinese junks and destroyed several until their main warship exploded The remaining ships were unable to keep Zheng from controlling the waters around Taiwan 39 40 On 4 April Fort Provintia surrendered to Zheng s forces Following a nine month siege Chenggong captured the Dutch fortress Zeelandia and established a base in Taiwan 41 The Dutch held out at Keelung until 1668 when they withdrew from Taiwan completely 42 43 44 Kingdom of Tungning 1661 1683 editSee also Kingdom of Tungning Retreat to Taiwan edit nbsp Portrait of Zheng Jing 1642 1681 possibly 17th c Following the death of Zheng Chenggong in 1662 his son Zheng Jing s succession was met with dissension in Taiwan where the leaders made Zheng Miao Zheng Chenggong s fifth son the successor With the support of Xiamen s commanders Zheng Jing arrived in Taiwan in December 1662 and defeated his political enemies The political infighting caused some followers to become disillusioned and defect to the Qing From September 1661 to August 1662 some 290 officers 4 334 soldiers and 467 civilians left Zheng Taiwan Three leading Zheng commanders contacted Qing authorities with the intention to defect but Zheng Jing imprisoned them The defections continued and by 1663 some 3 985 officials and officers 40 962 soldiers 64 230 civilians and 900 ships in Fujian had defected from Zheng held territory 45 To combat population decline Zheng Jing also promoted migration to Taiwan Between 1665 and 1669 a large number of Fujianese moved to Taiwan under Zheng rule In a few years some 9 000 Chinese were brought to Taiwan by Zheng Jing 46 47 The Qing dynasty enacted a sea ban on coastal China to starve out the Zheng forces In 1663 the writer Xia Lin who lived in Xiamen testified that the Zhengs were short on supplies and the people suffered tremendous hardship due to the Qing sea ban haijin policy After Zheng forces retreated completely from the coast of Fujian in 1669 the Qing started relaxing restrictions on maritime trade 48 Due to the sea ban policy which saw the relocation of all southern coastal towns and ports that had been subject to Zheng raids migration occurred from these areas to Taiwan About 1 000 previous Ming government officials moved to Taiwan fleeing Qing persecution 49 From June to August 1663 Duke Huang Wu of Haicheng and commander Shi Lang of Tongan urged the Qing court to take Xiamen and made plans for an attack in October The Dutch too had attacked Zheng ships in Xiamen but failed to take the town In August the Dutch contacted Qing authorities in Fujian to propose a joint expedition against Zheng Taiwan The message did not reach the Qing court until 7 January 1663 and it took another four months for a reply The Kangxi Emperor granted the Dutch permission to set up inland trading posts but declined the proposal for a joint expedition The Dutch did however assist the Qing in naval combat against the Zheng fleet in October 1663 resulting in the capture of Zheng bases in Xiamen and Kinmen in November The Zheng admiral Zhou Quanbin surrendered on 20 November The remaining Zheng forces fled southward and completely evacuated from the mainland coast in the spring of 1664 50 51 Qing Dutch forces attempted to invade Taiwan twice in December 1664 On both occasions Admiral Shi Lang turned back his ships due to adverse weather Shi Lang tried to attack Taiwan again in 1666 but turned back due to a storm The Dutch continued to attack Zheng ships from time to time disrupting trade and occupied Keelung until 1668 but they were unable to take back the island Their position at sea was gradually taken over by Great Britain On 10 September 1670 a representative from the British East India Company signed a trade agreement with Zheng Taiwan 52 53 However trade with the British was limited because of the Zheng monopoly on sugar cane and deer hide as well as the inability of the British to match the price of East Asian goods for resale Zheng trade was subject to the Qing sea ban policy throughout its existence limiting trade with mainland China to smugglers 49 Revolt of the Three Feudatories edit Main article Revolt of the Three Feudatories nbsp Map showing the Revolt of the Three Feudatories 1673 1681 In 1670 and 1673 Zheng forces seized tributary vessels on their way to the mainland from Ryukyu In 1671 Zheng forces raided the coast of Zhejiang and Fujian In 1674 Zheng Jing took advantage of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories on the mainland and recaptured Xiamen and used it as a trading center to fund his efforts to retake mainland China He imported swords gun barrels knives armours lead and saltpeter and other components for gunpowder Zheng made an alliance with the rebel lord Geng Jingzhong in Fujian but they fell afoul of each other not long afterward Zheng captured Quanzhou and Zhangzhou in 1674 In 1675 the commander of Chaozhou Liu Jingzhong defected to Zheng After Geng and other rebels surrendered to the Qing in 1676 and 1677 the tide turned against the Zheng forces Quanzhou was lost to the Qing on 12 March 1677 and then Zhangzhou and Haicheng on 5 April Zheng forces counterattacked and retook Haicheng in August Zheng naval forces blockaded Quanzhou and tried to retake the city in August 1678 but they were forced to retreat in October when Qing reinforcements arrived Zheng forces suffered heavy casualties in a battle in January 1679 54 On 6 March 1680 the Qing fleet led by Admiral Wan Zhengse moved against Zheng naval forces near Quanzhou and defeated them on 20 March with assistance from land based artillery The sudden retreat of Zheng naval forces caused widespread panic on land and many Zheng commanders and soldiers defected to the Qing Xiamen was abandoned On 10 April Zheng Jing s war on the mainland came to a close 55 Zheng Jing died in early 1681 56 Qing invasion edit Shi Lang edit nbsp Shi Lang 1621 1696 in an 18th century paintingAdmiral Shi Lang was the primary leader in advocating and organizing the Qing effort to conquer Zheng Taiwan Born in Jinjiang Fujian in 1621 he was a soldier in the service of Zheng Zhilong until he had a falling out with Zheng Chenggong resulting in Shi s defection to the Qing 57 58 The Qing established a naval force in Fujian in 1662 and appointed Shi Lang as the commander On 15 May 1663 Shi attacked the Zheng fleet and succeeded in capturing 24 Zheng officers 5 ships and killing over 200 enemies Shi planned to attack Xiamen on 19 September but the Qing court decided to postpone the assault until Dutch naval reinforcements arrived From 18 to 20 November the Dutch fought sea battles against the Zheng while Shi took Xiamen In 1664 Shi assembled a fleet of 240 ships and in conjunction with 16 500 troops chased the remaining Zheng forces south They failed to dislodge the last Zheng stronghold due to the departure of the Dutch fleet However after the defection of Zheng commander Zhou Quanbin Zheng Jing decided to pull out from the remaining mainland stronghold in the spring of 1664 59 Shi proposed to the Qing court an invasion of Penghu and Taiwan In November 1664 Shi s fleet set sail but was turned back by a storm He tried again in May 1665 but there was too little wind to move the ships and then a few days later the winds reversed direction and forced him to return Another failed attempt was made in June when they were met with a violent storm sinking a few small ships and damaging the masts of several other ships Shi s flagship was blown to the coast of Guangdong on 30 June In 1666 the Qing called off the expedition 60 Shi Lang was removed from office in 1667 during negotiations between the Qing and Zheng Taiwan 61 Battle of Penghu edit Main article Battle of Penghu nbsp Map of Penghu Qing dynastyShi Lang was reappointed as the naval chief of Fujian on 10 September 1681 62 In Taiwan Zheng Jing s death resulted in a coup shortly afterward His illegitimate son Zheng Keshuang murdered his brother Zheng Kezang with the support of minister Feng Xifan Political turmoil heavy taxes an epidemic in the north a large fire that caused the destruction of more than a thousand houses and suspicion of collusion with the Qing caused more Zheng followers to defect to the Qing Zheng s deputy Commander Liu Bingzhong surrendered with his ships and men from Penghu 63 64 Orders from the Kangxi Emperor to invade Taiwan reached Yao Qisheng and Shi Lang on 6 June 1682 The invasion fleet was met with unfavorable winds and was forced to turn back Yao proposed a five month postponement of the invasion to wait for favorable winds in November Conflict between Yao and Shi led to Yao s removal from power in November 65 On 18 November 1682 Shi Lang was authorized to assume the role of supreme commander while Yao was relegated to logistical matters Supplies arrived for Shi s 21 000 troops 70 large warships 103 supply ships and 65 double mast vessels in early December Spy ships were sent to scout Penghu and returned safely Two attempts to sail to Penghu in February 1683 failed due to a shift in winds 66 Shi s fleet of 238 ships and over 21 000 men set sail on 8 July 1683 Liu Guoxuan the commander of 30 000 men at Penghu considered the movement a false alarm and believed Shi would turn back The next day Shi s fleet was sighted at small islands to the northwest of Penghu The Qing forces were met by 200 Zheng ships Following an exchange of gunfire the Qing were forced to retreat with two Zheng naval commanders Qiu Hui and Jiang Sheng in pursuit The Qing vanguard led by Admiral Lan Li provided cover fire for a withdrawal Shi was hit in the right eye and Lan was wounded in the stomach during the fighting The Zheng side also suffered heavy losses making Liu reluctant to pursue the disarrayed Qing forces He reported a great victory back to Taiwan 67 On 11 July Shi regrouped his squadrons and requested reinforcements at Bazhao On 16 July a reinforcement of large ships arrived Shi divided the main striking force into eight squadrons of seven ships with himself leading from the middle Two flotillas of 50 small ships sailed in two different directions as a diversion The remaining vessels served as rear reinforcements 68 The battle took place in the bay of Magong The Zheng garrison fired at the Qing ships and then set sail from the harbor with about 100 ships to meet the Qing forces Shi concentrated fire on one big enemy ship at a time until all of Zheng s battle ships were sunk by the end of 17 July Liu escaped to Taiwan with dozens of small vessels Approximately 12 000 Zheng men perished The garrison commanders surrendered after hearing of Liu s escape The Qing captured Penghu on 18 July 69 Qing dynasty 1683 1895 editSee also Taiwan under Qing rule nbsp Depiction of Qing ships crossing the ocean to suppress the Lin Shuangwen rebellion 1787 1788 nbsp Conquest of Douliumen Zhuluo nbsp Battle of Fangliao during the Lin Shuangwen rebellion of 1787 1788Indigenous rebellions 1723 1733 edit In 1723 aborigines living in Dajiaxi village along the central coastal plain rebelled Government troops from southern Taiwan were sent to put down this revolt but in their absence Han settlers in Fengshan County rose up in revolt under the leadership of Wu Fusheng a settler from Zhangzhou 70 By 1732 five different ethnic groups were in revolt but the rebellion was defeated by the end of the year 70 During the Qianlong period 1735 1796 the 93 shufan acculturated aborigine villages never rebelled and over 200 non acculturated aboriginal villages submitted 71 In fact during the 200 years of Qing rule in Taiwan the plains aborigines rarely rebelled against the government and the mountain aborigines were left to their own devices until the last 20 years of Qing rule Most of the rebellions of which there were more than 100 during the Qing period were caused by Han settlers 72 73 The idom Every three years an uprising every five years a rebellion 三年一反 五年一亂 was used primarily to describe commotions that occurred during the 30 year period between 1820 1850 74 75 Zhu Yigui rebellion edit Zhu Yigui also known as the Duck King 76 was a settler from Fujian He became the owner of a duck farm in Taiwan s Luohanmen modern Kaohsiung Zhu was known among locals for his generous conduct and persistent fight against immoral conduct In 1720 there was an upset among merchants fishermen and farmers in Taiwan due to increased taxation They gathered around Zhu who shared the same surname with the Ming dynasty s royal family and supported him in mobilizing discontent Chinese into an anti Qing rebellion 77 Zhu was declared the Ming Emperor and efforts were made to imitate Ming style clothing with performance costumes 76 Hakka leader Lin Junying from the south also joined the rebellion In March 1720 Zhu and Lin attacked the Qing garrison at Taiwan County and defeated them in April In less than two weeks the rebels had defeated Qing forces in all of Taiwan The Hakka troops left Zhu to follow Lin north The Qing sent a fleet under the command of Shi Shibian son of Shi Lang with an army of 22 000 troops A month later the rebellion was defeated and Zhu was executed in Beijing 77 Lin Shuangwen rebellion edit In 1786 members of the Tiandihui Heaven and Earth society secret society were arrested for failing to make tax payments The Tiandihui broke into the jail killed the guards and rescued their members When Qing troops were sent into the village and tried to arrest Lin Shuangwen the leader of the Tiandihui and a settler from Fujian led his forces to defeat the Qing troops 78 Many of the rebel army s troops came from new arrivals from mainland China who could not find land to farm They joined the Tiandihui for protection 76 Lin attacked Changhua County killing 2 000 civilians In early 1787 50 000 Qing troops under Li Shiyao from the mainland were sent to put down the rebellion The two sides fought to a stalemate for six months Lin tried to enlist the support of the Hakka people but not only did they refuse they sent their troops to support the Qing 78 Despite the Tiandihui s ostensibly anti Qing stance its members were generally anti government and were not motivated by ethnic or national interest resulting in social discord and political chaos Some civilians aided the Qing against the rebels 76 In 1788 a fresh force of 10 000 Qing troops led by Fuk anggan and Hailanqa were sent to Taiwan 79 They successfully defeated the rebellion shortly after arriving Lin was executed in Beijing in April 1788 78 The Qianlong Emperor gave Zhuluo County its modern name Chiayi lit commendable righteousness for resisting the rebels 76 Colonization of Kavalan edit The Gamalan or Kavalan people were situated in modern Yilan County in northeastern Taiwan It was separated from the western plains and Tamsui Danshui by mountains There were 36 aboriginal villages in the area and the Kavalan people had started paying taxes as early as the Kangxi period r 1661 1722 but they were non acculturated guihua shengfan aborigines In 1787 a Chinese settler named Wu Sha tried to reclaim land in Gamalan but was defeated by aborigines The next year the Tamsui sub prefect convinced the Taiwan prefect Yang Tingli to support Wu Sha Yang recommended subjugating the natives and opening Gamalan for settlement to the Fujian governor but the governor refused to act due to fear of conflict In 1797 a new Tamsui sub prefect issued permit and financial support for Wu to recruit settlers for land reclamation which was illegal Wu s successors were unable to register the reclaimed land on government registers Local officials supported land reclamation but could not officially recognize it 80 In 1806 it was reported that a pirate Cai Qian was within the vicinity of Gamalan Taiwan Prefect Yang once again recommended opening up Gamalan arguing that to abandon it would cause trouble on the frontier Later another pirate band tried to occupy Gamalan Yang recommended to the Fuzhou General Saichong a the establishment of administration and land surveys in Gamalan Saichong a initially refused but then changed his mind and sent a memorial to the emperor in 1808 recommending the incorporation of Gamalan The issue was discussed by the central government officials and for the first time one official went on record saying that if aboriginal territory was incorporated not only would it end the pirate threat but the government would stand to profit from the land itself In 1809 the emperor ordered for Gamalan to be incorporated The next year an imperial decree for the formal incorporation of Gamalan was issued and a Gamalan sub prefect was appointed 81 Opium War edit By 1831 the East India Company decided it no longer wanted to trade with the Chinese on their terms and planned more aggressive measures A Prussian missionary and linguist Karl F A Gutzlaff was sent to explore Taiwan He published his experiences in Taiwan in 1833 confirming its rich resources and trade potential Given the strategic and commercial value of Taiwan there were British suggestions in 1840 and 1841 to seize the island William Huttman wrote to Lord Palmerston pointing out China s benign rule over Taiwan and the strategic and commercial importance of the island 82 He suggested that Taiwan could be occupied with only a warship and less than 1 500 troops and the English would be able to spread Christianity among the natives as well as develop trade 83 In September 1841 during the First Opium War the British transport ship Nerbudda became shipwrecked near Keelung Harbour due to a typhoon The captain and a handful of English officers escaped safely however most of the crew including 29 Europeans 5 Filipinos and 240 Indian lascars were rescued by locals and handed over to Qing officials in Tainan the capital of Taiwan In October 1841 HMS Nimrod sailed to Keelung to search for the Nerbudda survivors but after Captain Joseph Pearse found out that they were sent south for imprisonment he ordered the bombardment of the harbour and destroyed 27 sets of cannon before returning to Hong Kong The brig Ann also shipwrecked in March 1842 and another 54 survivors were taken The Taiwan Qing commanders Dahonga and Yao Ying filed a disingenuous report to the emperor claiming to have defended against an attack from the Keelung fort Most of the survivors over 130 from the Nerbudda and 54 from the Ann were executed in Tainan in August 1842 The false report was later discovered and the officials in Taiwan punished The British wanted them executed but they were only given different postings on the mainland which the British were not aware of until 1845 82 Rover incident edit nbsp American expedition to Taiwan in 1867On 12 March 1867 the American barque Rover shipwrecked offshore at the southern tip of Taiwan The vessel sank but the captain his wife and some men escaped on two boats One boat landed at a small bay near the Bi Mountains inhabited by the Koaluts Guizaijiao tribe of the Paiwan people The Koaluts aborigines captured them and mistook the captain s wife for a man They killed her The captain two white men and the Chinese sailors save for one who managed to escape to Takau were also killed The Cormorant a British steamer tried to help and landed near the shipwreck on 26 March The aborigines fired muskets and shot arrows at them forcing them to retreat The American Asiatic Fleet s Admiral Bell also landed at the Bi Mountains where they got lost suffered heatstroke and then was ambushed by the aborigines losing an officer 84 85 Le Gendre the US Consul blamed the Qing dynasty for the failure and demanded that they send troops to help him negotiate with the aborigines He also hoped that the Qing would permanently station troops to prevent further killings by the aborigines On 10 September Garrison Commander Liu Mingcheng led 500 Qing troops to southern Taiwan with Le Gendre The remains were recovered The aboriginal chief Tanketok Toketok explained that a long time ago the white men came and almost exterminated the Koaluts tribe and their ancestors passed down their desire for revenge They came to an oral agreement that the mountain aborigines would not kill any more castaways would care for them and hand them over to the Chinese at Langqiao 86 Le Gendre visited the tribe again in February 1869 and signed an agreement with them in English It was later discovered that Tanketok did not have absolute control over the tribes and some of them paid him no heed Le Gendre castigated China as a semi civilized power for not fulfilling the obligation of the law of nations which is to seize the territory of a wild race and to confer upon it the benefits of civilization Since China failed to prevent the aborigines from killing subjects or citizens of civilized countries we see the rights of the Emperor of China over aboriginal Formosa such as we have said are not absolute as long as she remains uncivilized 87 Le Gendre later moved to Japan and worked with the Japanese government as a foreign advisor on their China policy including the development of the concept of the East Asian crescent According to the East Asian crescent concept Japan should control Korea Taiwan and Ryukyu to affirm its position in East Asia 88 Mudan incident edit In December 1871 a Ryukyuan vessel shipwrecked on the southeastern tip of Taiwan and 54 sailors were killed by aborigines Four tribute ships were returning to the Ryukyu Islands when they were blown off course on 12 December Two ships were pushed towards Taiwan One of them landed on Taiwan s western coast and made it back home with the help of Qing officials The other one crashed into the eastern coast of southern Taiwan near Bayao Bay There were 69 passengers and 66 managed to make it to shore They met two Chinese men who told them not to travel inland where the dangerous Paiwan people were 89 According to the survivors the Chinese robbed them and they decided to part ways On 18 December they headed westward and encountered aboriginal men presumably Paiwanese They followed the Paiwanese to a small settlement Kuskus where they were given food and water According to Kuskus local Valjeluk Mavalu the water was a symbol of protection and friendship The deposition claims they were robbed by their Kuskus hosts during the night In the morning they were ordered to stay put while hunters left to search for game to provide a feast Alarmed by the armed men and rumors of head hunting the Ryukyuans departed while the hunting party was away They found shelter in the home of a 73 year old Hakka trading post serviceman Deng Tianbao The Paiwanese men found the Ryukyuans and dragged them out slaughtering them while others died in a fight or were caught trying to escape Nine Ryukyuans hid in Deng s home They moved to another Hakka settlement Poliac Baoli where they found refuge with Deng s son in law Yang Youwang Yang arranged for the ransom of three men and sheltered the survivors for 40 days before sending them to Taiwan Prefecture modern Tainan The Ryukuans headed home in July 1872 90 It is uncertain what caused the Paiwanese to murder the Ryukyuans Some say the Ryukyuans did not understand Paiwanese guest etiquette they ate and ran or that their captors could not find ransom and therefore killed them According to Lianes Punanang a Mudan local 66 men who could not understand the local languages entered Kuskus and began taking food and drink disregarding village boundaries Efforts to aid the strangers with food and drink strained Kuskus resources They were finally killed for their misdeeds The shipwreck and murder of the sailors came to be known as the Mudan incident although it did not take place in Mudan J Botan but at Kuskus Gaoshifo 91 The Mudan incident did not immediately cause any concern in Japan A few officials knew of it by mid 1872 but it was not until April 1874 that it became an international concern The repatriation procedure in 1872 was by the books and had been a regular affair for several centuries From the 17th to 19th centuries the Qing had settled 401 Ryukyuan shipwreck incidents both on the coast of mainland China and Taiwan The Ryukyu Kingdom did not ask Japanese officials for help regarding the shipwreck Instead its king Shō Tai sent a reward to Chinese officials in Fuzhou for the return of the 12 survivors 92 Japanese invasion 1874 edit nbsp Saigō with leaders of the Seqalu tribe in Taiwan nbsp Japanese woodblock print of the expedition forces attacking the Mudan tribe 1874On 30 August 1872 Sukenori Kabayama a general of the Imperial Japanese Army urged the Japanese government to invade Taiwan s tribal areas The Foreign Minister Sakimitsu Yanagihara believed that the perpetrators of the Mudan incident were all Taiwan savages beyond Chinese education and law 93 Japan justified sending an expedition to Taiwan through linguistic interpretation of 化外之民 to mean not part of China Chinese diplomat Li Hongzhang rejected the claim that the murder of Ryukyuans had anything to do with Japan once he learned of Japan s aspirations 94 However after communications between the Qing and Yanagihara the Japanese took their explanation to mean that the Qing government had not opposed Japan s claims to sovereignty over the Ryukyu Islands disclaimed any jurisdiction over Aboriginal Taiwanese and had indeed consented to Japan s expedition to Taiwan 95 In the eyes of Japan and the foreign advisor Le Gendre the aborigines were savages who had no sovereign or international status and therefore their territory was terra nullius free to be seized for Japan 96 On 9 March 1874 the Taiwan Expedition prepared for its mission The magistrate of the Taiwan Circuit learned of the impending Japanese invasion from a Hong Kong newspaper quoting a Japanese news item and reported it to Fujian authorities 97 Qing officials were taken by complete surprise due to the seemingly cordial relations with Japan at the time On 17 May Saigō Judō led the main force 3 600 strong aboard four warships in Nagasaki headed to Tainan 98 On 6 June the Japanese emperor issued a certificate condemning the Taiwan savages for killing our nationals the Ryukyuans killed in southeastern Taiwan 99 On 3 May 1874 Kusei Fukushima delivered a note to Fujian Zhejiang Governor Li Henian announcing that they were heading to savage territory to punish the culprits On 7 May a Chinese translator Zhan Hansheng was sent ashore to establish peaceful relations with tribes other than the Mudan and Kuskus Afterwards American foreign officers and Fukushima landed at Checheng and Xinjie They tried to use Baxian Bay at Qinggangpu as their barracks but heavy rain flooded the site a few days later so the Japanese moved to the southern end of Langqiao Bay on 11 May They learned that Tanketok had died and invited the Shemali tribe for talks Japanese scouts fanned out and were met by attacks by aborigines On 21 May a 12 member scout party was ambushed and two were wounded The Japanese camp sent 250 reinforcements and searched the villages The next day Samata Sakuma encountered Mudan fighters around 70 strong occupying a commanding height A twenty men party climbed the cliffs and shot at the Mudan people forcing them to flee The Mudan lost 16 men including their tribal leader Agulu The Japanese lost seven with 30 injured 100 The Japanese army split into three forces and headed in different directions the south north and central routes The south route army was ambushed by the Kuskus tribe and lost three soldiers A counterattack defeated the Kuskus fighter and the Japanese burnt their villages The central route was attacked by Mudan and two or three soldiers were wounded The Japanese burnt their villages The north route attacked the Nunai village On 3 June they burnt all the villages that had been occupied On 1 July the new leader of the Mudan tribe and the chief of Kuskus admitted defeat and promised not to harm shipwrecked castaways 101 Surrendered aborigines were given Japanese flags to fly over their villages They were viewed as a symbol of peace with Japan and protection from rival tribes by the aborigines To the Japanese it was a symbol of jurisdiction over the aborigines 102 Chinese forces arrived on 17 June and a report by Fujian Administration Commissioner reported that all 56 representatives of the tribes except for Mudan Zhongshe and Linai who were not present due to fleeing from the Japanese complained about Japanese bullying 103 A Chinese representative Pan Wei met with Saigō four times between 22 and 26 June but nothing came of it The Japanese settled in and established large camps with no intention of withdrawing but in August and September 600 soldiers fell ill They started dying 15 a day The death toll rose to 561 Toshimichi Okubo arrived in Beijing on 10 September and seven negotiating sessions occurred over a month long period The Western Powers pressured China not to cause bloodshed with Japan as it would negatively impact the coastal trade The resulting Peking Agreement was signed on 30 October Japan gained the recognition of Ryukyu as its vassal and an indemnity payment of 500 000 taels Japanese troops withdrew from Taiwan on 3 December 104 Sino French War edit nbsp Evacuation of Keelung by the French forces image created 1887During the Sino French War the French invaded Taiwan during the Keelung Campaign in 1884 The Chinese had already been aware of French plans to attack Taiwan and sent Liu Mingchuan the governor of Fujian to strengthen Taiwan s defenses on 16 July On 5 August 1884 Sebastien Lespes bombarded Keelung s harbor and destroyed the gun placements The next day the French attempted to take Keelung but failed to defeat the larger Chinese force led by Liu Mingchuan and were forced to withdraw to their ships On 1 October Amedee Courbet landed with 2 250 French forces and defeated a smaller Chinese force though equipped with Krupp guns capturing Keelung French efforts to capture Tamsui failed The port of Tamsui had been filled with debris by the Chinese and the French were unable to sustain a landing The French shelled Tamsui destroying not only the forts but also foreign buildings Some 800 French troops landed on Shalin beach near Tamsui but they were repelled by Chinese forces 105 The French imposed a blockade on Taiwan from 23 October 1884 until April 1885 but the execution was not completely effective Foreign vessels were barred from docking in blockaded harbors Some believed that the blockade was almost directed at the British The French did not have enough ships to impose a complete blockade on Taiwan and only concentrated on the major ports leaving smaller Chinese vessels to enter lesser ports with troops and supplies The first Chinese relief effort a fleet of five ships was repelled by the French with two ships sunk On 21 December 1884 five battalions in southern China were ordered to reinforce Taiwan 106 French ships around mainland China s coast attacked any junk they could find and captured its occupants to be shipped to Keelung for constructing defensive works However the blockade failed to stop Chinese junks from reaching Taiwan For every junk the French captured another five junks arrived with supplies at Takau and Anping The immediate effect of the blockade was a sharp decline in legal trade and income 107 In late January 1885 Chinese forces suffered a serious defeat around Keelung Although the French captured Keelung they were unable to move beyond its perimeters In March the French tried to take Tamsui again and failed At sea the French bombarded Penghu on 28 March 108 Penghu surrendered on 31 March but many of the French soon grew ill and 1 100 soldiers and later 600 more were debilitated The French commander died from illness in Penghu 109 An agreement was reached on 15 April 1885 and an end to hostilities was announced The French evacuation from Keelung was completed on 21 June 1885 and Penghu remained under Chinese control 110 Liu Mingchuan s colonization campaign edit After the Sino French War efforts to settle in aboriginal territories were renewed under the governance of Liu Mingchuan the Fujian governor and Taiwan defense commissioner Administering Taiwan became his sole focus in 1885 and the administration of Fujian was left to the governor general Another prefecture Taiwan Prefecture was created in the western plains while the former Taiwan Prefecture was renamed Tainan Three new counties were created a new Taitung Department eastern Taiwan department was created and in the subsequent years three new subprefectures were added 111 In 1887 Taiwan became its own province 112 A Taiwan Pacification and Reclamation Head Office was established with eight pacification and reclamation bureaus Four bureaus were located in eastern Taiwan two in Puli inner Shuishalian one in the north and one on the western border of the mountains By 1887 about 500 aboriginal villages or roughly 90 000 aborigines had formally submitted to Qing rule This number increased to 800 villages with 148 479 aborigines over the following years However the cost of getting them to submit was exorbitant The Qing offered them materials and paid village chiefs monthly allowances Not all the aborigines were under effective control and land reclamation in eastern Taiwan occurred at a slow pace 113 From 1884 to 1891 Liu launched more than 40 military campaigns against the aborigines with 17 500 soldiers The eastward expansion ended after the defeat of the Mkgogan and Msbtunux due to the fierceness of their resistance A third of the invasion force was killed or disabled in the conflict amounting to a costly failure 114 115 Sino Japanese War edit As part of the settlement for losing the Sino Japanese War the Qing dynasty ceded the islands of Taiwan and Penghu to Japan on April 17 1895 according to the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki The loss of Taiwan would become a rallying point for the Chinese nationalist movement in the years that followed 116 The pro Qing officials and elements of the local gentry declared an independent Republic of Formosa in 1895 but failed to win international recognition The Japanese spent the next twenty years fighting rebellions in Taiwan while encouraging Japanese colonists to settle there However due to lack of infrastructure and fear of disease such as leprosy and malaria few moved to Taiwan in the early years 117 Japanese Empire 1895 1945 editSee also Taiwan under Japanese rule nbsp Painting of Japanese soldiers entering the city of Taipeh Taipei in 1895 after the Treaty of ShimonosekiInvasion and suppression edit Main article Japanese invasion of Taiwan 1895 nbsp Insurgents captured during the Seirai an Temple Incident 1915The colonial authorities encountered violent opposition in much of Taiwan Five months of sustained warfare occurred after the invasion of Taiwan in 1895 and partisan attacks continued until 1902 For the first two years the colonial authority relied mainly on military force and local pacification efforts Disorder and panic were prevalent in Taiwan after Penghu was seized by Japan in March 1895 On 20 May Qing officials were ordered to leave their posts General mayhem and destruction ensued in the following months 118 Japanese forces landed on the coast of Keelung on 29 May and Tamsui s harbor was bombarded Remnant Qing units and Guangdong irregulars briefly fought against Japanese forces in the north After the fall of Taipei on 7 June local militia and partisan bands continued the resistance In the south a small Black Flag force led by Liu Yongfu delayed Japanese landings Governor Tang Jingsong attempted to carry out anti Japanese resistance efforts as the Republic of Formosa however he still professed to be a Qing loyalist The declaration of a republic was according to Tang to delay the Japanese so that Western powers might be compelled to defend Taiwan 118 The plan quickly turned to chaos as the Green Standard Army and Yue soldiers from Guangxi took to looting and pillaging Taiwan Given the choice between chaos at the hands of bandits or submission to the Japanese Taipei s gentry elite sent Koo Hsien jung to Keelung to invite the advancing Japanese forces to proceed to Taipei and restore order 119 The Republic established on 25 May disappeared 12 days later when its leaders left for the mainland 118 Liu Yongfu formed a temporary government in Tainan but escaped to the mainland as well as Japanese forces closed in 120 Between 200 000 and 300 000 people fled Taiwan in 1895 121 122 Chinese residents in Taiwan were given the option of selling their property and leaving by May 1897 or become Japanese citizens From 1895 to 1897 an estimated 6 400 people mostly gentry elites sold their property and left Taiwan The vast majority did not have the means or will to leave 123 124 125 Upon Tainan s surrender Kabayama declared Taiwan pacified however his proclamation was premature In December a series of anti Japanese uprisings occurred in northern Taiwan and would continue to occur at a rate of roughly one per month Armed resistance by Hakka villagers broke out in the south A series of prolonged partisan attacks led by local bandits or rebels lasted throughout the next seven years After 1897 uprisings by Chinese nationalists were commonplace Luo Fuxing zh a member of the Tongmenghui organization preceding the Kuomintang was arrested and executed along with two hundred of his comrades in 1913 126 Japanese reprisals were often more brutal than the guerilla attacks staged by the rebels In June 1896 6 000 Taiwanese were slaughtered in the Yunlin Massacre From 1898 to 1902 some 12 000 bandit rebels were killed in addition to the 6 000 14 000 killed in the initial resistance war of 1895 120 127 128 During the conflict 5 300 Japanese were killed or wounded and 27 000 were hospitalized 129 Rebellions were often caused by a combination of unequal colonial policies on local elites and extant millenarian beliefs of the local Taiwanese and plains indigenous 130 Ideologies of resistance drew on different ideals such as Taishō democracy Chinese nationalism and nascent Taiwanese self determination 116 Support for resistance was partly class based and many of the wealthy Han people in Taiwan preferred the order of colonial rule to the lawlessness of insurrection 131 Major armed resistance was largely crushed by 1902 but minor rebellions started occurring again in 1907 such as the Beipu uprising by Hakka and Saisiyat people in 1907 Luo Fuxing in 1913 and the Tapani Incident of 1915 130 132 The Beipu uprising occurred on 14 November 1907 when a group of Hakka insurgents killed 57 Japanese officers and members of their family In the following reprisal 100 Hakka men and boys were killed in the village of Neidaping 133 Luo Fuxing was an overseas Taiwanese Hakka involved with the Tongmenghui He planned to organize a rebellion against the Japanese with 500 fighters resulting in the execution of more than 1 000 Taiwanese by Japanese police Luo was killed on 3 March 1914 127 134 In 1915 Yu Qingfang organized a religious group that openly challenged Japanese authority Indigenous and Han forces led by Chiang Ting and Yu stormed multiple Japanese police stations In what is known as the Tapani incident 1 413 members of Yu s religious group were captured Yu and 200 of his followers were executed 135 After the Tapani rebels were defeated Andō Teibi ordered Tainan s Second Garrison to retaliate through massacre Military police in Tapani and Jiasian announced that they would pardon any anti Japanese militants and that those who had fled into the mountains should return to their village Once they returned the villagers were told to line up in a field dig holes and were then executed by firearm According to oral tradition at least 5 000 6 000 people died in this incident 136 137 138 Indigenous people s resistance edit nbsp Mikata Ban a force of pro Japanese aborigines nbsp Beheaded Seediq at Second Musha IncidentIndigenous resistance to the heavy handed Japanese policies of acculturation and pacification lasted up until the early 1930s 130 By 1903 indigenous rebellions had resulted in the deaths of 1 900 Japanese in 1 132 incidents 131 In 1911 a large military force invaded Taiwan s mountainous areas to gain access to timber resources By 1915 many indigenous villages had been destroyed The Atayal and Bunun resisted the hardest against colonization 139 The Bunun and Atayal were described as the most ferocious indigenous peoples and police stations were targeted by indigenous in intermittent assaults 140 The Bunun under Chief Raho Ari engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese for twenty years Raho Ari s revolt called the Taifun Incident was sparked when the Japanese implemented a gun control policy in 1914 against the indigenous peoples in which their rifles were impounded in police stations when hunting expeditions were over The revolt began at Taifun when a police platoon was slaughtered by Raho Ari s clan in 1915 A settlement holding 266 people called Tamaho was created by Raho Ari and his followers near the source of the Rōnō River and attracted more Bunun rebels to their cause Raho Ari and his followers captured bullets and guns and slew Japanese in repeated hit and run raids against Japanese police stations by infiltrating over the Japanese guardline of electrified fences and police stations as they pleased 141 As a result head hunting and assaults on police stations by indigenous still continued after that year 142 143 In one of Taiwan s southern towns nearly 5 000 to 6 000 were slaughtered by Japanese in 1915 144 As resistance to the long term oppression by the Japanese government many Taivoan people from Kōsen led the first local rebellion against Japan in July 1915 called the Jiasian Incident Japanese 甲仙埔事件 Hepburn Kōsenpo jiken This was followed by a wider rebellion from Tamai in Tainan to Kōsen in Takao in August 1915 known as the Seirai an Incident Japanese 西来庵事件 Hepburn Seirai an jiken in which more than 1 400 local people died or were killed by the Japanese government Twenty two years later the Taivoan people struggled to carry on another rebellion since most of the indigenous people were from Kobayashi the resistance taking place in 1937 was named the Kobayashi Incident Japanese 小林事件 Hepburn Kobayashi jiken 145 Between 1921 and 1929 indigenous raids died down but a major revival and surge in indigenous armed resistance erupted from 1930 to 1933 for four years during which the Musha incident occurred and Bunun carried out raids after which armed conflict again died down 146 The 1930 New Flora and Silva Volume 2 said of the mountain indigenous that the majority of them live in a state of war against Japanese authority 147 The last major indigenous rebellion the Musha Incident occurred on 27 October 1930 when the Seediq people angry over their treatment while laboring in camphor extraction launched the last headhunting party Groups of Seediq warriors led by Mona Rudao attacked policed stations and the Musha Public School Approximately 350 students 134 Japanese and 2 Han Chinese dressed in Japanese garbs were killed in the attack The uprising was crushed by 2 000 3 000 Japanese troops and indigenous auxiliaries with the help of poison gas The armed conflict ended in December when the Seediq leaders committed suicide According to Japanese colonial records 564 Seediq warriors surrendered and 644 were killed or committed suicide 148 149 The incident caused the government to take a more conciliatory stance towards the indigenous and during World War 2 the government tried to assimilate them as loyal subjects 150 According to a 1933 year book wounded people in the war against the indigenous numbered around 4 160 with 4 422 civilians dead and 2 660 military personnel killed 151 According to a 1935 report 7 081 Japanese were killed in the armed struggle from 1896 to 1933 while the Japanese confiscated 29 772 Aboriginal guns by 1933 152 World War II edit See also Taiwan Army of Japan and Japan during World War II War edit As Japan embarked on full scale war with China in 1937 it expanded Taiwan s industrial capacity to manufacture war material By 1939 industrial production had exceeded agricultural production in Taiwan The Imperial Japanese Navy operated heavily out of Taiwan The South Strike Group was based out of the Taihoku Imperial University now National Taiwan University in Taiwan Taiwan was used as a launchpad for the invasion of Guangdong in late 1938 and for the occupation of Hainan in February 1939 A joint planning and logistical center was established in Taiwan to assist Japan s southward advance after the bombing of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 153 Taiwan served as a base for Japanese naval and air attacks on the island Luzon until the surrender of the Philippines in May 1942 It also served as a rear staging ground for further attacks on Myanmar As the war turned against Japan in 1943 Taiwan suffered due to Allied submarine attacks on Japanese shipping and the Japanese administration prepared to be cut off from Japan In the latter part of 1944 Taiwan s industries ports and military facilities were bombed in U S air raids 154 By the end of the war in 1945 industrial and agricultural output had dropped far below prewar levels with agricultural output 49 of 1937 levels and industrial output down by 33 Coal production dropped from 200 000 metric tons to 15 000 metric tons 155 An estimated 16 000 30 000 civilians died from the bombing 156 By 1945 Taiwan was isolated from Japan and its government prepared to defend against an expected invasion 154 During WWII the Japanese authorities maintained prisoner of war camps in Taiwan Around 4 350 Allied prisoners of war POW were used as forced labor in camps throughout Taiwan between 1942 and 1945 The camp served the copper mines at Jinguashi being especially heinous 157 Of the 430 Allied POW deaths across all fourteen Japanese POW camps on Taiwan the majority occurred at Jinguashi 158 Taiwanese military servicemen edit nbsp Taiwanese servicemen in the Imperial Japanese ArmyStarting in July 1937 Taiwanese began to play a role on the battlefield initially in noncombatant positions Taiwanese people were not recruited for combat until late in the war In 1942 the Special Volunteer System was implemented allowing even aborigines to be recruited as part of the Takasago Volunteers From 1937 to 1945 over 207 000 Taiwanese were employed by the Japanese military Roughly 50 000 went missing in action or died another 2 000 were disabled 21 were executed for war crimes and 147 were sentenced to imprisonment for two or three years 159 160 Some Taiwanese ex Japanese soldiers claim they were coerced and did not choose to join the army Accounts range from having no way to refuse recruitment to being incentivized by the salary to patriotism for Japan 161 In one account a man named Chen Chunqing said he was motivated by his desire to fight the British and Americans but became disillusioned after being sent to China and tried to defect although the effort was fruitless 162 Racial discrimination was commonplace despite rare occasions of camaraderie Some experienced greater equality during their time in the military One Taiwanese serviceman recalled being called chankoro Qing slave 163 by a Japanese soldier 162 After Japan s surrender the Taiwanese ex Japanese soldiers were abandoned by Japan and no transportation back to Taiwan or Japan was provided Many of them faced difficulties in mainland China Taiwan and Japan due to anti rightist and anti communist campaigns in addition to accusations of taking part in the February 28 incident In Japan they were faced with ambivalence An organization of Taiwanese ex Japanese soldiers tried to get the Japanese government to pay their unpaid wages several decades later They failed 164 Only after a petition in 1987 was a decision made to offer 2 million yen to former Taiwanese soldiers who had suffered severe injury in battle and to the families of those who died The 2 million yen per claim a minute fraction of that paid to Japanese soldiers amounted to very little of the unpaid military salary as a result of inflation according to the organization s calculations The Japanese government refused to take into account the calculations and refused to pay the wartime debts Nor did they offer an annual allowance like that paid to Japanese soldiers According to one Taiwanese ex Japanese soldier Chen Junqing he was very shocked by his trip to Japan in 1973 He had believed he would be warmly welcomed as a soldier who fought for the emperor 165 One Taiwanese ex Japanese soldier Teng Sheng had difficulty obtaining his injury record from the Japanese and even afterward he was still refused compensation for his injuries 166 167 Republic of China and martial law 1945 1987 editSee also White Terror Taiwan Martial law in Taiwan and United States Taiwan Defense Command On 26 July 1945 the United States United Kingdom and Republic of China jointly released the Potsdam Declaration calling for Japan s surrender Under the terms Japan was to be reduced to her pre 1894 territory and stripped of her pre war empire including Korea and Taiwan as well as all her recent conquests On 15 August Emperor Hirohito announced the Japan s unconditional surrender On 2 September the surrender was formalized in the Japanese Instrument of Surrender On 25 October 1945 Governor General Rikichi Andō handed over the administration of Taiwan and the Penghu islands to Kuomintang official Chen Yi who accepted the surrender on behalf of the Allied forces under the authorization of General Douglas MacArthur s General Order No 1 As part of the Treaty of San Francisco signed in 1951 Japan renounces all right title and claim to Formosa and the Pescadores Though the legal status of Taiwan remained undetermined the treaty s travaux preparatoires showed a consensus among the states present at the San Francisco Peace Conference that this status would be resolved at a later time in accordance with the principles of peaceful settlement of disputes and self determination 168 Modern era editSee also Political status of Taiwan and Third Taiwan Strait Crisis When the United States Congress enacted the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FY 2003 on 30 September 2002 it required that Taiwan be treated as though it were designated a major non NATO ally The Bush administration subsequently submitted a letter to Congress on 29 August 2003 designating Taiwan as an MNNA 169 Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine public interest in civil defense saw a resurgence due to the threat from China As of 2022 the Taiwanese civil defense units had 420 000 registered volunteers 170 In 2023 training shifted to more of a wartime focus with 70 of exercises dedicated to wartime scenarios and 30 of exercises dedicated to natural disaster scenarios from a previous 50 50 split 171 Private organizations like Kuma Academy and Forward Alliance provide civil defense and disaster response training to civilians in Taiwan 172 173 174 In September 2023 President Tsai Ing wen launched Taiwan s first domestically built submarine into the harbor of Kaohsiung The submarine named Haikun Chinese 海鯤 cost 1 54 billion and was set to be delivered to the Republic of China Navy by the end of 2024 The goal of Taiwan s domestic submarine program according to the head of the program Huang Shu kuang was to fend off any attempt from China to encircle Taiwan for an invasion or impose a naval blockade The Haikun uses a Lockheed Martin combat system and will carry American made torpedoes 175 In 2023 China deployed 1 709 military jets into Taiwan s air defense identification zone compared to 1 738 in 2022 and 972 in 2021 Analysts see the flights as a form of gray zone activity 176 See also editNational Chung Shan Institute of Science and Technology Conscription in TaiwanReferences edit Knapp Ronald G 1980 China s Island Frontier Studies in the Historical Geography of Taiwan The University of Hawaii p 5 Xiong Victor Cunrui 2012 Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty His Life Times and Legacy SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 8268 1 Tanaka Fumio 田中史生 2008 Kodai no Amami Okinawa shotō to kokusai shakai 古代の奄美 沖縄諸島と国際社会 In Ikeda Yoshifumi ed Kodai chusei no kyōkai ryōiki 古代中世の境界領域 pp 49 70 Isorena 2004 Liu 2012 pp 170 171 Hsu 1980 p 6 Wills 2007 p 86 歷史沿革 澎湖縣政府全球資訊網 Penghu County Government Archived from the original on 2021 03 01 Retrieved 2023 12 19 Knapp 1980 p 8 Hsu 1980 pp 9 10 Hang 2015 pp 33 34 Andrade 2008 ch 6 Jenco Leigh K 2020 Chen Di s Record of Formosa 1603 and an Alternative Chinese Imaginary of Otherness The Historical Journal 64 17 42 doi 10 1017 S0018246X1900061X S2CID 225283565 閩海贈言 National Central Library in Chinese p 26 Retrieved 16 July 2023 萬曆壬寅臘月初旬 將軍沈有容率師渡海 破賊東番 海波盪定 除夕班師 Thompson 1964 p 178 Thompson 1964 pp 170 171 Jansen Marius B 1992 China in the Tokugawa World Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 978 06 7411 75 32 Recent Trends in Scholarship on the History of Ryukyu s Relations with China and Japan Gregory Smits Pennsylvania State University p 13 1 Archived 2012 03 02 at the Wayback Machine Ilha Formosa the Emergence of Taiwan on the World Scene in the 17th Century National Palace Museum Archived from the original on 14 April 2018 Retrieved 12 April 2018 Borao Mateo 2002 pp 2 9 Andrade 2008a a b Davidson 1903 Blusse 2000 p 144 145 Blusse 2000 van Veen 2003 p 142 Shepherd 1993 p 37 a b c Andrade 2008b sfn error no target CITEREFAndrade2008b help van Veen 2003 p 149 Blusse amp Everts 2000 Everts 2000 pp 151 155 Lee Yuchung 荷西時期總論 Dutch and Spanish period of Taiwan Council for Cultural Affairs Archived from the original on December 3 2013 Retrieved September 29 2012 Andrade 2008g Cheung Han 20 August 2017 Taiwan in Time When colonial powers collide Taipei Times Retrieved 20 December 2023 Andrade 2008h Andrade 2008i a b Andrade 2008j Clodfelter 2017 p 63 Campbell 1903 p 544 Andrade 2011 p 138 Campbell 1903 p 482 Clements 2004 pp 188 201 Blusse Leonard 1 January 1989 Pioneers or cattle for the slaughterhouse A rejoinder to A R T Kemasang Bijdragen tot de Taal Land en Volkenkunde 145 2 357 doi 10 1163 22134379 90003260 S2CID 57527820 Andrade 2016 p 207 Hang Xing 2016 Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World c 1620 1720 Cambridge University Press p 154 ISBN 978 1316453841 Wong 2017 p 110 Wong 2017 p 106 Lin A Keating J 2008 Island in the Stream A Quick Case Study of Taiwan s Complex History 4th ed Taipei SMC Pub ISBN 9789576387050 Archived from the original on 2016 08 17 Retrieved 2016 10 06 Wong 2017 p 109 a b Wills John E Jr 2006 The Seventeenth century Transformation Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime In Rubinstein Murray A ed Taiwan A New History M E Sharpe pp 84 106 ISBN 9780765614957 Wong 2017 p 111 113 Hang Xing 2016 Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World c 1620 1720 Cambridge University Press p 154 ISBN 978 1316453841 Archived from the original on 2023 04 10 Retrieved 2019 05 26 Wong 2017 p 113 114 Wong 2017 p 138 Wong 2017 p 118 122 Wong 2017 p 124 125 Wong 2017 p 157 Wong 2017 p 144 147 Twitchett 2002 p 146 Wong 2017 p 148 150 Wong 2017 p 150 151 Wong 2017 p 152 153 Wong 2017 p 155 158 Wong 2017 p 166 167 Copper John F 2000 Historical Dictionary of Taiwan Republic of China 2nd ed Lanham Md Scarecrow Press p 10 ISBN 9780810836655 OL 39088M Wong 2017 p 162 163 Wong 2017 p 165 166 Wong 2017 p 168 169 Wong 2017 p 169 170 Wong 2017 p 170 171 a b Twitchett 2002 p 228 Ye 2019 p 91 Ye 2019 p 106 van der Wees Gerrit Has Taiwan Always Been Part of China thediplomat com The Diplomat Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 Retrieved 1 December 2020 Skoggard Ian A 1996 The Indigenous Dynamic in Taiwan s Postwar Development The Religious and Historical Roots of Entrepreneurship M E Sharpe ISBN 9781563248467 OL 979742M p 10 民變 Civil Strife Encyclopedia of Taiwan 台灣大百科 Taiwan Ministry of Culture Archived from the original on 10 March 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 臺灣有 三年一小反 五年一大反 之謠 但是根據研究 這句俗諺所形容民變迭起的現象 以道光朝 1820 1850 的三十多年間為主 The rumor of every three years a small uprising five years a large rebellion circulated around Taiwan According to research the repeated commotions described by this idiom occurred primarily during the 30 year period between 1820 and 1850 a b c d e Taiwan in Time Rebels of heaven and earth Taipei Times 17 April 2016 Archived from the original on 28 September 2022 Retrieved 27 September 2022 a b Li 2019 p 82 83 a b c Standaert 2022 p 225 Li 2019 p 83 Ye 2019 p 56 Ye 2019 p 56 57 a b Shih Shan Henry Tsai 2009 Maritime Taiwan Historical Encounters with the East and the West Routledge pp 66 67 ISBN 978 1 317 46517 1 Archived from the original on 2023 04 10 Retrieved 2016 01 13 Leonard H D Gordon 2007 Confrontation Over Taiwan Nineteenth Century China and the Powers Lexington Books p 32 ISBN 978 0 7391 1869 6 Archived from the original on 2023 04 10 Retrieved 2018 08 06 Barclay 2018 p 56 Wong 2022 p 119 Wong 2022 p 119 120 Wong 2022 p 121 122 Wong 2022 p 123 Barclay 2018 p 50 Barclay 2018 p 51 52 Barclay 2018 p 52 Barclay 2018 p 53 54 Wong 2022 p 124 126 Wong 2022 p 127 128 Leung 1983 p 270 Ye 2019 p 185 186 Wong 2022 p 129 Wong 2022 p 132 Wong 2022 p 130 Wong 2022 p 134 137 Wong 2022 p 137 138 of Civilization and Savages The Mimetic Imperialism of Japan s 1874 Expedition to Taiwan the American Historical Review 107 2 the History Cooperative Archived from the original on 2010 12 12 Retrieved 2010 08 01 Wong 2022 p 138 Wong 2022 p 141 143 Gordon 2007 p 142 145 Gordon 2007 p 146 49 Gordon 2007 p 149 151 154 Gordon 2007 p 149 151 Gordon 2007 p 161 162 Gordon 2007 p 162 Ye 2019 p 64 65 Rubinstein 1999 p 187 190 Ye 2019 p 65 Rubinstein 1999 p 191 Cheung Han 2 May 2021 Taiwan in Time The fall of the northern Atayal www taipeitimes com Taipei Times Archived from the original on 6 May 2021 Retrieved 10 May 2021 a b Zhang 1998 p 514 Matsuda 2019 p 103 104 a b c Rubinstein 1999 p 205 206 Morris 2002 pp 4 18 a b Rubinstein 1999 p 207 Wang 2006 p 95 Davidson 1903 p 561 Rubinstein 1999 p 208 Brooks 2000 p 110 Dawley Evan Was Taiwan Ever Really a Part of China thediplomat com The Diplomat Archived from the original on June 10 2021 Retrieved 10 June 2021 Zhang 1998 p 515 a b Chang 2003 p 56 Taiwan History Windows on Asia Asian Studies Center Michigan State University Archived from the original on December 22 2014 Retrieved 2014 12 22 Rubinstein 1999 p 207 208 a b c Katz 2005 a b Price 2019 p 115 Huang wen lai 2015 The turtle woman s voices Multilingual strategies of resistance and assimilation in Taiwan under Japanese colonial rule pdf published 2007 p 113 Retrieved 11 November 2015 Lesser Dragons Minority Peoples of China Reaktion Books 15 May 2018 ISBN 9781780239521 Place and Spirit in Taiwan Tudi Gong in the Stories Strategies and Memories of Everyday Life Routledge 29 August 2003 ISBN 9781135790394 Tsai 2009 p 134 Wang 2000 p 113 Su 1980 p 447 448 Governmentality and Its Consequences in Colonial Taiwan A Case Study of the Ta pa ni Incident PDF Archived from the original PDF on September 24 2007 Rubinstein 1999 p 211 212 The Japan Year Book 1937 Archived April 10 2023 at the Wayback Machine p 1004 Crook 2014 Archived April 10 2023 at the Wayback Machine p 16 The Japan Year Book 1937 Archived April 10 2023 at the Wayback Machine p 1004 ed Inahara 1937 p 1004 Tay sheng Wang 28 April 2015 Legal Reform in Taiwan under Japanese Colonial Rule 1895 1945 The Reception of Western Law University of Washington Press pp 113 ISBN 978 0 295 80388 3 Archived from the original on April 10 2023 Retrieved October 29 2020 種回小林村的記憶 大武壠民族植物暨部落傳承400年人文誌 A 400 Year Memory of Xiaolin Taivoan Their Botany Their History and Their People Kaohsiung City 高雄市杉林區日光小林社區發展協會 Sunrise Xiaolin Community Development Association 2017 ISBN 978 986 95852 0 0 ed Lin 1995 Archived April 10 2023 at the Wayback Machine p 84 ed Cox 1930 Archived April 10 2023 at the Wayback Machine p 94 Matsuda 2019 p 106 Ching 2001 pp 137 140 Ye 2019 p 193 The Japan Year Book 1933 p 1139 Japan s progress number July 1935 Archived February 5 2016 at the Wayback Machine p 19 Rubinstein 1999 p 235 a b Rubinstein 1999 p 235 236 歷史與發展 History and Development Taipower Corporation Archived from the original on 2007 05 14 Retrieved 2006 08 06 Economic Development of Emerging East Asia Catching up of Taiwan and South Korea Anthem Press 27 September 2017 ISBN 9781783086887 Sui Cindy June 15 2021 WW2 Unearthing Taiwan s forgotten prisoner of war camps BBC News Archived from the original on June 16 2021 Retrieved 15 June 2021 Prentice David 30 October 2015 The Forgotten POWs of the Pacific The Story of Taiwan s Camps Thinking Taiwan Archived from the original on April 10 2023 Retrieved 21 December 2020 Chen 2001 p 182 Cheung Han 16 September 2018 Taiwan in Time Abandoned by the rising sun Taipei Times Retrieved 19 December 2023 Chen 2001 p 183 184 a b Chen 2001 p 186 187 Shih 2022 p 327 Chen 2001 p 192 195 Chen 2001 p 194 195 Taiwan in Time Abandoned by the rising sun Taipei Times 16 September 2018 Okubo Maki 12 September 2020 Ex soldier wants memorial erected for Taiwanese war dead Asahi Shimbun Retrieved 20 December 2023 Chen Lung chu 2016 The U S Taiwan China Relationship in International Law and Policy Oxford Oxford University Press p 80 ISBN 978 0190601126 Kan Shirley December 2009 Taiwan Major U S Arms Sales Since 1990 DIANE Publishing p 52 ISBN 978 1 4379 2041 3 Civil defense reform needed experts say Taipei Times 26 January 2023 Retrieved 22 December 2023 Yu Matt Yang Evelyn 12 April 2023 Taiwan to stage the year s first civil defense drill in Taichung Focus Taiwan Retrieved 22 December 2023 Wang Joyu 4 March 2022 In Taiwan Russia s War in Ukraine Stirs New Interest in Self Defense The Wall Street Journal ISSN 0099 9660 Retrieved 10 October 2022 Davidson Helen 22 September 2021 Second line of defence Taiwan s civilians train to resist invasion The Guardian Retrieved 22 December 2023 Kwan Rhoda Jett Jennifer China is not about to invade Taiwan experts say but both are watching Ukraine NBC News Retrieved 29 April 2022 Wong Tessa 28 September 2023 Haikun Taiwan unveils new submarine to fend off China BBC Retrieved 21 December 2023 McCartney Micah 5 January 2024 China Deployed Over 1 700 Military Planes Around Taiwan in 2023 Newsweek Retrieved 6 January 2024 Bibliography editAndrade Tonio 2008 How Taiwan Became Chinese Project Gutenberg ed Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 12855 1 2011 Lost Colony The Untold Story of China s First Great Victory Over the West illustrated ed Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14455 9 2016 The Gunpowder Age China Military Innovation and the Rise of the West in World History Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 13597 7 Andrade Tonio 2008a Chapter 1 Taiwan on the Eve of Colonization How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century Columbia University Press Andrade Tonio 2008g Chapter 7 The Challenges of a Chinese Frontier How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century Columbia University Press Andrade Tonio 2008h Chapter 8 The Only Bees on Formosa That Give Honey How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century Columbia University Press Andrade Tonio 2008i Chapter 9 Lord and Vassal Company Rule over the Aborigines How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century Columbia University Press Andrade Tonio 2008j Chapter 10 The Beginning of the End How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century Columbia University Press Barclay Paul D 2018 Outcasts of Empire Japan s Rule on Taiwan s Savage Border 1874 1945 University of California Press Blusse Leonard 2000 The Cave of the Black Spirits In Blundell David ed Austronesian Taiwan California University of California ISBN 0 936127 09 0 van Veen Ernst 2003 How the Dutch Ran a Seventeenth Century Colony The Occupation and Loss of Formosa 1624 1662 In Blusse Leonard ed Around and About Formosa Taipei Southern Materials Center ISBN 9789867602008 OL 14547859M Blusse Leonard Everts Natalie 2000 The Formosan Encounter Notes on Formosa s Aboriginal Society A selection of Documents from Dutch Archival Sources Vol I amp II Taipei Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines ISBN 957 99767 2 4 and ISBN 957 99767 7 5 Borao Mateo Jose Eugenio 2002 Spaniards in Taiwan Vol II 1642 1682 Taipei SMC Publishing ISBN 978 957 638 589 6 Brooks Barbara J 2000 Japanese colonial citizenship in treaty port China the location of Koreans and Taiwanese in the imperial order Campbell William 1903 Formosa under the Dutch described from contemporary records with explanatory notes and a bibliography of the island London Kegan Paul OCLC 644323041 Campbell Rev William 1915 Sketches of Formosa London Edinburgh New York Marshall Brothers Ltd reprinted by SMC Publishing Inc 1996 ISBN 957 638 377 3 OL 7051071M Chang K C 1989 The Neolithic Taiwan Strait PDF Kaogu 6 translated by W Tsao ed by B Gordon 541 550 569 archived from the original PDF on 2012 04 18 Chang Mau kuei 2003 On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity Chen Yingzhen 2001 Imperial Army Betrayed Ching Leo T S 2001 Becoming Japanese Colonial Taiwan and the Politics of Identity Formation Berkeley CA University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 22551 0 Clements Jonathan 2004 Pirate King Coxinga and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty United Kingdom Muramasa Industries Limited ISBN 978 0 7509 3269 1 Clodfelter M 2017 Warfare and Armed Conflicts A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures 1492 2015 4th ed Jefferson North Carolina McFarland ISBN 978 0786474707 Davidson James Wheeler 1903 The Island of Formosa Past and Present History people resources and commercial prospects Tea camphor sugar gold coal sulphur economical plants and other productions London and New York Macmillan amp Co OL 6931635M Everts Natalie 2000 Jacob Lamay van Taywan An Indigenous Formosan Who Became an Amsterdam Citizen Ed David Blundell Austronesian Taiwan Linguistics History Ethnology Prehistory Berkeley CA University of California Press Gordon Leonard H D 2007 Confrontation Over Taiwan Lexington Books Hang Xing 2010 Between Trade and Legitimacy Maritime and Continent 2015 Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World c 1620 1720 Hsu Wen hsiung 1980 From Aboriginal Island to Chinese Frontier The Development of Taiwan before 1683 In Knapp Ronald G ed China s Island Frontier Studies in the Historical Geography of Taiwan The University of Hawaii pp 3 28 hdl 10125 62865 ISBN 978 0 8248 8004 0 Isorena Efren B 2004 The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast 1174 1190 Ad Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 32 2 73 95 JSTOR 29792550 Katz Paul 2005 When The Valleys Turned Blood Red The Ta pa ni Incident in Colonial Taiwan Honolulu HA University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 2915 5 Leung Edwin Pak Wah 1983 The Quasi War in East Asia Japan s Expedition to Taiwan and the Ryukyu Controversy Modern Asian Studies 17 2 257 281 doi 10 1017 s0026749x00015638 S2CID 144573801 Li Xiaobing 2019 The History of Taiwan Greenwood Liu Yingsheng 2012 The Taiwan Strait between the Twelfth and Sixteenth Centuries and the Maritime Route to Luzon Journal of Asian History 46 2 167 180 JSTOR 41933619 Matsuda Hiroko 2019 Liminality of the Japanese Empire University of Hawi i Press Morris Andrew 2002 The Taiwan Republic of 1895 and the Failure of the Qing Modernizing Project in Stephane Corcuff ed Memories of the Future National Identity issues and the Search for a New Taiwan New York M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0 7656 0791 1 Morris Andrew D ed July 30 2015 Japanese Taiwan Colonial Rule and its Contested Legacy Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 9781472576729 Price Gareth 2019 Language Society and the State From Colonization to Globalization in Taiwan De Gruyter Rubinstein Murray A 1999 Taiwan A New History East Gate Books Shepherd John R 1993 Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier 1600 1800 Stanford California Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 2066 3 Reprinted 1995 SMC Publishing Taipei ISBN 957 638 311 0 Shih Chien sheng 1968 Economic Development in Taiwan after the Second World War Shih Fang long 2022 A century of struggle over Taiwan s cultural self consciousness the life and afterlife of Chiang Wei shui and the Taiwan Cultural Association Standaert Nicolas 2022 The Chinese Gazette in European Sources Brill Su Beng 1980 台灣人四百年史 Taiwanese People s 400 Year History Paradise Culture Associates Thompson Lawrence G 1964 The earliest eyewitness accounts of the Formosan aborigines Monumenta Serica 23 163 204 doi 10 1080 02549948 1964 11731044 JSTOR 40726116 Tsai Shih shan Henry 2009 Maritime Taiwan Historical Encounters with the East and West M E Sharpe Inc Twitchett Denis 2002 The Cambridge History of China 9 Volume 1 Wang Tay sheng 2000 Legal Reform in Taiwan under Japanese Colonial Rule 1895 1945 The Reception of Western law University of Washington Press Wang Gabe T 2006 China and the Taiwan Issue Impending War at Taiwan Strait University Press of America Wills John E Jr 2007 The Seventeenth century Transformation Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime In Rubinstein Murray A ed Taiwan A New History expanded ed M E Sharpe pp 84 106 ISBN 978 0 7656 1495 7 Wong Young tsu 2017 China s Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century Victory at Full Moon Springer Wong Tin 2022 Approaching Sovereignty over the Diaoyu Islands Springer Xiong Victor Cunrui 2012 Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty His Life Times and Legacy SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 8268 1 Xiong Victor Cunrui 2012 Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty His Life Times and Legacy SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 8268 1 Ye Ruiping 2019 The Colonisation and Settlement of Taiwan Routledge Zhang Yufa 1998 Zhonghua Minguo shigao 中華民國史稿 Taipei Taiwan Lian jing 聯經 ISBN 957 08 1826 3 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Military history of Taiwan amp oldid 1205330733, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.