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Iron(III) chloride

January 01, 1970

Iron(III) chloride describes the inorganic compounds with the formula FeCl3(H2O)x. Also called ferric chloride, these compounds are some of the most important and commonplace compounds of iron. They are available both in anhydrous and in hydrated forms which are both hygroscopic. They feature iron in its +3 oxidation state. The anhydrous derivative is a Lewis acid, while all forms are mild oxidizing agents. It is used as a water cleaner and as an etchant for metals.

Iron(III) chloride
Iron(III) chloride (anhydrous)
Iron(III) chloride (hydrate)
Names
IUPAC names
Iron(III) chloride
Iron trichloride
Other names
  • Ferric chloride
  • Molysite
  • Flores martis
Identifiers
  • 7705-08-0 Y
  • 10025-77-1 (hexahydrate) Y
  • 54862-84-9 (dihydrate) Y
  • 64333-00-2 (3.5hydrate)
3D model (JSmol)
  • Interactive image
ChEBI
  • CHEBI:30808 Y
ChemSpider
  • 22792 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.846
EC Number
  • 231-729-4
  • 24380
RTECS number
  • LJ9100000
UNII
  • U38V3ZVV3V Y
  • 0I2XIN602U (hexahydrate) Y
  • Y048945596 (dihydrate) Y
UN number
  • 1773 (anhydrous)
  • 2582 (aqueous solution)
  • DTXSID8020622
  • InChI=1S/3ClH.Fe/h3*1H;/q;;;+3/p-3 Y
    Key: RBTARNINKXHZNM-UHFFFAOYSA-K Y
  • InChI=1S/3ClH.Fe/h3*1H;/q;;;+3/p-3
    Key: RBTARNINKXHZNM-DFZHHIFOAF
  • Key: RBTARNINKXHZNM-UHFFFAOYSA-K
  • Cl[Fe](Cl)Cl
Properties
FeCl3
Molar mass
  • 162.204 g/mol (anhydrous)
  • 270.295 g/mol (hexahydrate)[1]
Appearance Green-black by reflected light; purple-red by transmitted light; yellow solid as hexahydrate; brown as aqueous solution
Odor Slight HCl
Density
  • 2.90 g/cm3 (anhydrous)
  • 1.82 g/cm3 (hexahydrate)[1]
Melting point 307.6 °C (585.7 °F; 580.8 K) (anhydrous)
37 °C (99 °F; 310 K) (hexahydrate)[1]
Boiling point
  • 316 °C (601 °F; 589 K) (anhydrous, decomposes)[1]
  • 280 °C (536 °F; 553 K) (hexahydrate, decomposes)
912 g/L (anhydrous or hexahydrate, 25 °C)[1]
Solubility in
  •  
  • 630 g/L (18 °C)
  • Highly soluble
  • 830 g/L
  • Highly soluble
+13,450·10−6 cm3/mol[2]
Viscosity 12 cP (40% solution)
Hazards[4][5][Note 1]
GHS labelling:
Danger
H290, H302, H314
P234, P260, P264, P270, P273, P280, P301+P312, P301+P330+P331, P303+P361+P353, P304+P340, P305+P351+P338, P310, P321, P363, P390, P405, P406, P501
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
Health 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
2
0
0
Flash point Non-flammable
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
REL (Recommended)
 TWA 1 mg/m3[3]
Safety data sheet (SDS) ICSC 1499
Related compounds
Other anions
Other cations
Related coagulants
Structure
Hexagonal, hR24
R3, No. 148[7]
a = 0.6065 nm, b = 0.6065 nm, c = 1.742 nm
α = 90°, β = 90°, γ = 120°
6
Octahedral
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is YN ?)

Electronic and optical properties edit

 
Anhydrous iron(III) chloride evaporates at relatively mild temperatures to give the bitetrahedral dimer.

All forms of ferric chloride are paramagnetic, owing to the presence of unpaired electrons residing in 3d orbitals. Although Fe(III) chloride can be octahedral or tetrahedral (or both, see structure section), all of these forms have five unpaired electrons, one per d-orbial. The high spin d5 electronic configuration requires that d-d electronic transitions are spin forbidden, in addition to violating the Laporte Rule. This double forbidden-ness results in its solutions being only pale colored. Or, stated more technically, the optical transitions are non-intense. Aqueous ferric sulfate and ferric nitrate, which contain [Fe(H2O)6]3+, are nearly colorless, whereas the chloride solutions are yellow. Thus, the chloride ligands significantly influence the optical properties of the iron center.[8][9]

Structure edit

Iron(III) chloride can exist as an anhydrous material and a series of hydrates, which results in distinct structures.

Anhydrous edit

The anhydrous compound is a hygroscopic crystalline solid with a melting point of 307.6 °C. The colour depends on the viewing angle: by reflected light, the crystals appear dark green, but by transmitted light, they appear purple-red. Anhydrous iron(III) chloride has the BiI3 structure, with octahedral Fe(III) centres interconnected by two-coordinate chloride ligands.[7][10]

Iron(III) chloride has a relatively low melting point and boils at around 315 °C. The vapor consists of the dimer Fe2Cl6, much like aluminium chloride. This dimer dissociates into the monomeric FeCl3 (with D3h point group molecular symmetry) at higher temperatures, in competition with its reversible decomposition to give iron(II) chloride and chlorine gas.[11]

Hydrates edit

Ferric chloride form hydrates upon exposure to THE water, reflecting its Lewis acidity. All hydrates exhibit deliquescence, meaning that they become liquid by absorbing moisture from the air. Hydration invariably gives derivatives of aquo complexes with the formula [FeCl2(H2O)4]+. This cation can adopt either trans or cis stereochemistry, reflecting the relative location of the chloride ligands on the octahedral Fe center. Four hydrates have been characterized by X-ray crystallography: the dihydrate FeCl3·2H2O, the disesquihydrate FeCl3·2.5H2O, the trisesquihydrate FeCl3·3.5H2O, and finally the hexahydrate FeCl3·6H2O. These species differ with respect to the stereochemistry of the octahedral iron cation, the identity of the anions, and the presence or absence of water of crystallization.[9] The structural formulas are [trans−FeCl2(H2O)4][FeCl4], [cis−FeCl2(H2O)4][FeCl4]·H2O, [cis−FeCl2(H2O)4][FeCl4]·H2O, and [trans−FeCl2(H2O)4]Cl·2H2O. The first three members of this series have the tetrahedral tetrachloroferrate ([FeCl4]−) anion.[12]

Solution edit

 
A brown, acidic solution of iron(III) chloride.

Like the solid hydrates, aqueous solutions of ferric chloride also consist of the octahedral [FeCl2(H2O)4]+ of unspecified stereochemistry.[9] Detailed speciation of aqueous solutions of ferric chloride is challenging because the individual components do not have distinctive spectroscopic signatures. Iron(III) complexes, with a high spin d5 configuration, is kinetically labile, which means that ligands rapidly dissociate and reassociate. A further complication is that these solutions are strongly acidic, as expected for aquo complexes of a tricationic metal. Iron aquo complexes are prone to olation, the formation of polymeric oxo derivatives. Dilute solutions of ferric chloride produce soluble nanoparticles with molecular weight of 104, which exhibit the property of "aging", i.e., the structure change or evolve over the course of days.[13] The polymeric species formed by the hydrolysis of ferric chlorides are key to the use of ferric chloride for water treatment.

In contrast to the complicated behavior of its aqueous solutions, solutions of iron(III) chloride in diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran are well-behaved. Both ethers form 1:2 adducts of the general formula FeCl3(ether)2. In these complexes, the iron is pentacoordinate.[14]

Preparation edit

Several hundred thousand kilograms of anhydrous iron(III) chloride are produced annually. The principal method, called direct chlorination, uses scrap iron as a precursor:[10]

2 Fe + 3 Cl2 → 2 FeCl3

The reaction is conducted at several hundred degrees such that the product is gaseous. Using excess chlorine guarantees that the intermediate ferrous chloride is converted to the ferric state.[10] A similar but laboratory-scale process also has been described.[15][16]

Aqueous solutions of iron(III) chloride are also produced industrially from a number of iron precursors, including iron oxides:

Fe2O3 + 12 HCl + 9 H2O → FeCl3(H2O)6

In complementary route, iron metal can be oxidized by hydrochloric acid followed by chlorination:[10]

Fe + 2 HCl → FeCl2 + H2
FeCl2 + 0.5 Cl2 + 6 H2O → FeCl3(H2O)6

A number of variables apply to these processes, including the oxidation of iron by ferric chloride and the hydration of intermediates.[10] Hydrates of iron(III) chloride do not readily yield anhydrous ferric chloride. Attempted thermal dehydration yields hydrochloric acid and iron oxychloride. In the laboratory, hydrated iron(III) chloride can be converted to the anhydrous form by treatment with thionyl chloride[17] or trimethylsilyl chloride:[18]

FeCl3·6H2O + 12 (CH3)3SiCl → FeCl3 + 6 ((CH3)3Si)2O + 12 HCl

Reactions edit

Being high spin d5 electronic configuration iron(III) chlorides are labile, meaning that its Cl- and H2O ligands exchange rapidly with free chloride and water.[9][19] In contrast to their kinetic lability, iron(III) chlorides are thermodynamically robust, as reflected by the vigorous methods applied to their synthesis, as described above.

Anhydrous FeCl3 edit

Aside from lability, which applies to anhydrous and hydrated forms, the reactivity of anhydrous ferric chloride reveals two trends: It is a Lewis acid and an oxidizing agent.[20]

Reactions of anhydrous iron(III) chloride reflect its description as both oxophilic and a hard Lewis acid. Myriad manifestations of the oxophiliicty of iron(III) chloride are available. When heated with iron(III) oxide at 350 °C it reacts to give iron oxychloride:[21]

FeCl3 + Fe2O3 → 3FeOCl

Alkali metal alkoxides react to give the iron(III) alkoxide complexes. These products have more complicated structures than anhydrous iron(III) chloride.[22][23] In the solid phase a variety of multinuclear complexes have been described for the nominal stoichiometric reaction between FeCl3 and sodium ethoxide:

FeCl3 + 3 CH3CH2ONa → "Fe(OCH2CH3)3" + 3 NaCl

Iron(III) chloride forms a 1:2 adduct with Lewis bases such as triphenylphosphine oxide; e.g., FeCl3(OP(C6H5)3)2. The related 1:2 complex FeCl3(OEt2)2, where Et = C2H5), has been crystallized from ether solution.[14]

Iron(III) chloride also reacts with tetraethylammonium chloride to give the yellow salt of the tetrachloroferrate ion ((Et4N)[FeCl4]). Similarly, combining FeCl3 with NaCl and KCl gives Na[FeCl4] and K[FeCl4], respectively.[24]

In addition to these simple stoichiometric reactions, the Lewis acidity of ferric chloride enables its use in a variety of acid-catalyzed reactions as described below in the section on organic chemistry.[10]

In terms of its being an oxidant, iron(III) chloride oxidizes iron powder to form iron(II) chloride via a comproportionation reaction:[10]

2 FeCl3 + Fe → 3 FeCl2

A traditional synthesis of anhydrous ferrous chloride is the reduction of FeCl3 with chlorobenzene:[25]

2 FeCl3 + C6H5Cl → 2 FeCl2 + C6H4Cl2 + HCl

iron(III) chloride releases chlorine gas when heated above 160 °C, generating ferrous chloride:[16]

2FeCl3 → 2FeCl2 + Cl2

To suppress this reaction, the preparation of iron(III) chloride requires an excess of chlorinating agent, as discussed above.[16][10]

Hydrated FeCl3 edit

Unlike the anhydrous material, hydrated ferric chloride is not a particularly strong Lewis acid since water ligands have quenched the Lewis acidity by binding to Fe(III).

Like the anhydrous material, hydrated ferric chloride is oxophilic. For example, oxalate salts react rapidly with aqueous iron(III) chloride to give [Fe(C2O4)3]3−, known as ferrioxalate. Other carboxylate sources, e.g., citrate and tartrate, bind as well to give carboxylate complexes. The affinity of iron(III) for oxygen ligands was the basis of qualitative tests for phenols. Although superseded by spectroscopic methods, the ferric chloride test is a traditional colorimetric test.[26] The affinity of iron(III) for phenols is exploited in the Trinder spot test.[27]

Aqueous iron(III) chloride serves as a one-electron oxidant illustrated by its reaction with copper(I) chloride to give copper(II) chloride and iron(II) chloride.

FeCl3 + CuCl → FeCl2 + CuCl2

This fundamental reaction is relevant to the use of ferric chloride solutions in etching copper.

Organometallic chemistry edit

The interaction of anhydrous iron(III) chloride with organolithium and organomagnesium compounds has been examined often. These studies are enabled because of the solubility of FeCl3 in ethereal solvents, which avoids the possibility of hydrolysis of the nucleophilic alkylating agents. Such studies may be relevant to the mechanism of FeCl3-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions.[28] The isolation of organoiron(III) intermediates requires low-temperature reactions, lest the [FeR4]− intermediates degrade. Using methylmagnesium bromide as the alkylation agent, salts of Fe(CH3)4]− have been isolated.[29] Illustrating the sensitivity of these reactions, methyl lithium LiCH3 reacts with iron(III) chloride to give lithium tetrachloroferrate(II) Li2[FeCl4]:[30]

2 FeCl3 + LiCH3 → FeCl2 + Li[FeCl4] + 0.5 CH3CH3
Li[FeCl4] + LiCH3 → Li2[FeCl4] + 0.5 CH3CH3

To a significant extent, iron(III) acetylacetonate and related beta-diketonate complexes are more widely used than FeCl3 as ether-soluble sources of ferric ion.[20] These diketonate complexes have the advantages that they do not form hydrates, unlike iron(III) chloride, and they are more soluble in relevant solvents.[28] Cyclopentadienyl magnesium bromide undergoes a complex reaction with iron(III) chloride, resulting in ferrocene:[31]

3 C5H5MgBr + FeCl3 → Fe(C5H5)2 + 1/n (C5H5)n + 3 MgBrCl

This conversion, although not of practical value, was important in the history of organometallic chemistry where ferrocene is emblematic of the field.[32]

Uses edit

Water treatment edit

In the largest application iron(III) chloride is in sewage treatment and drinking water production. By forming highly dispersed networks of Fe-O-Fe containing materials, ferric chlorides serve as coagulant and flocculants.[33] In this application, an aqueous solution of FeCl3 is treated with base to form a floc of iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3), also formulated as FeO(OH) (ferrihydrite). This floc facilitates the separation of suspended materials, clarifying the water.[10]

Iron(III) chloride is also used to remove soluble phosphate from wastewater. Iron(III) phosphate is insoluble and thus precipitates as a solid.[34] One potential advantage to its use in water treatment, ferric ion oxidizes (deodorizes) hydrogen sulfide.[35]

Etching and metal cleaning edit

It is also used as a leaching agent in chloride hydrometallurgy,[36] for example in the production of Si from FeSi (Silgrain process by Elkem).[37]

In another commercial application, a solution of iron(III) chloride is useful for etching copper according to the following equation:

2 FeCl3 + Cu → 2 FeCl2 + CuCl2

The soluble copper(II) chloride is rinsed away, leaving a copper pattern. This chemistry is used in the production of printed circuit boards (PCB).[19]

Iron(III) chloride is used in many other hobbies involving metallic objects.[38][39][40][41][42]

Organic chemistry edit

 
Structure of FeCl3(diethylether)2. Color code: Cl=green,Fe = blue, O = red.

In industry, iron(III) chloride is used as a catalyst for the reaction of ethylene with chlorine, forming ethylene dichloride (1,2-dichloroethane):[43]

H2C=CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl

Ethylene dichloride is a commodity chemical, which is mainly used for the industrial production of vinyl chloride, the monomer for making PVC.[44]

Illustrating it use as a Lewis acid, iron(III) chloride catalyses electrophilic aromatic substitution and chlorinations. In this role, its function is similar to that of aluminium chloride. In some cases, mixtures of the two are used.[45]

Organic synthesis research edit

Although iron(III) chlorides are seldom used in practical organic synthesis, they have received considerable attention as reagents because they are inexpensive, earth abundant, and relatively nontoxic. Many experiments probe both its redox activity and its Lewis acidity.[20] For example, iron(III) chloride oxidizes naphthols to naphthoquinones:[20][46] 3-Alkylthiophenes are polymerized to polythiophenes upon treatment with ferric chloride.[47] Iron(III) chloride has been shown to promote C-C coupling reaction.[48]

Several reagents have been developed based on supported iron(III) chloride. On silica gel, the anhydrous salt has been applied to certain dehydration and pinacol-type rearrangement reactions. A similar reagent but moistened induces hydrolysis or epimerization reactions.[49] On alumina, ferric chloride has been shown to accelerate ene reactions.[50]

When pretreated with sodium hydride, iron(III) chloride gives a hydride reducing agent that convert alkenes and ketones into alkanes and alcohols, respectively.[51]

 

Histology edit

Iron(III) chloride is a component of useful stains, such as Carnoy's solution, a histological fixative with many applications. Also, it is used to prepare Verhoeff's stain.[52]

Natural occurrence edit

Like many metal halides, FeCl3 naturally occurs as a trace mineral. The rare mineral molysite is usually associated with volcanoes and fumaroles.[53][54]

FeCl3-based aerosol are produced by a reaction between iron-rich dust and hydrochloric acid from sea salt. This iron salt aerosol causes about 1-5% of naturally-occurring oxidization of methane and is thought to have a range of cooling effects; thus, it has been proposed as a catalyst for Atmospheric Methane Removal.[55]

The clouds of Venus are hypothesized to contain approximately 1% FeCl3 dissolved in sulfuric acid.[56][57]

Safety edit

Iron(III) chlorides are widely used in production of drinking water,[10] so they pose few problems as poisons, at low concentrations. Nonetheless, anhydrous iron(III) chloride, as well as concentrated FeCl3 aqueous solution, is highly corrosive, and must be handled using proper protective equipment.[20]

Notes edit

  1. ^ An alternative GHS classification from the Japanese GHS Inter-ministerial Committee (2006)[6] notes the possibility of respiratory tract irritation from FeCl3 and differs slightly in other respects from the classification used here.

References edit

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  46. ^ Louis F. Fieser (1937). "1,2-Naphthoquinone". Organic Syntheses. 17: 68. doi:10.15227/orgsyn.017.0068.
  47. ^ So RC, Carreon-Asok AC (2019). "Molecular Design, Synthetic Strategies, and Applications of Cationic Polythiophenes". Chemical Reviews. 119 (21): 11442–11509. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00773. PMID 31580649. S2CID 206542971.
  48. ^ Albright H, Davis AJ, Gomez-Lopez JL, Vonesh HL, Quach PK, Lambert TH, Schindler CS (2021). "Carbonyl–Olefin Metathesis". Chemical Reviews. 121 (15): 9359–9406. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01096. PMC 9008594. PMID 34133136.
  49. ^ White AD (2001). "Iron(III) Chloride-Silica Gel". Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis. doi:10.1002/047084289X.ri059. ISBN 0471936235.
  50. ^ White AD (2001). "Iron(III) Chloride-Alumina". Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis. doi:10.1002/047084289X.ri057. ISBN 0471936235.
  51. ^ White AD (2001). "Iron(III) Chloride-Sodium Hydride". Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis. doi:10.1002/047084289X.ri060. ISBN 0471936235.
  52. ^ Mallory, Sheehan, Hrapchak (1990). "Verhoeff's Elastic Stain". In Carson F, Cappellano CH (eds.). Histotechnology – A Self-Instructional Text. Chicago: ASCP Press. Retrieved 2 January 2013 – via The Visible Mouse Project, U.C. Davis.
  53. ^ "Molysite". mindat.org. Mindat. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  54. ^ "IMA list of Minerals". International Mineralogical Association. International Mineralogical Association. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  55. ^ Oeste FD, de Richter R, Ming T, Caillol S (January 13, 2017). "Climate engineering by mimicking natural dust climate control: the iron salt aerosol method". Earth System Dynamics. 8 (1): 1–54. Bibcode:2017ESD.....8....1O. doi:10.5194/esd-8-1-2017 – via esd.copernicus.org.
  56. ^ Krasnopolsky VA, Parshev VA (1981). "Chemical composition of the atmosphere of Venus". Nature. 292 (5824): 610–613. Bibcode:1981Natur.292..610K. doi:10.1038/292610a0. S2CID 4369293.
  57. ^ Krasnopolsky VA (2006). "Chemical composition of Venus atmosphere and clouds: Some unsolved problems". Planetary and Space Science. 54 (13–14): 1352–1359. Bibcode:2006P&SS...54.1352K. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2006.04.019.

Further reading edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iron(III) chloride.
  1. Lide DR, ed. (1990). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (71st ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan, US: CRC Press. ISBN 9780849304712.
  2. Stecher PG, Finkel MJ, Siegmund OH, eds. (1960). The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs (7th ed.). Rahway, New Jersey, US: Merck & Co.
  3. Nicholls D (1974). Complexes and First-Row Transition Elements, Macmillan Press, London, 1973. A Macmillan chemistry text. London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 9780333170885.
  4. Wells AF (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry. Oxford science publications (5th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198553700.
  5. Reich HJ, Rigby HJ, eds. (1999). Acidic and Basic Reagents. Handbook of Reagents for Organic Synthesis. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 9780471979258.

January 01, 1970
iron, chloride, describes, inorganic, compounds, with, formula, fecl3, also, called, ferric, chloride, these, compounds, some, most, important, commonplace, compounds, iron, they, available, both, anhydrous, hydrated, forms, which, both, hygroscopic, they, fea. Iron III chloride describes the inorganic compounds with the formula FeCl3 H2O x Also called ferric chloride these compounds are some of the most important and commonplace compounds of iron They are available both in anhydrous and in hydrated forms which are both hygroscopic They feature iron in its 3 oxidation state The anhydrous derivative is a Lewis acid while all forms are mild oxidizing agents It is used as a water cleaner and as an etchant for metals Iron III chloride Iron III chloride anhydrous Iron III chloride hydrate Names IUPAC names Iron III chlorideIron trichloride Other names Ferric chlorideMolysiteFlores martis Identifiers CAS Number 7705 08 0 Y10025 77 1 hexahydrate Y54862 84 9 dihydrate Y64333 00 2 3 5hydrate 3D model JSmol Interactive image ChEBI CHEBI 30808 Y ChemSpider 22792 Y ECHA InfoCard 100 028 846 EC Number 231 729 4 PubChem CID 24380 RTECS number LJ9100000 UNII U38V3ZVV3V Y0I2XIN602U hexahydrate YY048945596 dihydrate Y UN number 1773 anhydrous 2582 aqueous solution CompTox Dashboard EPA DTXSID8020622 InChI InChI 1S 3ClH Fe h3 1H q 3 p 3 YKey RBTARNINKXHZNM UHFFFAOYSA K YInChI 1S 3ClH Fe h3 1H q 3 p 3Key RBTARNINKXHZNM DFZHHIFOAFKey RBTARNINKXHZNM UHFFFAOYSA K SMILES Cl Fe Cl Cl Properties Chemical formula FeCl3 Molar mass 162 204 g mol anhydrous 270 295 g mol hexahydrate 1 Appearance Green black by reflected light purple red by transmitted light yellow solid as hexahydrate brown as aqueous solution Odor Slight HCl Density 2 90 g cm3 anhydrous 1 82 g cm3 hexahydrate 1 Melting point 307 6 C 585 7 F 580 8 K anhydrous 37 C 99 F 310 K hexahydrate 1 Boiling point 316 C 601 F 589 K anhydrous decomposes 1 280 C 536 F 553 K hexahydrate decomposes Solubility in water 912 g L anhydrous or hexahydrate 25 C 1 Solubility in AcetoneMethanolEthanolDiethyl ether 1 630 g L 18 C Highly soluble830 g LHighly soluble Magnetic susceptibility x 13 450 10 6 cm3 mol 2 Viscosity 12 cP 40 solution Hazards 4 5 Note 1 GHS labelling Pictograms Signal word Danger Hazard statements H290 H302 H314 Precautionary statements P234 P260 P264 P270 P273 P280 P301 P312 P301 P330 P331 P303 P361 P353 P304 P340 P305 P351 P338 P310 P321 P363 P390 P405 P406 P501 NFPA 704 fire diamond 200 Flash point Non flammable NIOSH US health exposure limits REL Recommended TWA 1 mg m3 3 Safety data sheet SDS ICSC 1499 Related compounds Other anions Iron III fluorideIron III bromide Other cations Iron II chlorideManganese II chlorideCobalt II chlorideRuthenium III chloride Related coagulants Iron II sulfatePolyaluminium chloride Structure Crystal structure Hexagonal hR24 Space group R3 No 148 7 Lattice constant a 0 6065 nm b 0 6065 nm c 1 742 nma 90 b 90 g 120 Formula units Z 6 Coordination geometry Octahedral Except where otherwise noted data are given for materials in their standard state at 25 C 77 F 100 kPa N verify what is Y N Infobox references Contents 1 Electronic and optical properties 2 Structure 2 1 Anhydrous 2 2 Hydrates 2 3 Solution 3 Preparation 4 Reactions 4 1 Anhydrous FeCl3 4 2 Hydrated FeCl3 4 3 Organometallic chemistry 5 Uses 5 1 Water treatment 5 2 Etching and metal cleaning 5 3 Organic chemistry 5 3 1 Organic synthesis research 5 4 Histology 6 Natural occurrence 7 Safety 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further readingElectronic and optical properties edit nbsp Anhydrous iron III chloride evaporates at relatively mild temperatures to give the bitetrahedral dimer All forms of ferric chloride are paramagnetic owing to the presence of unpaired electrons residing in 3d orbitals Although Fe III chloride can be octahedral or tetrahedral or both see structure section all of these forms have five unpaired electrons one per d orbial The high spin d5 electronic configuration requires that d d electronic transitions are spin forbidden in addition to violating the Laporte Rule This double forbidden ness results in its solutions being only pale colored Or stated more technically the optical transitions are non intense Aqueous ferric sulfate and ferric nitrate which contain Fe H2O 6 3 are nearly colorless whereas the chloride solutions are yellow Thus the chloride ligands significantly influence the optical properties of the iron center 8 9 Structure editIron III chloride can exist as an anhydrous material and a series of hydrates which results in distinct structures Anhydrous edit The anhydrous compound is a hygroscopic crystalline solid with a melting point of 307 6 C The colour depends on the viewing angle by reflected light the crystals appear dark green but by transmitted light they appear purple red Anhydrous iron III chloride has the BiI3 structure with octahedral Fe III centres interconnected by two coordinate chloride ligands 7 10 Iron III chloride has a relatively low melting point and boils at around 315 C The vapor consists of the dimer Fe2Cl6 much like aluminium chloride This dimer dissociates into the monomeric FeCl3 with D3h point group molecular symmetry at higher temperatures in competition with its reversible decomposition to give iron II chloride and chlorine gas 11 Hydrates edit Ferric chloride form hydrates upon exposure to THE water reflecting its Lewis acidity All hydrates exhibit deliquescence meaning that they become liquid by absorbing moisture from the air Hydration invariably gives derivatives of aquo complexes with the formula FeCl2 H2O 4 This cation can adopt either trans or cis stereochemistry reflecting the relative location of the chloride ligands on the octahedral Fe center Four hydrates have been characterized by X ray crystallography the dihydrate FeCl3 2H2O the disesquihydrate FeCl3 2 5H2O the trisesquihydrate FeCl3 3 5H2O and finally the hexahydrate FeCl3 6H2O These species differ with respect to the stereochemistry of the octahedral iron cation the identity of the anions and the presence or absence of water of crystallization 9 The structural formulas are trans FeCl2 H2O 4 FeCl4 cis FeCl2 H2O 4 FeCl4 H2O cis FeCl2 H2O 4 FeCl4 H2O and trans FeCl2 H2O 4 Cl 2H2O The first three members of this series have the tetrahedral tetrachloroferrate FeCl4 anion 12 Solution edit nbsp A brown acidic solution of iron III chloride Like the solid hydrates aqueous solutions of ferric chloride also consist of the octahedral FeCl2 H2O 4 of unspecified stereochemistry 9 Detailed speciation of aqueous solutions of ferric chloride is challenging because the individual components do not have distinctive spectroscopic signatures Iron III complexes with a high spin d5 configuration is kinetically labile which means that ligands rapidly dissociate and reassociate A further complication is that these solutions are strongly acidic as expected for aquo complexes of a tricationic metal Iron aquo complexes are prone to olation the formation of polymeric oxo derivatives Dilute solutions of ferric chloride produce soluble nanoparticles with molecular weight of 104 which exhibit the property of aging i e the structure change or evolve over the course of days 13 The polymeric species formed by the hydrolysis of ferric chlorides are key to the use of ferric chloride for water treatment In contrast to the complicated behavior of its aqueous solutions solutions of iron III chloride in diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran are well behaved Both ethers form 1 2 adducts of the general formula FeCl3 ether 2 In these complexes the iron is pentacoordinate 14 Preparation editSeveral hundred thousand kilograms of anhydrous iron III chloride are produced annually The principal method called direct chlorination uses scrap iron as a precursor 10 2 Fe 3 Cl2 2 FeCl3 The reaction is conducted at several hundred degrees such that the product is gaseous Using excess chlorine guarantees that the intermediate ferrous chloride is converted to the ferric state 10 A similar but laboratory scale process also has been described 15 16 Aqueous solutions of iron III chloride are also produced industrially from a number of iron precursors including iron oxides Fe2O3 12 HCl 9 H2O FeCl3 H2O 6 In complementary route iron metal can be oxidized by hydrochloric acid followed by chlorination 10 Fe 2 HCl FeCl2 H2 FeCl2 0 5 Cl2 6 H2O FeCl3 H2O 6 A number of variables apply to these processes including the oxidation of iron by ferric chloride and the hydration of intermediates 10 Hydrates of iron III chloride do not readily yield anhydrous ferric chloride Attempted thermal dehydration yields hydrochloric acid and iron oxychloride In the laboratory hydrated iron III chloride can be converted to the anhydrous form by treatment with thionyl chloride 17 or trimethylsilyl chloride 18 FeCl3 6H2O 12 CH3 3SiCl FeCl3 6 CH3 3Si 2O 12 HClReactions editBeing high spin d5 electronic configuration iron III chlorides are labile meaning that its Cl and H2O ligands exchange rapidly with free chloride and water 9 19 In contrast to their kinetic lability iron III chlorides are thermodynamically robust as reflected by the vigorous methods applied to their synthesis as described above Anhydrous FeCl3 edit Aside from lability which applies to anhydrous and hydrated forms the reactivity of anhydrous ferric chloride reveals two trends It is a Lewis acid and an oxidizing agent 20 Reactions of anhydrous iron III chloride reflect its description as both oxophilic and a hard Lewis acid Myriad manifestations of the oxophiliicty of iron III chloride are available When heated with iron III oxide at 350 C it reacts to give iron oxychloride 21 FeCl3 Fe2O3 3FeOCl Alkali metal alkoxides react to give the iron III alkoxide complexes These products have more complicated structures than anhydrous iron III chloride 22 23 In the solid phase a variety of multinuclear complexes have been described for the nominal stoichiometric reaction between FeCl3 and sodium ethoxide FeCl3 3 CH3CH2ONa Fe OCH2CH3 3 3 NaCl Iron III chloride forms a 1 2 adduct with Lewis bases such as triphenylphosphine oxide e g FeCl3 OP C6H5 3 2 The related 1 2 complex FeCl3 OEt2 2 where Et C2H5 has been crystallized from ether solution 14 Iron III chloride also reacts with tetraethylammonium chloride to give the yellow salt of the tetrachloroferrate ion Et4N FeCl4 Similarly combining FeCl3 with NaCl and KCl gives Na FeCl4 and K FeCl4 respectively 24 In addition to these simple stoichiometric reactions the Lewis acidity of ferric chloride enables its use in a variety of acid catalyzed reactions as described below in the section on organic chemistry 10 In terms of its being an oxidant iron III chloride oxidizes iron powder to form iron II chloride via a comproportionation reaction 10 2 FeCl3 Fe 3 FeCl2 A traditional synthesis of anhydrous ferrous chloride is the reduction of FeCl3 with chlorobenzene 25 2 FeCl3 C6H5Cl 2 FeCl2 C6H4Cl2 HCl iron III chloride releases chlorine gas when heated above 160 C generating ferrous chloride 16 2FeCl3 2FeCl2 Cl2 To suppress this reaction the preparation of iron III chloride requires an excess of chlorinating agent as discussed above 16 10 Hydrated FeCl3 edit Unlike the anhydrous material hydrated ferric chloride is not a particularly strong Lewis acid since water ligands have quenched the Lewis acidity by binding to Fe III Like the anhydrous material hydrated ferric chloride is oxophilic For example oxalate salts react rapidly with aqueous iron III chloride to give Fe C2O4 3 3 known as ferrioxalate Other carboxylate sources e g citrate and tartrate bind as well to give carboxylate complexes The affinity of iron III for oxygen ligands was the basis of qualitative tests for phenols Although superseded by spectroscopic methods the ferric chloride test is a traditional colorimetric test 26 The affinity of iron III for phenols is exploited in the Trinder spot test 27 Aqueous iron III chloride serves as a one electron oxidant illustrated by its reaction with copper I chloride to give copper II chloride and iron II chloride FeCl3 CuCl FeCl2 CuCl2 This fundamental reaction is relevant to the use of ferric chloride solutions in etching copper Organometallic chemistry edit The interaction of anhydrous iron III chloride with organolithium and organomagnesium compounds has been examined often These studies are enabled because of the solubility of FeCl3 in ethereal solvents which avoids the possibility of hydrolysis of the nucleophilic alkylating agents Such studies may be relevant to the mechanism of FeCl3 catalyzed cross coupling reactions 28 The isolation of organoiron III intermediates requires low temperature reactions lest the FeR4 intermediates degrade Using methylmagnesium bromide as the alkylation agent salts of Fe CH3 4 have been isolated 29 Illustrating the sensitivity of these reactions methyl lithium LiCH3 reacts with iron III chloride to give lithium tetrachloroferrate II Li2 FeCl4 30 2 FeCl3 LiCH3 FeCl2 Li FeCl4 0 5 CH3CH3 Li FeCl4 LiCH3 Li2 FeCl4 0 5 CH3CH3 To a significant extent iron III acetylacetonate and related beta diketonate complexes are more widely used than FeCl3 as ether soluble sources of ferric ion 20 These diketonate complexes have the advantages that they do not form hydrates unlike iron III chloride and they are more soluble in relevant solvents 28 Cyclopentadienyl magnesium bromide undergoes a complex reaction with iron III chloride resulting in ferrocene 31 3 C5H5MgBr FeCl3 Fe C5H5 2 1 n C5H5 n 3 MgBrCl This conversion although not of practical value was important in the history of organometallic chemistry where ferrocene is emblematic of the field 32 Uses editWater treatment edit In the largest application iron III chloride is in sewage treatment and drinking water production By forming highly dispersed networks of Fe O Fe containing materials ferric chlorides serve as coagulant and flocculants 33 In this application an aqueous solution of FeCl3 is treated with base to form a floc of iron III hydroxide Fe OH 3 also formulated as FeO OH ferrihydrite This floc facilitates the separation of suspended materials clarifying the water 10 Iron III chloride is also used to remove soluble phosphate from wastewater Iron III phosphate is insoluble and thus precipitates as a solid 34 One potential advantage to its use in water treatment ferric ion oxidizes deodorizes hydrogen sulfide 35 Etching and metal cleaning edit It is also used as a leaching agent in chloride hydrometallurgy 36 for example in the production of Si from FeSi Silgrain process by Elkem 37 In another commercial application a solution of iron III chloride is useful for etching copper according to the following equation 2 FeCl3 Cu 2 FeCl2 CuCl2 The soluble copper II chloride is rinsed away leaving a copper pattern This chemistry is used in the production of printed circuit boards PCB 19 Iron III chloride is used in many other hobbies involving metallic objects 38 39 40 41 42 Organic chemistry edit nbsp Structure of FeCl3 diethylether 2 Color code Cl green Fe blue O red In industry iron III chloride is used as a catalyst for the reaction of ethylene with chlorine forming ethylene dichloride 1 2 dichloroethane 43 H2C CH2 Cl2 ClCH2CH2Cl Ethylene dichloride is a commodity chemical which is mainly used for the industrial production of vinyl chloride the monomer for making PVC 44 Illustrating it use as a Lewis acid iron III chloride catalyses electrophilic aromatic substitution and chlorinations In this role its function is similar to that of aluminium chloride In some cases mixtures of the two are used 45 Organic synthesis research edit Although iron III chlorides are seldom used in practical organic synthesis they have received considerable attention as reagents because they are inexpensive earth abundant and relatively nontoxic Many experiments probe both its redox activity and its Lewis acidity 20 For example iron III chloride oxidizes naphthols to naphthoquinones 20 46 3 Alkylthiophenes are polymerized to polythiophenes upon treatment with ferric chloride 47 Iron III chloride has been shown to promote C C coupling reaction 48 Several reagents have been developed based on supported iron III chloride On silica gel the anhydrous salt has been applied to certain dehydration and pinacol type rearrangement reactions A similar reagent but moistened induces hydrolysis or epimerization reactions 49 On alumina ferric chloride has been shown to accelerate ene reactions 50 When pretreated with sodium hydride iron III chloride gives a hydride reducing agent that convert alkenes and ketones into alkanes and alcohols respectively 51 nbsp Histology edit Iron III chloride is a component of useful stains such as Carnoy s solution a histological fixative with many applications Also it is used to prepare Verhoeff s stain 52 Natural occurrence editLike many metal halides FeCl3 naturally occurs as a trace mineral The rare mineral molysite is usually associated with volcanoes and fumaroles 53 54 FeCl3 based aerosol are produced by a reaction between iron rich dust and hydrochloric acid from sea salt This iron salt aerosol causes about 1 5 of naturally occurring oxidization of methane and is thought to have a range of cooling effects thus it has been proposed as a catalyst for Atmospheric Methane Removal 55 The clouds of Venus are hypothesized to contain approximately 1 FeCl3 dissolved in sulfuric acid 56 57 Safety editIron III chlorides are widely used in production of drinking water 10 so they pose few problems as poisons at low concentrations Nonetheless anhydrous iron III chloride as well as concentrated FeCl3 aqueous solution is highly corrosive and must be handled using proper protective equipment 20 Notes edit An alternative GHS classification from the Japanese GHS Inter ministerial Committee 2006 6 notes the possibility of respiratory tract irritation from FeCl3 and differs slightly in other respects from the classification used here References edit a b c d e f Haynes WM ed 2011 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 92nd ed Boca Raton FL CRC Press p 4 69 ISBN 1 4398 5511 0 Haynes WM ed 2011 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 92nd ed Boca Raton FL CRC Press p 4 133 ISBN 1 4398 5511 0 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards 0346 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH HSNO Chemical Classification Information Database New Zealand Environmental Risk Management Authority retrieved 19 Sep 2010 Various suppliers collated by the Baylor College of Dentistry Texas A amp M University accessed 2010 09 19 GHS classification ID 831 Japanese GHS Inter ministerial Committee 2006 retrieved 19 Sep 2010 a b Hashimoto S Forster K Moss SC 1989 Structure refinement of an FeCl3 crystal using a thin plate sample J Appl Crystallogr 22 2 173 180 doi 10 1107 S0021889888013913 Housecroft CE Sharpe AG 2012 Inorganic Chemistry 4th ed Prentice Hall p 747 ISBN 978 0 273 74275 3 a b c d Simon A Cotton 2018 Iron III Chloride and Its Coordination Chemistry Journal of Coordination Chemistry 71 21 3415 3443 doi 10 1080 00958972 2018 1519188 S2CID 105925459 a b c d e f g h i j Wildermuth E Stark H Friedrich G Ebenhoch FL Kuhborth B Silver J Rituper R 2000 Iron Compounds Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry doi 10 1002 14356007 a14 591 ISBN 3527306730 Holleman AF Wiberg E 2001 Wiberg N ed Inorganic Chemistry San Diego Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 352651 9 Lind MD 1967 Crystal Structure of Ferric Chloride Hexahydrate The Journal of Chemical Physics 47 3 990 993 Bibcode 1967JChPh 47 990L doi 10 1063 1 1712067 Flynn CM 1984 Hydrolysis of Inorganic Iron III Salts Chemical Reviews 84 31 41 doi 10 1021 cr00059a003 a b Spandl J Kusserow M Brudgam I 2003 Alkoxo Verbindungen des dreiwertigen Eisen Synthese und Charakterisierung von Fe2 Ot Bu 6 Fe2Cl2 Ot Bu 4 Fe2Cl4 Ot Bu 2 und N n Bu 4 2 Fe6OCl6 OMe 12 Zeitschrift fur anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 629 6 968 974 doi 10 1002 zaac 200300008 Tarr BR Booth HS Dolance A 1950 Anhydrous Iron III Chloride Ferric Chloride Inorganic Syntheses Vol 3 pp 191 194 doi 10 1002 9780470132340 ch51 ISBN 9780470131626 a b c H Lux 1963 Iron III Chloride In G Brauer ed Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry 2nd Ed Vol 2 NY NY Academic Press p 1492 Pray AR Heitmiller RF Strycker S et al 1990 Anhydrous Metal Chlorides Inorganic Syntheses Vol 28 pp 321 323 doi 10 1002 9780470132593 ch80 ISBN 9780470132593 Boudjouk P So JH Ackermann MN et al 1992 Solvated and Unsolvated Anhydrous Metal Chlorides from Metal Chloride Hydrates Inorganic Syntheses Vol 29 pp 108 111 doi 10 1002 9780470132609 ch26 ISBN 9780470132609 a b Greenwood NN Earnshaw A 1997 Chemistry of the Elements 2nd ed Oxford Butterworth Heinemann p 1084 ISBN 9780750633659 a b c d e White AD Gallou F 2006 Iron III Chloride Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis doi 10 1002 047084289X ri054 pub2 ISBN 0471936235 Kikkawa S Kanamaru F Koizumi M et al 1984 Layered Intercalation Compounds In Holt SL Jr ed Inorganic Syntheses Vol 22 John Wiley amp Sons Inc pp 86 89 doi 10 1002 9780470132531 ch17 ISBN 9780470132531 Turova NY Turevskaya EP Kessler VG et al eds 2002 12 22 1 Synthesis The Chemistry of Metal Alkoxides Springer Science p 481 ISBN 0306476576 Bradley DC Mehrotra RC Rothwell I et al 2001 3 2 10 Alkoxides of later 3d metals Alkoxo and aryloxo derivatives of metals San Diego Academic Press p 69 ISBN 9780121241407 OCLC 162129468 Cook CM Jr Dunn WE Jr 1961 The Reaction of Ferric Chloride with Sodium and Potassium Chlorides J Phys Chem 65 9 1505 1511 doi 10 1021 j100905a008 P Kovacic and N O Brace 1960 Iron II Chloride Inorganic Syntheses Vol 6 pp 172 173 doi 10 1002 9780470132371 ch54 ISBN 9780470132371 Furniss BS Hannaford AJ Smith PW et al 1989 Vogel s Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry 5th ed New York Longman Wiley ISBN 9780582462366 James A King Alan B Storrow Jeff A Finkelstein 1995 Urine Trinder Spot Test A Rapid Salicylate Screen for the Emergency Department Annals of Emergency Medicine 26 3 330 333 doi 10 1016 S0196 0644 95 70082 X a b Mako TL Byers JA 2016 Recent Advances in Iron Catalysed Cross Coupling Reactions and Their Mechanistic Underpinning Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers 3 6 766 790 doi 10 1039 C5QI00295H Sears JD Munoz SB Cuenca MC Brennessel WW Neidig ML 2019 Synthesis and Characterization of a Sterically Encumbered Homoleptic Tetraalkyliron III Ferrate Complex Polyhedron 158 91 96 doi 10 1016 j poly 2018 10 041 PMC 6481957 PMID 31031511 and references therein Berthold HJ Spiegl HJ 1972 Uber die Bildung von Lithiumtetrachloroferrat II Li2FeCl4 bei der Umsetzung von Eisen III chlorid mit Lithiummethyl 1 1 in atherischer Losung Z Anorg Allg Chem in German 391 3 193 202 doi 10 1002 zaac 19723910302 Kealy TJ Pauson PL 1951 A New Type of Organo Iron Compound Nature 168 4285 1040 Bibcode 1951Natur 168 1039K doi 10 1038 1681039b0 S2CID 4181383 Pauson PL 2001 Ferrocene how it all began Journal of Organometallic Chemistry 637 639 3 6 doi 10 1016 S0022 328X 01 01126 3 Water Treatment Chemicals PDF Akzo Nobel Base Chemicals 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 13 August 2010 Retrieved 26 Oct 2007 Phosphorus Treatment and Removal Technologies PDF Minnesota Pollution Control Agency June 2006 Prathna TC Srivastava A 2021 Ferric chloride for odour control studies from wastewater treatment plants in India Water Practice and Technology 16 1 35 41 doi 10 2166 wpt 2020 111 S2CID 229396639 Park KH Mohapatra D Reddy BR 2006 A study on the acidified ferric chloride leaching of a complex Cu Ni Co Fe matte Separation and Purification Technology 51 3 332 337 doi 10 1016 j seppur 2006 02 013 Duenas Diez M Fjeld M Andersen E et al 2006 Validation of a compartmental population balance model of an industrial leaching process The Silgrain process Chem Eng Sci 61 1 229 245 Bibcode 2006ChEnS 61 229D doi 10 1016 j ces 2005 01 047 John David Graham Safer Printmaking Intaglio University of Saskatchewan Retrieved 5 February 2024 Harris P Hartman R Hartman J November 1 2002 Etching Iron Meteorites Meteorite Times Retrieved October 14 2016 Mike Lockwood Carl Zambuto A message about mirror coating and recoating Lockwood Custom Optics Inc Lockwood Custom Optics Retrieved 5 February 2024 CoinValueLookup Buffalo Nickel No Date Value How Much Is It Worth Today CoinValueLookup CoinValueLookup Retrieved 5 February 2024 Scott D Schwab R 2019 3 1 4 Etching Metallography in Archaeology and Art Cultural Heritage Science Springer doi 10 1007 978 3 030 11265 3 ISBN 978 3 030 11265 3 S2CID 201676001 Dreher EL Beutel KK Myers JD Lubbe T Krieger S Pottenger LH 2014 Chloroethanes and Chloroethylenes Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry pp 1 81 doi 10 1002 14356007 o06 o01 pub2 ISBN 9783527306732 Toxic Substances 1 2 Dichloroethane ATSDR Retrieved 2023 08 30 Riddell WA Noller CR 1932 Mixed Catalysis in the Friedel and Crafts Reaction The Yields in Typical Reactions using Ferric Chloride Aluminum Chloride Mixtures as Catalysts J Am Chem Soc 54 1 290 294 doi 10 1021 ja01340a043 Louis F Fieser 1937 1 2 Naphthoquinone Organic Syntheses 17 68 doi 10 15227 orgsyn 017 0068 So RC Carreon Asok AC 2019 Molecular Design Synthetic Strategies and Applications of Cationic Polythiophenes Chemical Reviews 119 21 11442 11509 doi 10 1021 acs chemrev 8b00773 PMID 31580649 S2CID 206542971 Albright H Davis AJ Gomez Lopez JL Vonesh HL Quach PK Lambert TH Schindler CS 2021 Carbonyl Olefin Metathesis Chemical Reviews 121 15 9359 9406 doi 10 1021 acs chemrev 0c01096 PMC 9008594 PMID 34133136 White AD 2001 Iron III Chloride Silica Gel Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis doi 10 1002 047084289X ri059 ISBN 0471936235 White AD 2001 Iron III Chloride Alumina Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis doi 10 1002 047084289X ri057 ISBN 0471936235 White AD 2001 Iron III Chloride Sodium Hydride Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis doi 10 1002 047084289X ri060 ISBN 0471936235 Mallory Sheehan Hrapchak 1990 Verhoeff s Elastic Stain In Carson F Cappellano CH eds Histotechnology A Self Instructional Text Chicago ASCP Press Retrieved 2 January 2013 via The Visible Mouse Project U C Davis Molysite mindat org Mindat Retrieved 5 February 2024 IMA list of Minerals International Mineralogical Association International Mineralogical Association Retrieved 5 February 2024 Oeste FD de Richter R Ming T Caillol S January 13 2017 Climate engineering by mimicking natural dust climate control the iron salt aerosol method Earth System Dynamics 8 1 1 54 Bibcode 2017ESD 8 1O doi 10 5194 esd 8 1 2017 via esd copernicus org Krasnopolsky VA Parshev VA 1981 Chemical composition of the atmosphere of Venus Nature 292 5824 610 613 Bibcode 1981Natur 292 610K doi 10 1038 292610a0 S2CID 4369293 Krasnopolsky VA 2006 Chemical composition of Venus atmosphere and clouds Some unsolved problems Planetary and Space Science 54 13 14 1352 1359 Bibcode 2006P amp SS 54 1352K doi 10 1016 j pss 2006 04 019 Further reading edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iron III chloride Lide DR ed 1990 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 71st ed Ann Arbor Michigan US CRC Press ISBN 9780849304712 Stecher PG Finkel MJ Siegmund OH eds 1960 The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs 7th ed Rahway New Jersey US Merck amp Co Nicholls D 1974 Complexes and First Row Transition Elements Macmillan Press London 1973 A Macmillan chemistry text London Macmillan Press ISBN 9780333170885 Wells AF 1984 Structural Inorganic Chemistry Oxford science publications 5th ed Oxford UK Oxford University Press ISBN 9780198553700 Reich HJ Rigby HJ eds 1999 Acidic and Basic Reagents Handbook of Reagents for Organic Synthesis New York John Wiley amp Sons Inc ISBN 9780471979258 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Iron III chloride amp oldid 1224924418, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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