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Fumarole

February 09, 2024

"Solfatara" redirects here. For the volcanic crater in Italy, see Solfatara (volcano).

A fumarole (or fumerole)[1] is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcanic activity, but fumarole activity can also precede a volcanic eruption and has been used for eruption prediction. Most fumaroles die down within a few days or weeks of the end of an eruption, but a few are persistent, lasting for decades or longer. An area containing fumaroles is known as a fumarole field.

Fumarole at Sol de Mañana, Bolivia

The predominant vapor emitted by fumaroles is steam, formed by the circulation of groundwater through heated rock. This is typically accompanied by volcanic gases given off by magma cooling deep below the surface. These volcanic gases include sulfur compounds, such as various sulfur oxides and hydrogen sulfide, and sometimes hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and other gases. A fumarole that emits significant sulfur compounds is sometimes called a solfatara.

Fumarole activity can break down rock around the vent, while simultaneously depositing sulfur and other minerals. Valuable hydrothermal mineral deposits can form beneath fumaroles. However, active fumaroles can be a hazard due to their emission of hot, poisonous gases.

Description edit

 
Sampling gases at a fumarole on Mount Baker in Washington, United States
 
Fumaroles at Vulcano, Sicily

A fumarole (or fumerole; from French fumerolle, a domed structure with lateral openings, built over a kitchen to permit the escape of smoke[2]) is an opening in a planet's crust which emits steam and gases, but no liquid or solid material.[3] The temperature of the gases leaving the vent ranges from about 100 to 1,000 °C (210 to 1,800 °F).[4] The steam forms when groundwater is superheated by hot rock, then flashes (boils due to depressurization) as it approaches the surface.[5]

In addition to steam, gases released by fumaroles include carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. These have their origin in magma cooling underground. Not all these gases are present in all fumaroles; for example, fumaroles of Kilauea in Hawaii, US, contain almost no hydrogen chloride or hydrogen fluoride.[3] The gases may also include traces of carbonyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, hydrogen, methane, or carbon monoxide.[6] A fumarole that emits sulfurous gases can be referred to as a solfatara (from old Italian solfo, "sulfur"[7][8]). Acid-sulfate hot springs can be formed by fumaroles when some of the steam condenses at the surface. Rising acidic vapors from below, such as CO2 and H2S, will then dissolve, creating steam-heated low-pH hot springs.[9]

Fumaroles are normally associated with the late stages of volcanic activity,[10] although they may also precede volcanic activity[4] and have been used to predict volcanic eruptions.[5] In particular, changes in the composition and temperature of fumarole gases may point to an imminent eruption.[3] An increase in sulfur oxide emissions is a particularly robust indication that new magma is rising from the depths, and may be detectable months to years before the eruption. Continued sulfur oxide emissions after an eruption is an indication that magma is continuing to rise towards the surface.[6]

Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks, along long fissures, or in chaotic clusters or fields. They also occur on the surface of lava flows and pyroclastic flows.[11] A fumarole field is an area of thermal springs and gas vents where shallow magma or hot igneous rocks release gases or interact with groundwater.[12] When they occur in freezing environments, fumaroles may cause fumarolic ice towers.

Fumaroles may persist for decades or centuries if located above a persistent heat source; or they may disappear within weeks to months if they occur atop a fresh volcanic deposit that quickly cools.[11] The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, for example, was formed during the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. Initially, thousands of fumaroles occurred in the cooling ash from the eruption, but over time most of them have become extinct.[13] Persistent fumaroles are found at Sulfur Bank on the northern edge of the Kilauea caldera, but most fumaroles in Hawaii last no more than a few months.[3] There are still numerous active fumaroles at Yellowstone National Park, US,[14] some 70,000 years after the most recent eruption.[15]

Economic resources and hazards edit

 
Traditional sulfur mining at Kawah Ijen.

The acidic fumes from fumaroles can break down the rock around the vents, producing brightly colored alteration haloes.[5] At Sulfur Bank near Kilauea, mild alteration reduces the rock to gray to white opal and kaolinite with the original texture of the rock still discernible. Alteration begins along joints in the rock and works inwards until the entire joint block is altered. More extreme alteration (at lower pH) reduces the material to clay minerals and iron oxides to produce red to reddish-brown clay.[16] The same process can produce valuable hydrothermal ore deposits at depth.[5]

Fumaroles emitting sulfurous vapors form surface deposits of sulfur-rich minerals and of fumarole minerals. Sulfur crystals at Sulfur Banks near Kilauea can grow to 2 centimeters (0.8 in) in length, and considerable sulfur has been deposited at Sulfur Cone within Mauna Loa caldera.[3] Places in which these deposits have been mined include:

Sulfur mining in Indonesia is sometimes done for low pay, by hand, without respirators or other protective equipment.[17]

In April 2006 fumarole emissions killed three ski-patrol workers east of Chair 3 at Mammoth Mountain Ski Area in California. The workers were overpowered by an accumulation of toxic fumes (a mazuku) in a crevasse they had fallen into.[25][26]

Occurrences edit

Fumaroles are found around the world in areas of volcanic activity. A few notable examples include:

On Mars edit

The formation known as Home Plate at Gusev Crater on Mars, which was examined by the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Spirit, is suspected to be the eroded remains of an ancient and extinct fumarole.[35]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ "fumerole – Definition and meaning". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
  2. ^ "fumarole". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. ^ a b c d e Macdonald, Gordon A.; Abbott, Agatin T.; Peterson, Frank L. (1983). Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii (2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 53–55. ISBN 0824808320.
  4. ^ a b Allaby, Michael (2013). A dictionary of geology and earth sciences (Fourth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199653065.
  5. ^ a b c d Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780521880060.
  6. ^ a b Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2004). Volcanism. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 47. ISBN 9783540436508.
  7. ^ "solfatara". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  8. ^ "Solfatara". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  9. ^ White, D.E.; Muffler, L.J.P.; Truesdell, A.H. (1971). "Vapor-dominated hydrothermal systems compared with hot-water systems". Economic Geology. 66 (1): 75–97. Bibcode:1971EcGeo..66...75W. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.66.1.75.
  10. ^ Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "fumarole". Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349.
  11. ^ a b   This article incorporates public domain material from "Fumarole". USGS Photo Glossary. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
  12. ^ Neuendorf, Klaus K. E. (2005). Jackson, Julia A.; Mehl, James P.; Neuendorf, Klaus K. E. (eds.). Glossary of Geology. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 257. ISBN 9780922152766. Retrieved 6 June 2015. fumarole field[:] A group of cool fumaroles.
  13. ^ Hildreth, W.; Fierstein, J. (2012). The Novarupta-Katmai eruption of 1912– largest eruption of the twentieth century; centennial perspectives. Reston: USGS Professional Paper 1791. p. 135.
  14. ^ "Fumaroles". Volcanic Features and Landforms. National Park Service. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  15. ^ "Summary of Eruption History". Yellowstone Geology and History. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  16. ^ Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983, p. 134.
  17. ^ a b "Kawah Ijen: Between potential & threat". The Jakarta Post. 19 December 2011.
  18. ^ Dukehart, Coburn (17 November 2015). . National Geographic. Archived from the original on 9 April 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  19. ^ Pfeiffer, Tom (2006). "Welirang volcano photos". Volcano Discovery. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  20. ^ Global Volcanism Program, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution
  21. ^ Simpson, Mark P.; Bignall, Greg (January 2016). "Undeveloped high-enthalpy geothermal fields of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand". Geothermics. 59: 325–346. Bibcode:2016Geoth..59..325S. doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.08.006.
  22. ^ "Eruption on Whakaari White Island kills 10 people". nzhistory.govt.nz. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
  23. ^ "Disaster at White Island". New Zealand Geographic. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
  24. ^ Ferrara, Vincenzo (2016). "The Sulphur Mining Industry in Sicily". Essays on the History of Mechanical Engineering. History of Mechanism and Machine Science. Vol. 31. pp. 111–130. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22680-4_8. ISBN 978-3-319-22679-8.
  25. ^ Hymon, Steve; Covarrubias, Amanda (9 April 2006). "How Routine Turned to Tragedy at Mammoth". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
  26. ^ Cantrell, Lee; Young, Michael (March 2009). "Fatal Fall into a Volcanic Fumarole". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 20 (1): 77–79. doi:10.1580/08-WEME-CR-199.1. PMID 19364170. S2CID 207182190.
  27. ^ Carrabba, Paola (2010). "The Gate of Hades: The Phlegraean Fields". Natural Heritage from East to West. pp. 193–200. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-01577-9_24. ISBN 978-3-642-01576-2.
  28. ^ Troiano, A.; Isaia, R.; Tramparulo, F. D. A.; Di Giuseppe, M. G. (December 2021). "The Pisciarelli main fumarole mechanisms reconstructed by electrical resistivity and induced polarization imaging". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 18639. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1118639T. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-97413-1. PMC 8452721. PMID 34545113.
  29. ^ Tamburello, G.; Hansteen, T. H.; Bredemeyer, S.; Aiuppa, A.; Tassi, F. (28 July 2014). "Gas emissions from five volcanoes in northern Chile and implications for the volatiles budget of the Central Volcanic Zone: Volatiles budget of the CVZ, Chile". Geophysical Research Letters. 41 (14): 4961–4969. doi:10.1002/2014GL060653. hdl:10447/99158. S2CID 55877335.
  30. ^ Paola, G. M. (June 1971). "Geology of the Corbetti Caldera area (Main Ethiopian Rift Valley)". Bulletin Volcanologique. 35 (2): 497–506. Bibcode:1971BVol...35..497D. doi:10.1007/BF02596970. S2CID 130428510.
  31. ^ "Fumaroles". Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  32. ^ Symonds, R.B.; Mizutani, Y.; Briggs, Paul H. (1996). "Long-term geochemical surveillance of fumaroles at Showa-Shinzan dome, Usu volcano, Japan". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 73 (3–4): 177–211. Bibcode:1996JVGR...73..177S. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(96)00029-7.
  33. ^ "Morne Trois Pitons National Park". UNESCO. 1997. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
  34. ^ "Hydrothermal Features". Yellowstone National Park. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  35. ^ R.V.Morris, S.W.Squyres, et al. "The Hydrothermal System at Home Plate in Gusev Crater, Mars". Lunar & Planetary Science XXXIX(2008)

External links edit

 
Look up fumarole in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Fumaroles (category)

February 09, 2024
fumarole, solfatara, redirects, here, volcanic, crater, italy, solfatara, volcano, fumarole, fumerole, vent, surface, earth, another, rocky, planet, from, which, volcanic, gases, vapors, emitted, without, accompanying, liquids, solids, characteristic, late, st. Solfatara redirects here For the volcanic crater in Italy see Solfatara volcano A fumarole or fumerole 1 is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted without any accompanying liquids or solids Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcanic activity but fumarole activity can also precede a volcanic eruption and has been used for eruption prediction Most fumaroles die down within a few days or weeks of the end of an eruption but a few are persistent lasting for decades or longer An area containing fumaroles is known as a fumarole field Fumarole at Sol de Manana BoliviaThe predominant vapor emitted by fumaroles is steam formed by the circulation of groundwater through heated rock This is typically accompanied by volcanic gases given off by magma cooling deep below the surface These volcanic gases include sulfur compounds such as various sulfur oxides and hydrogen sulfide and sometimes hydrogen chloride hydrogen fluoride and other gases A fumarole that emits significant sulfur compounds is sometimes called a solfatara Fumarole activity can break down rock around the vent while simultaneously depositing sulfur and other minerals Valuable hydrothermal mineral deposits can form beneath fumaroles However active fumaroles can be a hazard due to their emission of hot poisonous gases Contents 1 Description 2 Economic resources and hazards 3 Occurrences 3 1 On Mars 4 See also 5 References 6 External linksDescription edit nbsp Sampling gases at a fumarole on Mount Baker in Washington United States nbsp Fumaroles at Vulcano SicilyA fumarole or fumerole from French fumerolle a domed structure with lateral openings built over a kitchen to permit the escape of smoke 2 is an opening in a planet s crust which emits steam and gases but no liquid or solid material 3 The temperature of the gases leaving the vent ranges from about 100 to 1 000 C 210 to 1 800 F 4 The steam forms when groundwater is superheated by hot rock then flashes boils due to depressurization as it approaches the surface 5 In addition to steam gases released by fumaroles include carbon dioxide sulfur oxides hydrogen sulfide hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride These have their origin in magma cooling underground Not all these gases are present in all fumaroles for example fumaroles of Kilauea in Hawaii US contain almost no hydrogen chloride or hydrogen fluoride 3 The gases may also include traces of carbonyl sulfide carbon disulfide hydrogen methane or carbon monoxide 6 A fumarole that emits sulfurous gases can be referred to as a solfatara from old Italian solfo sulfur 7 8 Acid sulfate hot springs can be formed by fumaroles when some of the steam condenses at the surface Rising acidic vapors from below such as CO2 and H2S will then dissolve creating steam heated low pH hot springs 9 Fumaroles are normally associated with the late stages of volcanic activity 10 although they may also precede volcanic activity 4 and have been used to predict volcanic eruptions 5 In particular changes in the composition and temperature of fumarole gases may point to an imminent eruption 3 An increase in sulfur oxide emissions is a particularly robust indication that new magma is rising from the depths and may be detectable months to years before the eruption Continued sulfur oxide emissions after an eruption is an indication that magma is continuing to rise towards the surface 6 Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks along long fissures or in chaotic clusters or fields They also occur on the surface of lava flows and pyroclastic flows 11 A fumarole field is an area of thermal springs and gas vents where shallow magma or hot igneous rocks release gases or interact with groundwater 12 When they occur in freezing environments fumaroles may cause fumarolic ice towers Fumaroles may persist for decades or centuries if located above a persistent heat source or they may disappear within weeks to months if they occur atop a fresh volcanic deposit that quickly cools 11 The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes for example was formed during the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska Initially thousands of fumaroles occurred in the cooling ash from the eruption but over time most of them have become extinct 13 Persistent fumaroles are found at Sulfur Bank on the northern edge of the Kilauea caldera but most fumaroles in Hawaii last no more than a few months 3 There are still numerous active fumaroles at Yellowstone National Park US 14 some 70 000 years after the most recent eruption 15 Economic resources and hazards edit nbsp Traditional sulfur mining at Kawah Ijen The acidic fumes from fumaroles can break down the rock around the vents producing brightly colored alteration haloes 5 At Sulfur Bank near Kilauea mild alteration reduces the rock to gray to white opal and kaolinite with the original texture of the rock still discernible Alteration begins along joints in the rock and works inwards until the entire joint block is altered More extreme alteration at lower pH reduces the material to clay minerals and iron oxides to produce red to reddish brown clay 16 The same process can produce valuable hydrothermal ore deposits at depth 5 Fumaroles emitting sulfurous vapors form surface deposits of sulfur rich minerals and of fumarole minerals Sulfur crystals at Sulfur Banks near Kilauea can grow to 2 centimeters 0 8 in in length and considerable sulfur has been deposited at Sulfur Cone within Mauna Loa caldera 3 Places in which these deposits have been mined include Kawah Ijen 17 18 and Arjuno Welirang 19 Indonesia Purico Complex 20 near San Pedro de Atacama in Chile Mount Tongariro in the central North Island New Zealand mined by Maori until 1950 21 Whakaari White Island in the Bay of Plenty New Zealand mined from the 1880s to the 1930s 22 23 Sicily which had a near monopoly on sulfur prior to development of the Frasch process for mining sulfur from salt domes 24 Sulfur mining in Indonesia is sometimes done for low pay by hand without respirators or other protective equipment 17 In April 2006 fumarole emissions killed three ski patrol workers east of Chair 3 at Mammoth Mountain Ski Area in California The workers were overpowered by an accumulation of toxic fumes a mazuku in a crevasse they had fallen into 25 26 Occurrences editFumaroles are found around the world in areas of volcanic activity A few notable examples include Campi Flegrei Italy known since ancient times and regarded as the entrance to Hell 27 which is now closely monitored because of the hazard it poses to nearby urbanization 28 Central Volcanic Zone South America 29 Corbetti Caldera Ethiopia where a geothermal power station is under construction 30 Taupō Volcanic Zone New Zealand where fumaroles support a unique and critically endangered ecosystem 31 Mount Usu Japan 32 Valley of Desolation in Morne Trois Pitons National Park in Dominica 33 Furnas Sao Miguel Island Azores Portugal Yellowstone National Park has thousands of fumaroles including Black Growler at Norris Geyser Basin and numerous fumaroles dotting Roaring Mountain 34 On Mars edit The formation known as Home Plate at Gusev Crater on Mars which was examined by the Mars Exploration Rover MER Spirit is suspected to be the eroded remains of an ancient and extinct fumarole 35 See also editBoiling Lake Cold seep Hydrothermal vent Mofetta Mudpot Mud volcanoReferences edit fumerole Definition and meaning Merriam Webster com Dictionary Merriam Webster Retrieved 4 June 2023 fumarole Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required a b c d e Macdonald Gordon A Abbott Agatin T Peterson Frank L 1983 Volcanoes in the sea the geology of Hawaii 2nd ed Honolulu University of Hawaii Press pp 53 55 ISBN 0824808320 a b Allaby Michael 2013 A dictionary of geology and earth sciences Fourth ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199653065 a b c d Philpotts Anthony R Ague Jay J 2009 Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology 2nd ed Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press p 70 ISBN 9780521880060 a b Schmincke Hans Ulrich 2004 Volcanism Springer Science amp Business Media p 47 ISBN 9783540436508 solfatara Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required Solfatara Merriam Webster com Dictionary Merriam Webster Retrieved 20 February 2020 White D E Muffler L J P Truesdell A H 1971 Vapor dominated hydrothermal systems compared with hot water systems Economic Geology 66 1 75 97 Bibcode 1971EcGeo 66 75W doi 10 2113 gsecongeo 66 1 75 Jackson Julia A ed 1997 fumarole Glossary of geology Fourth ed Alexandria Virginia American Geological Institute ISBN 0922152349 a b nbsp This article incorporates public domain material from Fumarole USGS Photo Glossary United States Geological Survey Retrieved 6 February 2019 Neuendorf Klaus K E 2005 Jackson Julia A Mehl James P Neuendorf Klaus K E eds Glossary of Geology Springer Science amp Business Media p 257 ISBN 9780922152766 Retrieved 6 June 2015 fumarole field A group of cool fumaroles Hildreth W Fierstein J 2012 The Novarupta Katmai eruption of 1912 largest eruption of the twentieth century centennial perspectives Reston USGS Professional Paper 1791 p 135 Fumaroles Volcanic Features and Landforms National Park Service Retrieved 1 March 2022 Summary of Eruption History Yellowstone Geology and History U S Geological Survey Retrieved 1 March 2022 Macdonald Abbott amp Peterson 1983 p 134 a b Kawah Ijen Between potential amp threat The Jakarta Post 19 December 2011 Dukehart Coburn 17 November 2015 The Struggle and Strain of Mining Devil s Gold National Geographic Archived from the original on 9 April 2021 Retrieved 1 March 2022 Pfeiffer Tom 2006 Welirang volcano photos Volcano Discovery Retrieved 1 March 2022 Global Volcanism Program National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution Simpson Mark P Bignall Greg January 2016 Undeveloped high enthalpy geothermal fields of the Taupo Volcanic Zone New Zealand Geothermics 59 325 346 Bibcode 2016Geoth 59 325S doi 10 1016 j geothermics 2015 08 006 Eruption on Whakaari White Island kills 10 people nzhistory govt nz Retrieved 26 October 2021 Disaster at White Island New Zealand Geographic Retrieved 26 October 2021 Ferrara Vincenzo 2016 The Sulphur Mining Industry in Sicily Essays on the History of Mechanical Engineering History of Mechanism and Machine Science Vol 31 pp 111 130 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 22680 4 8 ISBN 978 3 319 22679 8 Hymon Steve Covarrubias Amanda 9 April 2006 How Routine Turned to Tragedy at Mammoth Los Angeles Times Retrieved 9 May 2011 Cantrell Lee Young Michael March 2009 Fatal Fall into a Volcanic Fumarole Wilderness amp Environmental Medicine 20 1 77 79 doi 10 1580 08 WEME CR 199 1 PMID 19364170 S2CID 207182190 Carrabba Paola 2010 The Gate of Hades The Phlegraean Fields Natural Heritage from East to West pp 193 200 doi 10 1007 978 3 642 01577 9 24 ISBN 978 3 642 01576 2 Troiano A Isaia R Tramparulo F D A Di Giuseppe M G December 2021 The Pisciarelli main fumarole mechanisms reconstructed by electrical resistivity and induced polarization imaging Scientific Reports 11 1 18639 Bibcode 2021NatSR 1118639T doi 10 1038 s41598 021 97413 1 PMC 8452721 PMID 34545113 Tamburello G Hansteen T H Bredemeyer S Aiuppa A Tassi F 28 July 2014 Gas emissions from five volcanoes in northern Chile and implications for the volatiles budget of the Central Volcanic Zone Volatiles budget of the CVZ Chile Geophysical Research Letters 41 14 4961 4969 doi 10 1002 2014GL060653 hdl 10447 99158 S2CID 55877335 Paola G M June 1971 Geology of the Corbetti Caldera area Main Ethiopian Rift Valley Bulletin Volcanologique 35 2 497 506 Bibcode 1971BVol 35 497D doi 10 1007 BF02596970 S2CID 130428510 Fumaroles Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research Retrieved 1 March 2022 Symonds R B Mizutani Y Briggs Paul H 1996 Long term geochemical surveillance of fumaroles at Showa Shinzan dome Usu volcano Japan Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 73 3 4 177 211 Bibcode 1996JVGR 73 177S doi 10 1016 0377 0273 96 00029 7 Morne Trois Pitons National Park UNESCO 1997 Retrieved 28 July 2020 Hydrothermal Features Yellowstone National Park U S National Park Service Retrieved 1 March 2022 R V Morris S W Squyres et al The Hydrothermal System at Home Plate in Gusev Crater Mars Lunar amp Planetary Science XXXIX 2008 External links edit nbsp Look up fumarole in Wiktionary the free dictionary nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fumaroles category Sulfur Mining on Gunung Welirang Volcano Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Fumarole Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 11 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 300 301 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fumarole amp oldid 1204452752, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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