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Ilex aquifolium

January 01, 1970

"Common holly" redirects here. For the Canadian musician, see Common Holly.

Ilex aquifolium, the holly, common holly, English holly, European holly, or occasionally Christmas holly, is a species of flowering plant in the family Aquifoliaceae, native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia.[2][3][4][5] It is regarded as the type species of the genus Ilex, which by association is also called "holly". It is an evergreen tree or shrub found, for example, in shady areas of forests of oak and in beech hedges. In the British Isles it is one of very few native hardwood evergreen trees. It has a great capacity to adapt to different conditions and is a pioneer species that repopulates the margins of forests or clearcuts.

Ilex aquifolium
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Aquifoliales
Family: Aquifoliaceae
Genus: Ilex
Species:
I. aquifolium
Binomial name
Ilex aquifolium
Distribution map of Ilex aquifolium
Ilex aquifolium

I. aquifolium can exceed 10 m in height, but is often found at much smaller heights, typically 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) tall and broad, with a straight trunk and pyramidal crown, branching from the base. It grows slowly and does not usually fully mature due to cutting or fire. It can live 500 years, but usually does not reach 100.

Ilex aquifolium is the species of holly long associated with Christmas, and previously the Roman festival of Saturnalia. Its glossy green prickly leaves and bright red berries (produced only by the female plant) are represented in wreaths, garlands and cards wherever Christmas is celebrated. It is a subject of music and folklore, especially in the British tradition. It is also a popular ornamental shrub or hedge, with numerous cultivars in a range of colours.

Description edit

 
Frosted foliage and berries
 
European holly flowers; male above, female below (leaves cut to show flowers more clearly)

Ilex aquifolium grows to 10–25 m (33–82 ft) tall with a woody stem as wide as 40–80 cm (16–31 in), rarely 100 cm (39 in) or more, in diameter. The leaves are 5–12 cm long and 2–6 cm broad; they are evergreen, lasting about five years, and are dark green on the upper surface and lighter on the underside, oval, leathery, shiny, and about 5 to 9 cm long. In the young and in the lower limbs of mature trees, the leaves have three to five sharp spines on each side, pointing alternately upward and downward, while leaves of the upper branches in mature trees lack spines.[4][5]

The flowers are white, four-lobed, and pollinated by bees. Holly is dioecious, meaning that there are male plants and female plants. The sex cannot be determined until the plants begin flowering, usually between 4 and 12 years of age. In male specimens, the flowers are yellowish and appear in axillary groups. In the female, flowers are isolated or in groups of three and are small and white or slightly pink, and consist of four petals and four sepals partially fused at the base.

The fruit only appears on female plants, which require male plants nearby to fertilise them. The fruit is a drupe (stone fruit), about 6–10 mm in diameter, a bright red or bright yellow, which matures around October or November; at this time they are very bitter due to the ilicin content[6] and so are rarely eaten until late winter after frost has made them softer and more palatable. They are eaten by rodents, birds and larger herbivores. Each fruit contains 3 to 4 seeds which do not germinate until the second or third spring.[7]

Distribution edit

Today, holly is found in western Asia and Europe in the undergrowth of oak forest and beech forest in particular, although at times it can form a dense thicket as the dominant species. It requires moist, shady environments, found within forests or in shady slopes, cliffs, and mountain gorges.[2][3][4]

Along the west coast of the United States and Canada, from California to British Columbia,[8] non-native English Holly has proved very invasive, quickly spreading into native forest habitat, where it thrives in shade and crowds out native species. It has been placed on the Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board's monitor list, and is a Class C invasive plant in Portland.[9][10][11]

During the Cenozoic Era, the Mediterranean region, Europe, and northwest Africa had a wetter climate and were largely covered by laurel forests. Holly was a typical representative species of this biome, where many current species of the genus Ilex were present. With the drying of the Mediterranean Basin during the Pliocene, the laurel forests gradually retreated, replaced by more drought-tolerant sclerophyll plant communities. The modern Ilex aquifolium resulted from this change.[clarification needed][citation needed] Most of the last remaining laurel forests around the Mediterranean are believed to have died out approximately 10,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene.

Ecology edit

Holly is a rugged pioneer species that prefers relatively moist areas, and tolerates frost as well as summer drought. The plant is common in the garrigue and maquis and is also found in deciduous forest and oak forest.

Pure stands of hollies can grow into a labyrinth of vaults in which thrushes and deer take refuge, while smaller birds are protected among their spiny leaves. After the first frost of the season, holly fruits become soft and fall to the ground serving as important food in its native regions for winter birds at a time of scarce resources.

The flowers are attractive as nectar sources for insects such as bees, wasps, flies, and small butterflies. The commonly-encountered pale patches on leaves are due to the leaf-mine insect Phytomyza ilicis.

It is an invasive species on the West Coast of Canada[8] and the United States as well as in Hawaii.[11][12]

Epigenetics edit

Holly is well known in epigenetics. Some cultivars have smooth leaf edges, or both smooth and prickly leaf edges on the same plant. In response to stress these cultivars can produce leaves with more prickles.[13]

Cultivation edit

 
One of several variegated cultivars

Ilex aquifolium is widely grown in parks and gardens in temperate regions.[14] Hollies are often used for hedges; the spiny leaves make them difficult to penetrate, and they take well to pruning and shaping.[15]

AGM cultivars edit

Numerous cultivars have been selected,[16] of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:[17]

  • I. aquifolium[18]
  • 'Amber' (female)[19]
  • 'Argentea Marginata'[20]
  • 'Ferox Argentea'[21]
  • 'Golden Queen'[22]
  • 'Handsworth New Silver'[23]
  • 'J.C. van Tol'[24]
  • 'Madame Briot'[25]
  • 'Pyramidalis'[26]
  • 'Silver Queen'[27]

Ilex × altaclerensis edit

The hybrid Ilex × altaclerensis was developed at Highclere Castle in Hampshire, England, in 1835, a cross between I. aquifolium and the tender species I. perado. The following cultivars have gained the RHS AGM:

Chemistry, toxicity, and uses edit

Holly berries contain alkaloids, theobromine, saponins, caffeic acid, and a yellow pigment, ilixanthin.[6][32][33] The berries are generally regarded as toxic to humans.[32][33] Accidental consumption may occur by children or pets attracted to the bright red berries. The berries are emetic, possibly due to the compound ilicin. The leaves of yerba mate, also in the genus Ilex, are used to make a caffeinated beverage[34] called mate or Paraguayan tea.[35]

Other uses edit

Between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries, before the introduction of turnips, Ilex aquifolium was cultivated for use as winter fodder for cattle and sheep. Less spiny varieties of holly were preferred, and in practice the leaves growing near the top of the tree have far fewer spines, making them more suitable for fodder.

Ilex aquifolium was once among the traditional woods for Great Highland bagpipes before tastes turned to imported dense tropical woods such as cocuswood, ebony, and African blackwood.

References edit

  1. ^ Barstow, M.; Khela, S. (2018). "Ilex aquifolium". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T202963A68067360. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T202963A68067360.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b Flora Europaea: Ilex aquifolium
  3. ^ a b Med-Checklist: Ilex aquifolium
  4. ^ a b c Rushforth, K. (1999). Trees of Britain and Europe. Collins ISBN 0-00-220013-9.
  5. ^ a b Flora of NW Europe: Ilex aquifolium 2009-06-09 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ^ a b Hoppe, Heinz, A. (1975). Drogenkunde. W. de Gruyter. ISBN 3-13-566001-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Peterken, G. F.; Lloyd, P. S. (November 1967). "Ilex aquifolium L.". Journal of Ecology. 55 (3): 841–858. Bibcode:1967JEcol..55..841P. doi:10.2307/2258429. JSTOR 2258429.
  8. ^ a b "Ring in the holiday season and reduce the spread of invasive species! -". Invasive Species Council of British Columbia | ISCBC Plants & Animals. 2020-02-10. Retrieved 2020-12-27.
  9. ^ "Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board".
  10. ^ . Archived from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
  11. ^ a b . California Invasive Plant Council. Archived from the original on 2016-08-16. Retrieved 2016-10-02.
  12. ^ "English Holly - Ilex aquifolium". King County, Washington. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
  13. ^ "#bioPGH blog – to Prickle or Not to Prickle: Holly Leaves and Epigenetics | Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens | Pittsburgh PA".
  14. ^ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1405332965.
  15. ^ Northumbria Police: Security starts at the Garden Gate
  16. ^ Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
  17. ^ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 43. Retrieved 3 March 2018.
  18. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
  19. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Amber' (f) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
  20. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Argentea Marginata' (f/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
  21. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Ferox Argentea' (m/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  22. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Golden Queen' (m/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  23. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Handsworth New Silver' (f/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  24. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'J.C. van Tol' (f) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  25. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Madame Briot' (f/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  26. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Pyramidalis' (f) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  27. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium 'Silver Queen' (m/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  28. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex × altaclerensis 'Belgica Aurea' (f/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  29. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex × altaclerensis 'Camelliifolia' (f) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  30. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex × altaclerensis 'Golden King' (f/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  31. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Ilex × altaclerensis 'Lawsoniana' (f/v) AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  32. ^ a b Leikin, Jerrold Blair; Frank P. Paloucek (2002). Poisoning & Toxicology Handbook, Third Edition. Hudson, Ohio USA: Lexi-Comp Inc. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-930598-77-5.
  33. ^ a b Turner, Nancy J.; P. von Aderkas (2009). The North American Guide to Common Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms. Timberpress. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-88192-929-4.
  34. ^ Dellacassa, Cesio et al. Departamento de Farmacognosia, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Uruguay, Noviembre: 2007, pages 1–15
  35. ^ Grieve, M. "Holly". Botanical.com. Retrieved 2014-02-26.

External links edit

January 01, 1970
ilex, aquifolium, common, holly, redirects, here, canadian, musician, common, holly, holly, common, holly, english, holly, european, holly, occasionally, christmas, holly, species, flowering, plant, family, aquifoliaceae, native, western, southern, europe, nor. Common holly redirects here For the Canadian musician see Common Holly Ilex aquifolium the holly common holly English holly European holly or occasionally Christmas holly is a species of flowering plant in the family Aquifoliaceae native to western and southern Europe northwest Africa and southwest Asia 2 3 4 5 It is regarded as the type species of the genus Ilex which by association is also called holly It is an evergreen tree or shrub found for example in shady areas of forests of oak and in beech hedges In the British Isles it is one of very few native hardwood evergreen trees It has a great capacity to adapt to different conditions and is a pioneer species that repopulates the margins of forests or clearcuts Ilex aquifolium Conservation status Least Concern IUCN 3 1 1 Scientific classification Kingdom Plantae Clade Tracheophytes Clade Angiosperms Clade Eudicots Clade Asterids Order Aquifoliales Family Aquifoliaceae Genus Ilex Species I aquifolium Binomial name Ilex aquifoliumLinnaeus Distribution map of Ilex aquifolium Ilex aquifolium I aquifolium can exceed 10 m in height but is often found at much smaller heights typically 2 3 m 6 6 9 8 ft tall and broad with a straight trunk and pyramidal crown branching from the base It grows slowly and does not usually fully mature due to cutting or fire It can live 500 years but usually does not reach 100 Ilex aquifolium is the species of holly long associated with Christmas and previously the Roman festival of Saturnalia Its glossy green prickly leaves and bright red berries produced only by the female plant are represented in wreaths garlands and cards wherever Christmas is celebrated It is a subject of music and folklore especially in the British tradition It is also a popular ornamental shrub or hedge with numerous cultivars in a range of colours Contents 1 Description 2 Distribution 3 Ecology 4 Epigenetics 5 Cultivation 5 1 AGM cultivars 5 2 Ilex altaclerensis 6 Chemistry toxicity and uses 7 Other uses 8 References 9 External linksDescription edit nbsp Frosted foliage and berries nbsp European holly flowers male above female below leaves cut to show flowers more clearly Ilex aquifolium grows to 10 25 m 33 82 ft tall with a woody stem as wide as 40 80 cm 16 31 in rarely 100 cm 39 in or more in diameter The leaves are 5 12 cm long and 2 6 cm broad they are evergreen lasting about five years and are dark green on the upper surface and lighter on the underside oval leathery shiny and about 5 to 9 cm long In the young and in the lower limbs of mature trees the leaves have three to five sharp spines on each side pointing alternately upward and downward while leaves of the upper branches in mature trees lack spines 4 5 The flowers are white four lobed and pollinated by bees Holly is dioecious meaning that there are male plants and female plants The sex cannot be determined until the plants begin flowering usually between 4 and 12 years of age In male specimens the flowers are yellowish and appear in axillary groups In the female flowers are isolated or in groups of three and are small and white or slightly pink and consist of four petals and four sepals partially fused at the base The fruit only appears on female plants which require male plants nearby to fertilise them The fruit is a drupe stone fruit about 6 10 mm in diameter a bright red or bright yellow which matures around October or November at this time they are very bitter due to the ilicin content 6 and so are rarely eaten until late winter after frost has made them softer and more palatable They are eaten by rodents birds and larger herbivores Each fruit contains 3 to 4 seeds which do not germinate until the second or third spring 7 Distribution editToday holly is found in western Asia and Europe in the undergrowth of oak forest and beech forest in particular although at times it can form a dense thicket as the dominant species It requires moist shady environments found within forests or in shady slopes cliffs and mountain gorges 2 3 4 Along the west coast of the United States and Canada from California to British Columbia 8 non native English Holly has proved very invasive quickly spreading into native forest habitat where it thrives in shade and crowds out native species It has been placed on the Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board s monitor list and is a Class C invasive plant in Portland 9 10 11 During the Cenozoic Era the Mediterranean region Europe and northwest Africa had a wetter climate and were largely covered by laurel forests Holly was a typical representative species of this biome where many current species of the genus Ilex were present With the drying of the Mediterranean Basin during the Pliocene the laurel forests gradually retreated replaced by more drought tolerant sclerophyll plant communities The modern Ilex aquifolium resulted from this change clarification needed citation needed Most of the last remaining laurel forests around the Mediterranean are believed to have died out approximately 10 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene Ecology editHolly is a rugged pioneer species that prefers relatively moist areas and tolerates frost as well as summer drought The plant is common in the garrigue and maquis and is also found in deciduous forest and oak forest Pure stands of hollies can grow into a labyrinth of vaults in which thrushes and deer take refuge while smaller birds are protected among their spiny leaves After the first frost of the season holly fruits become soft and fall to the ground serving as important food in its native regions for winter birds at a time of scarce resources The flowers are attractive as nectar sources for insects such as bees wasps flies and small butterflies The commonly encountered pale patches on leaves are due to the leaf mine insect Phytomyza ilicis It is an invasive species on the West Coast of Canada 8 and the United States as well as in Hawaii 11 12 Epigenetics editHolly is well known in epigenetics Some cultivars have smooth leaf edges or both smooth and prickly leaf edges on the same plant In response to stress these cultivars can produce leaves with more prickles 13 Cultivation edit nbsp One of several variegated cultivars Ilex aquifolium is widely grown in parks and gardens in temperate regions 14 Hollies are often used for hedges the spiny leaves make them difficult to penetrate and they take well to pruning and shaping 15 AGM cultivars edit Numerous cultivars have been selected 16 of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society s Award of Garden Merit 17 I aquifolium 18 Amber female 19 Argentea Marginata 20 Ferox Argentea 21 Golden Queen 22 Handsworth New Silver 23 J C van Tol 24 Madame Briot 25 Pyramidalis 26 Silver Queen 27 Ilex altaclerensis edit The hybrid Ilex altaclerensis was developed at Highclere Castle in Hampshire England in 1835 a cross between I aquifolium and the tender species I perado The following cultivars have gained the RHS AGM Belgica Aurea 28 Camelliifolia 29 Golden King 30 Lawsoniana 31 Chemistry toxicity and uses editHolly berries contain alkaloids theobromine saponins caffeic acid and a yellow pigment ilixanthin 6 32 33 The berries are generally regarded as toxic to humans 32 33 Accidental consumption may occur by children or pets attracted to the bright red berries The berries are emetic possibly due to the compound ilicin The leaves of yerba mate also in the genus Ilex are used to make a caffeinated beverage 34 called mate or Paraguayan tea 35 Other uses editBetween the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries before the introduction of turnips Ilex aquifolium was cultivated for use as winter fodder for cattle and sheep Less spiny varieties of holly were preferred and in practice the leaves growing near the top of the tree have far fewer spines making them more suitable for fodder Ilex aquifolium was once among the traditional woods for Great Highland bagpipes before tastes turned to imported dense tropical woods such as cocuswood ebony and African blackwood References edit Barstow M Khela S 2018 Ilex aquifolium IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018 e T202963A68067360 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2018 1 RLTS T202963A68067360 en Retrieved 19 November 2021 a b Flora Europaea Ilex aquifolium a b Med Checklist Ilex aquifolium a b c Rushforth K 1999 Trees of Britain and Europe Collins ISBN 0 00 220013 9 a b Flora of NW Europe Ilex aquifolium Archived 2009 06 09 at the Wayback Machine a b Hoppe Heinz A 1975 Drogenkunde W de Gruyter ISBN 3 13 566001 X a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Peterken G F Lloyd P S November 1967 Ilex aquifolium L Journal of Ecology 55 3 841 858 Bibcode 1967JEcol 55 841P doi 10 2307 2258429 JSTOR 2258429 a b Ring in the holiday season and reduce the spread of invasive species Invasive Species Council of British Columbia ISCBC Plants amp Animals 2020 02 10 Retrieved 2020 12 27 Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board English Holly Invasive Species Council of British Columbia ISCBC Plants amp Animals Archived from the original on 2015 09 06 Retrieved 2015 08 14 a b Ilex aquifolium English holly California Invasive Plant Council Archived from the original on 2016 08 16 Retrieved 2016 10 02 English Holly Ilex aquifolium King County Washington Retrieved 2011 01 30 bioPGH blog to Prickle or Not to Prickle Holly Leaves and Epigenetics Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens Pittsburgh PA RHS A Z encyclopedia of garden plants United Kingdom Dorling Kindersley 2008 p 1136 ISBN 978 1405332965 Northumbria Police Security starts at the Garden Gate Huxley A ed 1992 New RHS Dictionary of Gardening Macmillan ISBN 0 333 47494 5 AGM Plants Ornamental PDF Royal Horticultural Society July 2017 p 43 Retrieved 3 March 2018 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 07 04 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Amber f AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 07 04 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Argentea Marginata f v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 07 04 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Ferox Argentea m v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 10 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Golden Queen m v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Handsworth New Silver f v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium J C van Tol f AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Madame Briot f v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Pyramidalis f AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex aquifolium Silver Queen m v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex altaclerensis Belgica Aurea f v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex altaclerensis Camelliifolia f AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex altaclerensis Golden King f v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 RHS Plant Selector Ilex altaclerensis Lawsoniana f v AGM RHS Gardening Apps rhs org uk Retrieved 2020 09 16 a b Leikin Jerrold Blair Frank P Paloucek 2002 Poisoning amp Toxicology Handbook Third Edition Hudson Ohio USA Lexi Comp Inc p 80 ISBN 978 1 930598 77 5 a b Turner Nancy J P von Aderkas 2009 The North American Guide to Common Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms Timberpress p 210 ISBN 978 0 88192 929 4 Dellacassa Cesio et al Departamento de Farmacognosia Facultad de Quimica Universidad de la Republica Uruguay Noviembre 2007 pages 1 15 Grieve M Holly Botanical com Retrieved 2014 02 26 External links editIlex aquifolium information genetic conservation units and related resources European Forest Genetic Resources Programme EUFORGEN Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ilex aquifolium amp oldid 1207305609, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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