fbpx
Wikipedia

Energy in Turkey

February 16, 2024

Energy consumption per person in Turkey is similar to the world average,[1][2] and over 85 per cent is from fossil fuels.[3] From 1990 to 2017 annual primary energy supply tripled, but then remained constant to 2019.[2] In 2019, Turkey's primary energy supply included around 30 per cent oil, 30 per cent coal, and 25 per cent gas.[4] These fossil fuels contribute to Turkey's air pollution and its above average greenhouse gas emissions.[5][6] Turkey mines its own lignite (brown coal) but imports three-quarters of its energy, including half the coal and almost all the oil and gas it requires, and its energy policy prioritises reducing imports.[7]

Wind turbines on the island of Gökçeada in the far west

Energy consumption by source, Turkey

The OECD has criticised the lack of carbon pricing,[8] fossil fuel subsidies[9] and the country's under-utilized wind and solar potential.[10] The country's electricity supplies 20% of its energy[11] and is generated mainly from coal, gas and hydroelectricity; with a small but growing amount from wind, solar and geothermal.[12] However, Black Sea gas is forecast to meet all residential demand from the late 2020s.[13] A nuclear power plant is also under construction, and one half of installed power capacity is renewable energy.[14] Despite this, from 1990 to 2019, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fuel combustion rose from 130 megatonnes (Mt) to 360 Mt.[15] In 2023 energy consumption was forecast to increase almost 40% in the following 12 years.[16]

Energy policy is to secure national energy supply[17] and reduce fossil fuel imports,[18] which accounted for over 20% of the cost of Turkey's imports in 2019,[19] and 75 per cent of the current account deficit.[20] This also includes using energy efficiently. However, as of 2019, little research has been done on the policies Turkey uses to reduce energy poverty, which also include some subsidies for home heating and electricity use.[21] Turkey's energy policies plan to give "due consideration to environmental concerns all along the energy chain", "within the context of sustainable development."[18] These plans have been criticised for being published over a year after work mentioned in it had started,[22][23] not sufficiently involving the private sector,[24] and for being inconsistent with Turkey's climate policy.[25]

Policy and regulation edit

 
Development of carbon dioxide emissions
See also: Electricity sector in Turkey § Policy and regulation

The Energy Market Regulatory Authority was created in 2001.

Security of supply edit

See also: Economy of Turkey § Energy security
 
Primary energy supply in Turkey (2014–2020)[26]

Turkey meets a quarter of its energy demand from national resources.[27] The Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies (EDAM), a think tank, says that in the 2010s, fossil fuel imports were probably the largest structural vulnerability of the country's economy:[28] they cost $41 billion in 2019 representing about a fifth of Turkey's total import bill,[29] and were a large part of the 2018 current account deficit[30] and the country's debt problems. Although the country imports 99% of its natural gas and 93% of the petroleum it uses,[31] in the early 2020s fossil gas supply was diversified to reduce dependence on Russia.[32]

To secure energy supply, the government built new gas pipelines,[28] and regasification plants. For example, gas supplies from Azerbaijan surpassed those from Russia in 2020.[32] There is a large surplus of electricity generation capacity,[33] however the government aims at meeting the forecast increase in demand for electricity in Turkey by building its first nuclear power plant and more solar, wind, hydro and coal-fired power plants.[34] The International Climate Initiative says that, as an oil importer, Turkey can increase security of supply by increasing the proportion of renewable electricity it produces.[27] The International Energy Agency has suggested a carbon market,[35] and EDAM says that in the long term, a carbon tax would reduce import dependency by speeding development of national solar and wind energy.[36]

Because the Turkish government is very centralised,[37] its energy policy is national. Lack of transmission capacity was one cause of the nationwide blackout in 2015, therefore policy includes improving electricity transmission.[38] As well as natural gas storage and regasification plants to convert imported liquid natural gas (LNG) to natural gas,[39] the government supports pumped-storage hydroelectricity for long term energy storage.[40]

In 2020, renewables generated 40% of Turkey's electricity, which reduced gas import costs: but, being mainly hydroelectricity, the amount that can be produced is vulnerable to drought.[41] According to Hülya Saygılı, an economist at Turkey's central bank, although imports of solar and wind power components accounted for 12% of import costs in 2017, in EU countries this is largely due to one-time setup costs. She said that compared with Italy and Greece, Turkey has not invested enough in solar and wind power.[42]

Energy efficiency edit

 
Karabuk Solar Energy Farm

The National Energy Efficiency plan aims to decrease Turkey's energy intensity—the energy required to produce ₺1 (Turkish lira) of GDP—to the OECD average by 2023.[43] Despite the Energy Efficiency Law and a target to reduce its energy intensity by at least 20% between 2011 and 2023; between 2005 and 2015, Turkey's energy intensity increased by seven per cent.[35] According to one study, if energy policy was changed—most importantly the removal of fossil fuel subsidies—at least 20% of energy costs could be saved,[44] and according to the Chamber of Mechanical Engineers, the energy required for buildings could be cut by half.[19] In 2019, Energy Minister Fatih Dönmez said that improvement of the energy efficiency of public buildings should take the lead and that efficiency improvements are an important source of jobs.[45] It has been suggested that more specific energy efficiency targets for buildings are needed.[46]

According to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Turkey has the potential to cut 15% to 20% of total consumption through energy conservation.[47]

Fossil fuel subsidies and taxes edit

In the 21st century, Turkey's fossil fuel subsidies are around 0.2% of GDP,[48][49]: 29  including at least US$14 billion (US$169 per person) between January 2020 and September 2021.[50] If unpaid damages (such as health damage from air pollution) are included road fuel subsidy is estimated at over 400 dollars per person per year and for all fossil fuels over one thousand dollars.[51] Data on finance for fossil fuels by state-owned banks and export credit agencies is not public.[49]: 32  The energy minister Fatih Dönmez supports coal[52][53] and most energy subsidies are for coal,[54] which the OECD has strongly criticised.[55] Capacity mechanism payments to coal-fired power stations in Turkey in 2019 totalled ₺720 million (US$130 million) compared to ₺542 million (US$96 million) to gas-fired power stations in Turkey.[56] In 2022 these payments totalled over US$200 million.[57] As of 2020, the tax per unit energy on gasoline was higher than diesel,[58] despite diesel cars on average emitting more lung damaging NOx (nitrogen oxide).[59]

Oil and gas subsidies and taxes edit

This section is an excerpt from Oil in Turkey § Subsidies and taxes.[edit]
 
The Kanuni is an offshore deep-sea drilling ship.[60]

In Turkey, tax levied on diesel is lower than that on petrol, and it has been suggested by the Istanbul International Centre for Energy and Climate at Sabancı University that taxes on diesel and petrol should be more-closely aligned with each other to minimise imports, because Turkey has enough petrol-refining capacity.[61]

In 2022 the Turkish Energy Minister said Turkey and Algeria would create a joint oil-and-gas-exploration company.[62]
This section is an excerpt from Gas in Turkey § Subsidies and taxes.[edit]

The wholesale gas market is not as competitive in Turkey as it is in the EU: some analysts say that this is because the government does not want to split up the state-owned gas company BOTAŞ, or give other power companies fair use of BOTAŞ' pipelines.[63] They say Turkey has not joined the European gas network (ENTSO-G) because joining would require this unbundling.[63] BOTAŞ controls over 90% of the natural gas market,[64] and is the gas infrastructure regulator and the only operator of gas transmission.[65] Exploration for gas in the Eastern Mediterranean is subsidised,[66][67] and is a cause of geopolitical tension because of the Cyprus dispute.[68]

A capacity market (or capacity mechanism) for electricity is payments to make sure that sufficient firm power is available to satisfy peaks in demand, such as late afternoon air conditioning in August. Because gas-fired power stations can usually ramp up and down quickly they are one way of ensuring supply at times of peak demand. Some other countries also have capacity markets but Turkey's has been criticised. The government says the purpose of capacity market payments is to secure national electricity supply.[69] However, despite almost all natural gas being imported, some gas-fired power plants received capacity payments in 2021, whereas some non-fossil firm power, such as demand response, could not.[69][70] 17 gas-fired power stations were eligible for capacity payments in 2023.[71]

Coal subsidies and taxes edit

Coal in Turkey is heavily subsidized.[72] As of 2019, the government aims to keep the share of coal in the energy portfolio at around the same level in the medium to long term.[73] Coal's place in the government's energy policy was detailed in 2019 by the Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research (SETA), an organisation that lobbies for the Turkish government.[74] Despite protests against coal power plants,[75] construction of Emba Hunutlu was subsidized,[76] and in 2021 Turkey's sovereign wealth fund was still hoping for Chinese partners to start constructing Afşin-Elibistan C.[77] Even in cities where natural gas is available, the government supports poor households with free coal.[20] Electricity from plants which are 40% efficient and burn imported coal never costs less than around 25 USD/MWh to generate: because if the coal costs under 70 USD/tonne it is taxed to bring it up to that price.[78]

Politics edit

Without subsidies, new and some existing coal power would be unprofitable, and it is claimed that path dependence or past decisions, political influence, and distorted markets are why they continue.[79] Although the coal industry and the government are said to have a close relationship, the falling cost of wind and solar may increase pressure against maintaining coal subsidies.[80] Hydroelectric plants, especially new ones, are sometimes controversial in local, international and environmental politics.[81] The EU might persuade Turkey to cooperate on climate change by supporting policies that reduce the country's external energy dependency in a sustainable manner.[35]

State energy companies include Eti Mine, Turkish Coal Enterprises, Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises, the Electricity Generation Company, BOTAŞ and TEİAŞ —the electricity trading and transmission company.[82] The government holds a quarter of total installed electricity supply and often offers prices below market levels.[83] Energy deals, such as those with Russia, are said to be politically motivated.[84]

Energy transition edit

See also: Nuclear energy in Turkey and Renewable energy in Turkey

The World Bank has estimated the cost and benefits, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.[85]

60,000 people are employed as of 2020 and it is estimated employment could be boosted to 80,000 if rooftop solar is boosted.[86]

 
A wind farm in Gaziantep Province

According to the International Renewable Energy Agency and academic study, increasing the share of renewable energy could make the country more energy independent and increase employment[87] especially in Turkey's solar PV and solar heating industries.[88] SHURA Energy Transition Center said in 2018 that a plan for solar power in Turkey beyond 2023 is needed.[89] In an attempt to reduce fossil fuel imports the government supports local production of electric cars and solar cells.[90] Some academics say that funding for renewables such as wind should be decentralized.[91]

For three decades from 1990, carbon intensity remained almost constant around 61 tCO2/TJ (tons of carbon dioxide per terajoule).[2] Nuclear safety regulations and human resources could be improved[92] by cooperation with Euratom ( European Atomic Energy Community).[35] In 2018, a new regulator was set up for nuclear power safety, and $0.15 per kWh of generated electricity will be set aside for waste management.[93]

Health and the environment edit

Main articles: Air pollution in Turkey, Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey, and Climate change in Turkey

Retrofitting equipment for pollution control, such as flue-gas desulfurization at old lignite-fuelled plants like Soma power station,[94] might not be financially possible, as they use outdated technology.[95] The government collects data on sulfur dioxide (SO2), NOx and particulate air pollution from each large plant,[96] but it is not published.

The energy policy aim of reducing imports (e.g. of gas) conflicts with the climate change policy aim of reducing the emission of greenhouse gases as some local resources (e.g. lignite) emit a lot of CO2. According to Ümit Şahin, who teaches climate change at Sabancı University, Turkey must abandon fossil fuel completely and switch to 100% renewable energy by 2050.[97]

Economics edit

See also: Electricity sector in Turkey § Economics and finance
 
According to some studies a coal-phase out in favour of renewable energy would increase employment[98][99]

Turkey's energy import bill was almost $US80 billion in 2022,[100] causing a large foreign trade deficit.[101] Europe supports energy efficiency and renewable energy via the €1 billion Mid-size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility (MidSEFF) to finance investments in these areas.[35][102] Energy subsidies amounted to 200 billion lira in 2021.[103] Up to 150kWh per month of free electricity is provided to two million poor families.[104]

Fatih Birol, the head of the International Energy Agency said in 2019 that, because of its falling price, the focus should be on maximizing onshore wind power in Turkey.[105] The economics of coal power has been modelled by Carbon Tracker.[106] They estimate that for new plants both wind and solar is already cheaper than coal power.[107] And they forecast that existing coal plants will be more expensive than new solar by 2023 and new wind by 2027.[107]

Most energy deals in 2019 were for renewables, and over half the investment in these was from outside the country.[108] The external costs of fossil fuel consumption in 2018 has been estimated as 1.5% of GDP.[109] The government sets the price of residential gas and electricity,[110] and as of 2018, for residential consumers, "high cost is the most important problem of Turkey's energy system".[111]

Energy sources edit

Coal edit

Main article: Coal in Turkey
 
Tufanbeyli coal-fired power station, Adana

Coal supplies over a quarter of Turkey's primary energy.[112] Every year, thousands of people die prematurely from coal-related causes, the most common of which is local air pollution.

Most coal mined in Turkey is lignite (brown coal), which is more polluting than other types of coal.[113] Turkey's energy policy encourages mining lignite for coal-fired power stations to reduce gas imports;[114] and coal supplies over 40% of domestic energy production.[115] Mining peaked in 2018, at over 100 million tonnes,[116] and declined considerably in 2019.[20] In contrast to local lignite production, Turkey imports almost all of the bituminous coal it uses. The largest coalfield in Turkey is Elbistan.[117]

Oil and gas edit

This section is an excerpt from Oil in Turkey.[edit]
 
Tankers, like this one in the Bosporus, are one way to export oil from Central Asia

Oil supplies over a quarter of Turkey's energy.[118][119] Because the country produces very little oil,[120] it is almost completely dependent on imports of oil and oil products such as petrol and diesel,[121] over half of which is consumed in the country's road vehicles.[122] Turkey is the world's largest user of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for road transport.[123]

Because Turkey produces only 7% of the oil it consumes, the country’s total imports are worth more than its exports, which is a problem for its economy.[124] After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, several European countries stopped buying Russian oil, petrol and diesel but Turkey's relations with Russia are such it continues to buy all three.[125][126]
This section is an excerpt from Gas in Turkey.[edit]
 
The Kanuni has drilled in the Black Sea[127]

Fossil gas supplies over a quarter of Turkey's energy.[128][129] The country consumes 50 to 60 billion cubic metres of this natural gas each year,[130][131] nearly all of which is imported. A large gas field in the Black Sea however started production in 2023.[132]

After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine several European countries stopped buying Russian oil or gas, but Turkey's relations with Russia are good enough that it continues to buy both.[133][134] Turkey receives almost half of its gas from Russia.[131] As of 2023 wholesale gas is expensive and a large part of the import bill.

Households buy the most gas, followed by industry and power stations.[135] Over 80% of the population has access to gas,[136] and it supplies half the country's heating requirements.[130] As the state owned oil and gas wholesaler BOTAŞ has 80% of the gas market,[128]: 16  the government can and does subsidize residential and industrial gas consumers.[137] All industrial and commercial customers, and households using more than a certain amount of gas, can switch suppliers.[128]

Nuclear edit

 
 
 
 
İğneada
class=notpageimage|
Nuclear power stations in Turkey (view)
  Under construction
  Proposed
Main article: Nuclear power in Turkey

There is no nuclear power in Turkey yet, but Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being built and is expected to start selling power in 2023. The nuclear power debate has a long history, with the 2018 construction start in Mersin Province being the sixth major attempt to build a nuclear power plant since 1960.[138]

Plans for a nuclear plant in Sinop and another at İğneada have stalled.[139]

Waste edit

In 2021, the Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul opened country's first waste-to-energy plant. The Istanbul Waste Power Plant is capable of generating 175 MW⋅h electrical and 175 MW⋅h thermal energy by 3,000 tons waste incineration daily.[140]

Renewable energy edit

Main article: Renewable energy in Turkey
 
Solar panels on an İzmir train station roof: the country has the potential to get a large part of its energy from the sun.

Although there are plenty of renewable resources for energy in Turkey,[141] only hydropower has been developed to any degree, supplying an average of about 20% of Turkey's national electricity supply.[89] with other renewables supplying 12%.[142] However, due to drought in Turkey, hydro has supplied less electricity than usual in recent years,[143] compared to around a third in a wet year.[144] Turkey has invested less in solar and wind power than similar Mediterranean countries.[143] Turkey is a net exporter of wind power equipment, but a net importer of solar power equipment.[145]

By greatly increasing its production of solar power in the south and wind power in the west, the country's entire energy demand could be met from renewable sources by 2050.[146]

Consumption edit

Consumption of energy in Turkey is around the world average of about seventy gigajoules (GJ) per person per year.[147][2] In total Turkey uses about six billion GJ of primary energy per year—[2][148] over 80% from fossil fuels.[3] As of 2020, more than 25% of energy is used in buildings, of which over 80% is for heating.[149] Heating is the main use for geothermal power in Turkey. Gas consumption is concentrated in the north-west due to the concentration of industry, and the population in Istanbul.[150] The government introduced a green electricity tariff in 2021.[151]

Electricity edit

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Electricity sector in Turkey.[edit]

Turkey uses more electricity per person than the global average, but less than the European average, with demand peaking in summer due to air conditioning. Most electricity is generated from coal, gas and hydropower, with hydroelectricity from the east transmitted to big cities in the west. Electricity prices are state-controlled, but wholesale prices are heavily influenced by the cost of imported gas.

Each year, about 300 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity is used, which is almost a quarter of the total energy used in Turkey. On average, about four hundred grams of carbon dioxide is emitted per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated (400 gCO2/kWh); this carbon intensity is slightly less than the global average. As there is 100 GW of generating capacity, far more electricity could be produced. Although only a tiny proportion is exported; consumption is forecast to increase, and there are plans for more exports during the 2020s.

Turkey's coal-fired power stations are the largest source of the country's greenhouse-gas emissions. Many brown coal power stations are subsidized, which increases air pollution. Imports of gas, mostly for Turkey's power stations, are one of the main expenses for the country. In winter, electricity generation is vulnerable to reductions in the gas supply from other countries.[152][153] Solar and wind power are now the cheapest generators of electricity,[154] and more of both are being built. If enough solar and wind power is built, the country's hydroelectric plants should be enough to cover windless cloudy weeks. Renewables generate a third of the country's electricity, and academics have suggested that the target of 32% renewable energy by 2030 be increased to 50%, and that coal power should be phased out by the mid-2030s. Increased use of electric vehicles is expected to increase electricity demand.

History edit

See also: Coal in Turkey § History

Four thousand years ago most of what is now Turkey was forested.[155] Deforestation occurred during both prehistoric[156] and historic times, including the Roman[157] and Ottoman[158] periods. The forests were cut down by people, partly to burn wood for heating.[159]

Coal has been burnt since late Ottoman times.

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries the country was very exposed to oil and gas price volatility.[160] Around the turn of the century many gas fired power plants were built, and BOTAŞ extended the national gas pipeline network to most of the urban population.[161] As Turkey had almost no natural gas of its own this increased import dependency, particularly on Russian gas.[162] Therefore, many more regasification plants and gas storage (such as the gas storage at Lake Tuz) were built in the early 21st century, thus ensuring a much longer buffer should the main international import pipelines be cut for any reason. However growth in Turkish electricity demand has often been overestimated. Although much energy infrastructure was privatised in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, energy is still highly state controlled.[160]

Projections edit

In 2021 the International Energy Agency recommended Turkey includes further electrification in integrated scenario planning.[7]: 3 

Mckinsey suggested in 2023 that Turkey may become part of a bloc along with China and India buying fuel from Russia.[163]

See also edit

Further reading edit

  • National Energy Plan published 2023
  • Energy Outlook 2022 See also tr:Türkiye Sınai Kalkınma Bankası

References edit

  1. ^ "Energy use per person". Our World in Data. from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  2. ^ a b c d e Turkey, Country Profile 2020. Climate Transparency (Report). 2020. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  3. ^ a b OECD (2019).
  4. ^ "Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) by source:Turkey". International Energy Agency. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  5. ^ "Who emits more than their share of CO₂ emissions?". Our World in Data. from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  6. ^ "Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions up 4.4% in 2016". Anadolu. from the original on 31 August 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  7. ^ a b IEA (March 2021). Turkey 2021 – Energy Policy Review (Technical report). International Energy Agency. from the original on 7 July 2022.
  8. ^ OECD (2019), p. 117.
  9. ^ OECD (2019), pp. 115, 116.
  10. ^ OECD (2019), p. 65.
  11. ^ "Shura 2023 report" (PDF). Shura. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
  12. ^ "Electricity generation by fuel: Turkey". IEA. from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  13. ^ "Turkey sees up to 20 bcm annual natural gas output from Black Sea". Daily Sabah. 7 June 2021. from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  14. ^ T.C. Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı. "Turkey's International Energy Strategy". T.C. Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
  15. ^ "CO2 emissions Turkey". IEA. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  16. ^ "Türkiye to increase energy investments with zero emission target". Hürriyet Daily News. 21 January 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
  17. ^ Öztürk, Sinan (21 January 2020). "Turkey Wealth Fund eyes becoming strategic investment arm of the country". Daily Sabah. from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
  18. ^ a b "Turkey's Energy Profile and Strategy". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Turkey). from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  19. ^ a b Turkey, Sigma (30 March 2020). "Turkey's Energy Outlook – A Snapshot". Sigma Turkey. from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
  20. ^ a b c "Energy pricing and non-market flows in Turkey's energy sector". SHURA Energy Transition Center. from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  21. ^ Sonmez, Mustafa (19 December 2019). "Turkey's energy miscalculations have hefty cost". Al-Monitor. from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  22. ^ "The hidden confessions in Turkey's strategic energy plan". www.duvarenglish.com. from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
  23. ^ "Türkiye'nin 2019-2023 Enerji Stratejisinde Enerji Dönüşümünün Yeri" [The role of Energy Transition in Turkey's 2019-2023 Energy Strategy]. epturkey (in Turkish). 15 May 2020. from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2021. Türkiye Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı, 11 Mayıs 2020'de "Stratejik Plan 2019-2023" yayınladı [The Energy Ministry published the 2019-2023 strategic plan on 11 May 2020]
  24. ^ "Turkey's foreign and security policy 'needs to support its energy goals'". Hürriyet. from the original on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
  25. ^ "Turkey 2018 Report" (PDF). European Commission. (PDF) from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  26. ^ [Balance Tables]. Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey). Archived from the original on 20 April 2022.
  27. ^ a b "Cobenefits". from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  28. ^ a b "Turkstream Impact on Turkey's Economy and Energy Security" (PDF). "Istanbul Economics" & "The Center for Economics and Foreign Policy" – EDAM. (PDF) from the original on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
  29. ^ "Turkey's energy import bill falls more than 4% in 2019". Daily Sabah. 6 February 2020. from the original on 7 February 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  30. ^ "Coal Power Plants". Coal in Turkey. from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  31. ^ "COVID-19's blow to energy markets". www.aa.com.tr. from the original on 28 April 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
  32. ^ a b "Azerbaijan Becomes Turkey's Top Gas Supplier". Modern Diplomacy. 21 August 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
  33. ^ Europe Beyond Coal (2020), p. 15.
  34. ^ Bayraktar, Alparslan (4 December 2018). "Analysis: Energy transition in Turkey". Hürriyet. from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  35. ^ a b c d e "A New Strategy for EU-Turkey Energy Cooperation". Turkish Policy Quarterly. 27 November 2018. from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  36. ^ Bavbek, Gökşin. "Assessing the Potential Effects of a Carbon Tax in Turkey" (PDF). EDAM Energy and Climate Change Climate Action Paper Series 2016/6. p. 9. (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  37. ^ Savaşkan, Osman (1 February 2021). "Political dynamics of local government reform in a development context: The case of Turkey". Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space. 39 (1): 204–225. doi:10.1177/2399654420943903. ISSN 2399-6544. S2CID 225507784.
  38. ^ "EBRD to finance electricity distribution network expansion in Turkey". Power Technology Energy News and Market Analysis. 20 December 2019. from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
  39. ^ "Number of licenses issued for gas exports from Turkey reaches 18". Daily Sabah. Anadolu Agency. 11 February 2020. from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  40. ^ "Turkey, China, US to build pumped-storage hydro plant". www.aa.com.tr. from the original on 11 April 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  41. ^ "Drought ramps up power output from gas in Turkey in 2020". Daily Sabah. 8 February 2021. from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
  42. ^ Saygılı, Hülya. "Renewable Energy Use in Turkey". CBRT blog. from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
  43. ^ Ayas (2020), p. 15.
  44. ^ Sever, S. Duygu. "Accelerating the Energy Transition in the Southern Mediterranean" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  45. ^ "Energy efficiency to raise savings in public sector". Daily Sabah. 8 December 2019. from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  46. ^ "Enhancing Turkey's policy framework for energy efficiency of buildings, and recommendations for the way forward based on international experiences" (PDF). Buildings Performance Institute Europe and SHURA Energy Transition Center. June 2019.
  47. ^ . Archived from the original on 8 March 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
  48. ^ Acar, Sevil; Challe, Sarah; Christopoulos, Stamatios; Christo, Giovanna (2018). (PDF). New Perspectives on Turkey. 58: 93–124. doi:10.1017/npt.2018.7. S2CID 149594404. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2020.
  49. ^ a b Climate Policy Factbook (Report). BloombergNEF. 20 July 2021. from the original on 7 July 2022.
  50. ^ "Turkey". Energy Policy Tracker. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  51. ^ Taylor, Damian CarringtonMatthew. "Revealed: the 'carbon bombs' set to trigger catastrophic climate breakdown". the Guardian. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  52. ^ "Analysis: New Turkish energy minister bullish for coal – but lira weakness limits market". S & P Global. 12 July 2018. from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  53. ^ "Court says 'environment report necessary' for planned coal mine in western Turkey". Demirören News Agency. 10 August 2018. from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  54. ^ "Fossil Fuel Support – TUR" 31 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine, OECD, accessed August 2018.
  55. ^ "Taxing Energy Use 2019 : Using Taxes for Climate Action". OECD. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  56. ^ "Kapasite mekanizmasıyla 2019'da 40 santrale 1.6 milyar lira ödendi" (in Turkish). Enerji Günlüğü. 6 February 2020. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  57. ^ Ergur, Semih (12 May 2023). "Turkey Spent Over $200,000,000 in Fossil Fuel Subsidies in 2022". Climate Scorecard. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  58. ^ "Taxing Energy Use 2019: Country Note – Turkey" (PDF). OECD. (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  59. ^ Leggett, Theo (21 January 2018). "Reality Check: Are diesel cars always the most harmful?". BBC News. from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  60. ^ Kulovic, Nermina (14 September 2020). "Turkey bringing in another drillship for Black Sea ops". Offshore Energy. from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
  61. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), p. 202.
  62. ^ "Turkey eyes risky energy partnership with Algeria – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East". www.al-monitor.com. 15 November 2022. from the original on 29 December 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
  63. ^ a b "A New Strategy for EU-Turkey Energy Cooperation". Turkish Policy Quarterly. 27 November 2018. from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  64. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), p. 313.
  65. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), p. 312.
  66. ^ "Turkey to continue gas drilling work around Cyprus: Foreign minister". Anadolu Agency. 16 October 2018. from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  67. ^ "Fossil Fuel Support – TUR" 31 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine, OECD, accessed August 2018.
  68. ^ Lawless, Ghislaine (24 February 2020). "What lies beneath: gas-pricing disputes and recent events in Southern Europe". Arbitration Blog. from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
  69. ^ a b "Elektri̇k Pi̇yasası Kapasi̇te Mekani̇zması Yönetmeli̇ği̇" [Electricity Market Capacity Mechanism Regulation: Article 1 and Article 6 clause 2) h)]. Resmî Gazete (30307). 20 January 2018.
  70. ^ "2021 Yılı Kapasite Mekanizmasından Yararlanacak Santraller Listesi" [Power stations benefiting from the capacity mechanism in 2021]. Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation. from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  71. ^ "2023'de 50 santral kapasite mekanizmasından yararlanacak" [TEİAŞ announces the 50 power plants to benefit from the capacity mechanism in 2023]. Enerji Günlüğü (in Turkish). 3 November 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
  72. ^ Şahin (2018), p. 37.
  73. ^ Tech review 7th communication (2019), p. 20.
  74. ^ "Yerli̇ Ve Mi̇lli̇ Enerji̇ Poli̇ti̇kaları Ekseni̇nde Kömür" [Coal on the Axis of Domestic and National Energy Policies] (PDF). SETAV. (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  75. ^ "Protest against coal power at Sirnak (Turkish)". from the original on 11 September 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  76. ^ "Emba Hunutlu coal power plant". Banktrack. from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  77. ^ "Afşin'de Yapılacak Olan C Termik Santral İçin Çin'li Ortaklar!" [Chinese partners for Afşin's to be constructed C thermal power plant!]. www.efsushaber.com (in Turkish). from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
  78. ^ "Turkish coal plants to widen their cost advantage in 2Q". www.argusmedia.com. 23 February 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  79. ^ Roberts, David (14 March 2020). "4 astonishing signs of coal's declining economic viability". Vox. from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
  80. ^ Sencan, Gokce (2017). "Political Reasoning and Mechanisms behind Turkey's Coal-Intensive Energy Policy in the Era of Renewables". University of California, Santa Barbara. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.24500.86407. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2020. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  81. ^ Eren, Ayşen (July 2018). "Transformation of the water-energy nexus in Turkey: Re-imagining hydroelectricity infrastructure". Energy Research & Social Science. 41: 22–31. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.04.013.
  82. ^ "Turkey's state energy companies to invest $1.5B in 2019". Daily Sabah. 18 October 2018. from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  83. ^ Pamuk, Humeyra. "Once darling of foreign investors, Turkey's power market struggles". Reuters. from the original on 11 October 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
  84. ^ Ergenç, Ceren; Göçer, Derya (5 May 2023). "China's Response to Türkiye's Volatile Authoritarianism". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  85. ^ Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report (Report). World Bank. 13 June 2022.
  86. ^ Agency, Anadolu (11 March 2020). "Solar rooftops expect to see 66% rise by year-end". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
  87. ^ Akyazı et al (2020), p. 6.
  88. ^ "Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review 2018" (PDF). International Renewable Energy Agency. (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
  89. ^ a b Lessons from global experiences for accelerating energy transition in Turkey through solar and wind power (PDF) (Report). Shura. (PDF) from the original on 20 February 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  90. ^ "Turkey to start local solar cell production on June 15". www.aa.com.tr. from the original on 23 March 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  91. ^ Grigoriadis, Theocharis N. "GREEN ENERGY & REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT II: POLICY & MARKET DESIGN CONSTRAINTS FOR THE TURKISH ENERGY SYSTEM" (PDF).
  92. ^ "Managing the Risks of Nuclear Energy: The Turkish Case". from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  93. ^ "Turkey sets up new nuclear regulator". Nuclear Engineering International. 13 July 2018. from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  94. ^ "Our Continuing Investments". Konya Şeker. from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  95. ^ "Turkey's Compliance with the Industrial Emissions Directive" (PDF). tepav. (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  96. ^ Hatipoglu, Hakan. "Inventory of LCPs in Turkey LCP Database explained and explored" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  97. ^ ŞahinTürkkan (2019), p. 30.
  98. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), p. 37.
  99. ^ "Coal Phase-out in the Turkish Power Sector towards net-zero emission targets: An Integrated Assessment of Energy-Economy-Environment Modeling" (PDF).
  100. ^ https://www.energyconnects.com/news/utilities/2023/september/turkey-turns-to-china-for-next-step-in-nuclear-construction/
  101. ^ "Turkey's trade deficit jumps 137 per cent in 2022". Duvar. 31 January 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
  102. ^ "Turkey Mid-Size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility (MidSEFF)". Stantec. from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  103. ^ Devranoglu, Nevzat; Butler, Daren (30 December 2022). "Factbox: Turkey's raft of pre-election spending to swell budget". Reuters. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
  104. ^ "2 milyon 22 bin ailenin 80 liraya kadar elektrik faturasını devlet ödeyecek". Diken. 28 February 2019. from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  105. ^ "IEA head: Turkey could benefit from energy resource glut in upcoming period". Daily Sabah. 30 December 2019. from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
  106. ^ "Global Coal Power Economics Model Methodology" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  107. ^ a b "Wind vs. Coal Power i Turkey/Solar PV vs. Coal in Turkey" (PDF). Carbon Tracker. 2020. (PDF) from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  108. ^ Energy Deals 2019 (Report). PricewaterhouseCoopers. February 2020. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  109. ^ TarantoAydınalp_KöksalDal (2020).
  110. ^ "Erdoğan announces discounts on residence electricity and natural gas prices ahead of Turkey's elections". Hürriyet Daily News. 25 December 2018. from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  111. ^ "Voters in Turkey keep energy policy in mind when voting: Survey". Hürriyet Daily News. 19 March 2019. from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  112. ^ "Total primary energy supply (TPES) by source, Turkey". International Energy Agency. from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  113. ^ "Lignite coal – health effects and recommendations from the health sector" (PDF). Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL). December 2018. (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  114. ^ "Coal". Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey). from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  115. ^ Ersoy (2019), p. 5.
  116. ^ "Turkey breaks local coal production record in 2018". Anadolu Agency. 16 January 2019. from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  117. ^ "Turkey transfers operating rights of seven coal fields to private companies". Hürriyet Daily News. 12 October 2018. from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  118. ^ IEA (March 2021). Turkey 2021 – Energy Policy Review (Technical report). International Energy Agency. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  119. ^ "Energy consumption by source, Turkey". Our World in Data. from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  120. ^ "Oil and Gas – Turkey". International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  121. ^ Adal, Hikmet (25 February 2022). "Russia-Ukraine war: How will it affect Turkey's economy?". Bianet. from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  122. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), pp. 203.
  123. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), pp. 206.
  124. ^ "Turkey's current account deficit at $4.1 bln in November; $48 billion in 2022". Reuters. 6 January 2023. from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
  125. ^ Bakheit, Nesreen; Imahashi, Rurika (9 June 2022). "China, India and Turkey to siphon more Russian oil ahead of EU ban". Nikkei Asia. from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  126. ^ Dezem, Vanessa (28 June 2022). "EU Gas Swings as Russia-Turkey Flows Resume While Risks Loom – BNN Bloomberg". BNN Bloomberg. from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  127. ^ Kulovic, Nermina (4 February 2022). "Turkish drillship wraps up all planned well tests on Black Sea gas field". Offshore Energy. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  128. ^ a b c IEA (March 2021). Turkey 2021 – Energy Policy Review (Technical report). International Energy Agency. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  129. ^ "Energy consumption by source, Turkey". Our World in Data. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  130. ^ a b "A Cold Winter: Turkey and the Global Natural Gas Shortage". Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies (Edam). 6 October 2021. from the original on 17 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  131. ^ a b "Ukraine War Complicates Turkey's Gas Challenge". Energy Intelligence. 9 March 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  132. ^ "Can Sakarya pave the way for Turkey's gas independence?". IHS Markit. 25 April 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  133. ^ Bakheit, Nesreen; Imahashi, Rurika (9 June 2022). "China, India and Turkey to siphon more Russian oil ahead of EU ban". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  134. ^ Dezem, Vanessa (28 June 2022). "EU Gas Swings as Russia-Turkey Flows Resume While Risks Loom". BNN Bloomberg. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  135. ^ Ergur, Semih (5 June 2022). "Increasing Usage of Natural Gas in Turkey and Its Effect on Local Economy". Climate Scorecard. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  136. ^ 2021 Natural Gas Distribution Sector Report (PDF). Natural Gas Distribution Companies Association of Turkey (GAZBİR) (Report).
  137. ^ Coskun, Orhan (31 March 2022). "Turkey may hike April industry, power plant gas prices more than 20% -sources". Reuters. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  138. ^ Aydın, Cem İskender (1 January 2020). "Nuclear energy debate in Turkey: Stakeholders, policy alternatives, and governance issues". Energy Policy. 136: 111041. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111041. ISSN 0301-4215.
  139. ^ "Nuclear Power in Turkey". www.world-nuclear.org. World Nuclear Association. from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  140. ^ "Atık Yakma ve Enerji Üretim Tesisi" (in Turkish). İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi - Atık Yönetimi Müdürlüğü. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
  141. ^ Dawood, Kamran (2016). "Hybrid wind-solar reliable solution for Turkey to meet electric demand". Balkan Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering. 4 (2): 62–66. doi:10.17694/bajece.06954. from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  142. ^ "Electricity". Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey). from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  143. ^ a b Saygılı, Hülya. "Renewable Energy Use in Turkey". CBRT blog. from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
  144. ^ "Turkish authorities aim to boost renewable power generation to 50 per cent by 2023". Daily Sabah. 24 August 2018. from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  145. ^ "How Turkey Can Ensure a Successful Energy Transition". Center for American Progress. from the original on 20 February 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  146. ^ Kilickaplan, Anil; Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Peker, Onur; Caldera, Upeksha; Aghahosseini, Arman; Breyer, Christian (1 December 2017). "An energy transition pathway for Turkey to achieve 100% renewable energy powered electricity, desalination and non-energetic industrial gas demand sectors by 2050". Solar Energy. 158: 218–235. Bibcode:2017SoEn..158..218K. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2017.09.030. ISSN 0038-092X.
  147. ^ "Energy use per person". Our World in Data. from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  148. ^ Turkstat report (2020), p. 32.
  149. ^ Çoban, Hasan Hüseyin (23 November 2020). "A 100% Renewable Energy System: The Case of Turkey In The Year 2050". from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  150. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), p. 319.
  151. ^ "Elektri̇k Pi̇yasasinda Yeni̇lenebi̇li̇r Enerji̇ Kaynak Garanti̇ Belgesi̇ Yönetmeli̇ği̇". www.resmigazete.gov.tr. from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  152. ^ Pitel, Laura; Bozorgmehr, Najmeh (24 January 2022). "Turkish industry hit by power cuts amid gas supply troubles". Financial Times. from the original on 28 January 2022.
  153. ^ Direskeneli, Haluk (29 November 2021). "Turkey: Energy And Infrastructure Forecasts For 2022 – OpEd". from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  154. ^ "Optimum electricity generation capacity mix for Turkey towards 2030" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2021.
  155. ^ Colak and Rotherham (2006). (PDF). Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 106 B (3): 343–354. doi:10.3318/BIOE.2006.106.3.343. S2CID 46955795. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2018.
  156. ^ Willcox, G. H. (1974). "A History of Deforestation as Indicated by Charcoal Analysis of Four Sites in Eastern Anatolia". Anatolian Studies. 24: 117–133. doi:10.2307/3642603. JSTOR 3642603. S2CID 131664221.
  157. ^ Hughes, J.D. (2010). "Ancient Deforestation Revisited". Journal of the History of Biology. 44 (1): 43–57. doi:10.1007/s10739-010-9247-3. PMID 20669043. S2CID 24975334.
  158. ^ "Conference Review: "Environmental History of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey", University of Hamburg, 27-28 October 2017". H Net.
  159. ^ Gümüşçü, Osman; Uğur, Abdullah; Aygören, Tülay (2014). "Deforestation in Sixteenth Century Anatolia: The Case of Hüdavendi̇gar (Bursa) Sancak". Belleten. 78 (281): 167–200. doi:10.37879/belleten.2014.167. ISSN 0041-4255. S2CID 245293300.
  160. ^ a b "Turkey – Countries & Regions". International Energy Agency. from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  161. ^ "BOTAŞ strategic plan 2015–2019" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  162. ^ Bauomy, Jasmin (8 January 2020). "Europe needs gas and Russia has it – the story behind the new pipeline". Euronews. from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
  163. ^ https://www.economist.com/business/2023/10/19/why-big-oil-is-beefing-up-its-trading-arms
Sources
  • Ayas, Ceren (August 2020). Decarbonization of Turkey's economy: long-term strategies and immediate challenges (Report). CAN Europe, SEE Change Net, TEPAV.
  • Akyazı, Pınar Ertör; Sperfeld, Franziska; Helgenberger, Sebastian; Şahin, Ümit; Nagel, Laura, eds. (December 2020). Cobenefits Policy Report: Unlocking the co-benefits of decarbonising Turkey's power sector (Report). IASS IPC/UfU.
  • Şahin, Ümit (February 2018). (PDF). Istanbul Policy Center (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  • Sarı, Ayşe Ceren and Değer Saygın (2018). On the way to efficiently supplying more than half of Turkey's electricity from renewables: Opportunities to strengthen the YEKA auction model for enhancing the regulatory framework of Turkey's power system transformation (PDF) (Report). SHURA Energy Transition Center. ISBN 978-605-2095-44-7.
  • Report on the technical review of the seventh national communication of Turkey (PDF). UNFCCC (Report). June 2019.
  • Şahin, Ümit; Türkkan, Seçil (January 2019). "Turkey's Climate Policies Have Reached a Deadlock: It Takes Courage to Resolve It" (PDF). saha. Vol. Special Issue 2. pp. 24–30. ISSN 2149-7885.
  • OECD (February 2019). OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Turkey 2019 (Report). OECD Environmental Performance Reviews. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264309753-en. ISBN 9789264309746.
  • BP Statistical Review of World Energy (PDF). BP (Report). 2019.
  • Difiglio, Prof. Carmine; Güray, Bora Şekip; Merdan, Ersin (November 2020). Turkey Energy Outlook. iicec.sabanciuniv.edu (Report). Sabanci University Istanbul International Center for Energy and Climate (IICEC). ISBN 978-605-70031-9-5.
  • Taranto, Yael; Aydınalp Köksal, Merih; Dal, Eda (December 2020). The external cost of fossil fuel use in power generation, heating and road transport in Turkey. SHURA Energy Transition Center (Report).

Further reading edit

  • National Energy Plan to 2035 published 2022

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Energy in Turkey.
  • Gas and electricity markets, generation and consumption up to date statistics
  • Shura energy transition graphs
  • Energy Market Regulatory Authority
  • Istanbul International Centre for Energy and Climate at Sabancı University
  • "Turkey", International Energy Agency
  • Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker

February 16, 2024
energy, turkey, energy, consumption, person, turkey, similar, world, average, over, cent, from, fossil, fuels, from, 1990, 2017, annual, primary, energy, supply, tripled, then, remained, constant, 2019, 2019, turkey, primary, energy, supply, included, around, . Energy consumption per person in Turkey is similar to the world average 1 2 and over 85 per cent is from fossil fuels 3 From 1990 to 2017 annual primary energy supply tripled but then remained constant to 2019 2 In 2019 Turkey s primary energy supply included around 30 per cent oil 30 per cent coal and 25 per cent gas 4 These fossil fuels contribute to Turkey s air pollution and its above average greenhouse gas emissions 5 6 Turkey mines its own lignite brown coal but imports three quarters of its energy including half the coal and almost all the oil and gas it requires and its energy policy prioritises reducing imports 7 Wind turbines on the island of Gokceada in the far west Energy consumption by source TurkeyThe OECD has criticised the lack of carbon pricing 8 fossil fuel subsidies 9 and the country s under utilized wind and solar potential 10 The country s electricity supplies 20 of its energy 11 and is generated mainly from coal gas and hydroelectricity with a small but growing amount from wind solar and geothermal 12 However Black Sea gas is forecast to meet all residential demand from the late 2020s 13 A nuclear power plant is also under construction and one half of installed power capacity is renewable energy 14 Despite this from 1990 to 2019 carbon dioxide CO2 emissions from fuel combustion rose from 130 megatonnes Mt to 360 Mt 15 In 2023 energy consumption was forecast to increase almost 40 in the following 12 years 16 Energy policy is to secure national energy supply 17 and reduce fossil fuel imports 18 which accounted for over 20 of the cost of Turkey s imports in 2019 19 and 75 per cent of the current account deficit 20 This also includes using energy efficiently However as of 2019 update little research has been done on the policies Turkey uses to reduce energy poverty which also include some subsidies for home heating and electricity use 21 Turkey s energy policies plan to give due consideration to environmental concerns all along the energy chain within the context of sustainable development 18 These plans have been criticised for being published over a year after work mentioned in it had started 22 23 not sufficiently involving the private sector 24 and for being inconsistent with Turkey s climate policy 25 Contents 1 Policy and regulation 1 1 Security of supply 1 2 Energy efficiency 1 3 Fossil fuel subsidies and taxes 1 3 1 Oil and gas subsidies and taxes 1 3 2 Coal subsidies and taxes 1 4 Politics 1 5 Energy transition 1 6 Health and the environment 2 Economics 3 Energy sources 3 1 Coal 3 2 Oil and gas 3 3 Nuclear 3 4 Waste 3 5 Renewable energy 4 Consumption 5 Electricity 6 History 7 Projections 8 See also 9 Further reading 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksPolicy and regulation edit nbsp Development of carbon dioxide emissionsSee also Electricity sector in Turkey Policy and regulation The Energy Market Regulatory Authority was created in 2001 Security of supply edit See also Economy of Turkey Energy security nbsp Primary energy supply in Turkey 2014 2020 26 Turkey meets a quarter of its energy demand from national resources 27 The Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies EDAM a think tank says that in the 2010s fossil fuel imports were probably the largest structural vulnerability of the country s economy 28 they cost 41 billion in 2019 representing about a fifth of Turkey s total import bill 29 and were a large part of the 2018 current account deficit 30 and the country s debt problems Although the country imports 99 of its natural gas and 93 of the petroleum it uses 31 in the early 2020s fossil gas supply was diversified to reduce dependence on Russia 32 To secure energy supply the government built new gas pipelines 28 and regasification plants For example gas supplies from Azerbaijan surpassed those from Russia in 2020 32 There is a large surplus of electricity generation capacity 33 however the government aims at meeting the forecast increase in demand for electricity in Turkey by building its first nuclear power plant and more solar wind hydro and coal fired power plants 34 The International Climate Initiative says that as an oil importer Turkey can increase security of supply by increasing the proportion of renewable electricity it produces 27 The International Energy Agency has suggested a carbon market 35 and EDAM says that in the long term a carbon tax would reduce import dependency by speeding development of national solar and wind energy 36 Because the Turkish government is very centralised 37 its energy policy is national Lack of transmission capacity was one cause of the nationwide blackout in 2015 therefore policy includes improving electricity transmission 38 As well as natural gas storage and regasification plants to convert imported liquid natural gas LNG to natural gas 39 the government supports pumped storage hydroelectricity for long term energy storage 40 In 2020 renewables generated 40 of Turkey s electricity which reduced gas import costs but being mainly hydroelectricity the amount that can be produced is vulnerable to drought 41 According to Hulya Saygili an economist at Turkey s central bank although imports of solar and wind power components accounted for 12 of import costs in 2017 in EU countries this is largely due to one time setup costs She said that compared with Italy and Greece Turkey has not invested enough in solar and wind power 42 Energy efficiency edit nbsp Karabuk Solar Energy FarmThe National Energy Efficiency plan aims to decrease Turkey s energy intensity the energy required to produce 1 Turkish lira of GDP to the OECD average by 2023 43 Despite the Energy Efficiency Law and a target to reduce its energy intensity by at least 20 between 2011 and 2023 between 2005 and 2015 Turkey s energy intensity increased by seven per cent 35 According to one study if energy policy was changed most importantly the removal of fossil fuel subsidies at least 20 of energy costs could be saved 44 and according to the Chamber of Mechanical Engineers the energy required for buildings could be cut by half 19 In 2019 Energy Minister Fatih Donmez said that improvement of the energy efficiency of public buildings should take the lead and that efficiency improvements are an important source of jobs 45 It has been suggested that more specific energy efficiency targets for buildings are needed 46 According to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Turkey has the potential to cut 15 to 20 of total consumption through energy conservation 47 Fossil fuel subsidies and taxes edit In the 21st century Turkey s fossil fuel subsidies are around 0 2 of GDP 48 49 29 including at least US 14 billion US 169 per person between January 2020 and September 2021 50 If unpaid damages such as health damage from air pollution are included road fuel subsidy is estimated at over 400 dollars per person per year and for all fossil fuels over one thousand dollars 51 Data on finance for fossil fuels by state owned banks and export credit agencies is not public 49 32 The energy minister Fatih Donmez supports coal 52 53 and most energy subsidies are for coal 54 which the OECD has strongly criticised 55 Capacity mechanism payments to coal fired power stations in Turkey in 2019 totalled 720 million US 130 million compared to 542 million US 96 million to gas fired power stations in Turkey 56 In 2022 these payments totalled over US 200 million 57 As of 2020 update the tax per unit energy on gasoline was higher than diesel 58 despite diesel cars on average emitting more lung damaging NOx nitrogen oxide 59 Oil and gas subsidies and taxes edit This section is an excerpt from Oil in Turkey Subsidies and taxes edit nbsp The Kanuni is an offshore deep sea drilling ship 60 In Turkey tax levied on diesel is lower than that on petrol and it has been suggested by the Istanbul International Centre for Energy and Climate at Sabanci University that taxes on diesel and petrol should be more closely aligned with each other to minimise imports because Turkey has enough petrol refining capacity 61 In 2022 the Turkish Energy Minister said Turkey and Algeria would create a joint oil and gas exploration company 62 This section is an excerpt from Gas in Turkey Subsidies and taxes edit The wholesale gas market is not as competitive in Turkey as it is in the EU some analysts say that this is because the government does not want to split up the state owned gas company BOTAS or give other power companies fair use of BOTAS pipelines 63 They say Turkey has not joined the European gas network ENTSO G because joining would require this unbundling 63 BOTAS controls over 90 of the natural gas market 64 and is the gas infrastructure regulator and the only operator of gas transmission 65 Exploration for gas in the Eastern Mediterranean is subsidised 66 67 and is a cause of geopolitical tension because of the Cyprus dispute 68 A capacity market or capacity mechanism for electricity is payments to make sure that sufficient firm power is available to satisfy peaks in demand such as late afternoon air conditioning in August Because gas fired power stations can usually ramp up and down quickly they are one way of ensuring supply at times of peak demand Some other countries also have capacity markets but Turkey s has been criticised The government says the purpose of capacity market payments is to secure national electricity supply 69 However despite almost all natural gas being imported some gas fired power plants received capacity payments in 2021 whereas some non fossil firm power such as demand response could not 69 70 17 gas fired power stations were eligible for capacity payments in 2023 71 Coal subsidies and taxes edit Coal in Turkey is heavily subsidized 72 As of 2019 update the government aims to keep the share of coal in the energy portfolio at around the same level in the medium to long term 73 Coal s place in the government s energy policy was detailed in 2019 by the Foundation for Political Economic and Social Research SETA an organisation that lobbies for the Turkish government 74 Despite protests against coal power plants 75 construction of Emba Hunutlu was subsidized 76 and in 2021 Turkey s sovereign wealth fund was still hoping for Chinese partners to start constructing Afsin Elibistan C 77 Even in cities where natural gas is available the government supports poor households with free coal 20 Electricity from plants which are 40 efficient and burn imported coal never costs less than around 25 USD MWh to generate because if the coal costs under 70 USD tonne it is taxed to bring it up to that price 78 Politics edit Without subsidies new and some existing coal power would be unprofitable and it is claimed that path dependence or past decisions political influence and distorted markets are why they continue 79 Although the coal industry and the government are said to have a close relationship the falling cost of wind and solar may increase pressure against maintaining coal subsidies 80 Hydroelectric plants especially new ones are sometimes controversial in local international and environmental politics 81 The EU might persuade Turkey to cooperate on climate change by supporting policies that reduce the country s external energy dependency in a sustainable manner 35 State energy companies include Eti Mine Turkish Coal Enterprises Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises the Electricity Generation Company BOTAS and TEIAS the electricity trading and transmission company 82 The government holds a quarter of total installed electricity supply and often offers prices below market levels 83 Energy deals such as those with Russia are said to be politically motivated 84 Energy transition edit See also Nuclear energy in Turkey and Renewable energy in Turkey The World Bank has estimated the cost and benefits but has suggested government do far more detailed planning 85 60 000 people are employed as of 2020 update and it is estimated employment could be boosted to 80 000 if rooftop solar is boosted 86 nbsp A wind farm in Gaziantep ProvinceAccording to the International Renewable Energy Agency and academic study increasing the share of renewable energy could make the country more energy independent and increase employment 87 especially in Turkey s solar PV and solar heating industries 88 SHURA Energy Transition Center said in 2018 that a plan for solar power in Turkey beyond 2023 is needed 89 In an attempt to reduce fossil fuel imports the government supports local production of electric cars and solar cells 90 Some academics say that funding for renewables such as wind should be decentralized 91 For three decades from 1990 carbon intensity remained almost constant around 61 tCO2 TJ tons of carbon dioxide per terajoule 2 Nuclear safety regulations and human resources could be improved 92 by cooperation with Euratom European Atomic Energy Community 35 In 2018 a new regulator was set up for nuclear power safety and 0 15 per kWh of generated electricity will be set aside for waste management 93 Health and the environment edit Main articles Air pollution in Turkey Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey and Climate change in Turkey Retrofitting equipment for pollution control such as flue gas desulfurization at old lignite fuelled plants like Soma power station 94 might not be financially possible as they use outdated technology 95 The government collects data on sulfur dioxide SO2 NOx and particulate air pollution from each large plant 96 but it is not published The energy policy aim of reducing imports e g of gas conflicts with the climate change policy aim of reducing the emission of greenhouse gases as some local resources e g lignite emit a lot of CO2 According to Umit Sahin who teaches climate change at Sabanci University Turkey must abandon fossil fuel completely and switch to 100 renewable energy by 2050 97 Economics editSee also Electricity sector in Turkey Economics and finance nbsp According to some studies a coal phase out in favour of renewable energy would increase employment 98 99 Turkey s energy import bill was almost US80 billion in 2022 100 causing a large foreign trade deficit 101 Europe supports energy efficiency and renewable energy via the 1 billion Mid size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility MidSEFF to finance investments in these areas 35 102 Energy subsidies amounted to 200 billion lira in 2021 103 Up to 150kWh per month of free electricity is provided to two million poor families 104 Fatih Birol the head of the International Energy Agency said in 2019 that because of its falling price the focus should be on maximizing onshore wind power in Turkey 105 The economics of coal power has been modelled by Carbon Tracker 106 They estimate that for new plants both wind and solar is already cheaper than coal power 107 And they forecast that existing coal plants will be more expensive than new solar by 2023 and new wind by 2027 107 Most energy deals in 2019 were for renewables and over half the investment in these was from outside the country 108 The external costs of fossil fuel consumption in 2018 has been estimated as 1 5 of GDP 109 The government sets the price of residential gas and electricity 110 and as of 2018 update for residential consumers high cost is the most important problem of Turkey s energy system 111 Energy sources editCoal edit Main article Coal in Turkey nbsp Tufanbeyli coal fired power station AdanaCoal supplies over a quarter of Turkey s primary energy 112 Every year thousands of people die prematurely from coal related causes the most common of which is local air pollution Most coal mined in Turkey is lignite brown coal which is more polluting than other types of coal 113 Turkey s energy policy encourages mining lignite for coal fired power stations to reduce gas imports 114 and coal supplies over 40 of domestic energy production 115 Mining peaked in 2018 at over 100 million tonnes 116 and declined considerably in 2019 20 In contrast to local lignite production Turkey imports almost all of the bituminous coal it uses The largest coalfield in Turkey is Elbistan 117 Oil and gas edit This section is an excerpt from Oil in Turkey edit nbsp Tankers like this one in the Bosporus are one way to export oil from Central AsiaOil supplies over a quarter of Turkey s energy 118 119 Because the country produces very little oil 120 it is almost completely dependent on imports of oil and oil products such as petrol and diesel 121 over half of which is consumed in the country s road vehicles 122 Turkey is the world s largest user of liquefied petroleum gas LPG for road transport 123 Because Turkey produces only 7 of the oil it consumes the country s total imports are worth more than its exports which is a problem for its economy 124 After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine several European countries stopped buying Russian oil petrol and diesel but Turkey s relations with Russia are such it continues to buy all three 125 126 This section is an excerpt from Gas in Turkey edit nbsp The Kanuni has drilled in the Black Sea 127 Fossil gas supplies over a quarter of Turkey s energy 128 129 The country consumes 50 to 60 billion cubic metres of this natural gas each year 130 131 nearly all of which is imported A large gas field in the Black Sea however started production in 2023 132 After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine several European countries stopped buying Russian oil or gas but Turkey s relations with Russia are good enough that it continues to buy both 133 134 Turkey receives almost half of its gas from Russia 131 As of 2023 update wholesale gas is expensive and a large part of the import bill Households buy the most gas followed by industry and power stations 135 Over 80 of the population has access to gas 136 and it supplies half the country s heating requirements 130 As the state owned oil and gas wholesaler BOTAS has 80 of the gas market 128 16 the government can and does subsidize residential and industrial gas consumers 137 All industrial and commercial customers and households using more than a certain amount of gas can switch suppliers 128 Nuclear edit nbsp nbsp Akkuyu nbsp Sinop nbsp Igneadaclass notpageimage Nuclear power stations in Turkey view nbsp Under construction nbsp Proposed Main article Nuclear power in Turkey There is no nuclear power in Turkey yet but Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being built and is expected to start selling power in 2023 The nuclear power debate has a long history with the 2018 construction start in Mersin Province being the sixth major attempt to build a nuclear power plant since 1960 138 Plans for a nuclear plant in Sinop and another at Igneada have stalled 139 Waste edit In 2021 the Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul opened country s first waste to energy plant The Istanbul Waste Power Plant is capable of generating 175 MW h electrical and 175 MW h thermal energy by 3 000 tons waste incineration daily 140 Renewable energy edit Main article Renewable energy in Turkey nbsp Solar panels on an Izmir train station roof the country has the potential to get a large part of its energy from the sun Although there are plenty of renewable resources for energy in Turkey 141 only hydropower has been developed to any degree supplying an average of about 20 of Turkey s national electricity supply 89 with other renewables supplying 12 142 However due to drought in Turkey hydro has supplied less electricity than usual in recent years 143 compared to around a third in a wet year 144 Turkey has invested less in solar and wind power than similar Mediterranean countries 143 Turkey is a net exporter of wind power equipment but a net importer of solar power equipment 145 By greatly increasing its production of solar power in the south and wind power in the west the country s entire energy demand could be met from renewable sources by 2050 146 Consumption editConsumption of energy in Turkey is around the world average of about seventy gigajoules GJ per person per year 147 2 In total Turkey uses about six billion GJ of primary energy per year 2 148 over 80 from fossil fuels 3 As of 2020 update more than 25 of energy is used in buildings of which over 80 is for heating 149 Heating is the main use for geothermal power in Turkey Gas consumption is concentrated in the north west due to the concentration of industry and the population in Istanbul 150 The government introduced a green electricity tariff in 2021 151 Electricity editThese paragraphs are an excerpt from Electricity sector in Turkey edit Turkey uses more electricity per person than the global average but less than the European average with demand peaking in summer due to air conditioning Most electricity is generated from coal gas and hydropower with hydroelectricity from the east transmitted to big cities in the west Electricity prices are state controlled but wholesale prices are heavily influenced by the cost of imported gas Each year about 300 terawatt hours TWh of electricity is used which is almost a quarter of the total energy used in Turkey On average about four hundred grams of carbon dioxide is emitted per kilowatt hour of electricity generated 400 gCO2 kWh this carbon intensity is slightly less than the global average As there is 100 GW of generating capacity far more electricity could be produced Although only a tiny proportion is exported consumption is forecast to increase and there are plans for more exports during the 2020s Turkey s coal fired power stations are the largest source of the country s greenhouse gas emissions Many brown coal power stations are subsidized which increases air pollution Imports of gas mostly for Turkey s power stations are one of the main expenses for the country In winter electricity generation is vulnerable to reductions in the gas supply from other countries 152 153 Solar and wind power are now the cheapest generators of electricity 154 and more of both are being built If enough solar and wind power is built the country s hydroelectric plants should be enough to cover windless cloudy weeks Renewables generate a third of the country s electricity and academics have suggested that the target of 32 renewable energy by 2030 be increased to 50 and that coal power should be phased out by the mid 2030s Increased use of electric vehicles is expected to increase electricity demand History editSee also Coal in Turkey History Four thousand years ago most of what is now Turkey was forested 155 Deforestation occurred during both prehistoric 156 and historic times including the Roman 157 and Ottoman 158 periods The forests were cut down by people partly to burn wood for heating 159 Coal has been burnt since late Ottoman times During the late 20th and early 21st centuries the country was very exposed to oil and gas price volatility 160 Around the turn of the century many gas fired power plants were built and BOTAS extended the national gas pipeline network to most of the urban population 161 As Turkey had almost no natural gas of its own this increased import dependency particularly on Russian gas 162 Therefore many more regasification plants and gas storage such as the gas storage at Lake Tuz were built in the early 21st century thus ensuring a much longer buffer should the main international import pipelines be cut for any reason However growth in Turkish electricity demand has often been overestimated Although much energy infrastructure was privatised in the late 20th and early 21st centuries energy is still highly state controlled 160 Projections editIn 2021 the International Energy Agency recommended Turkey includes further electrification in integrated scenario planning 7 3 Mckinsey suggested in 2023 that Turkey may become part of a bloc along with China and India buying fuel from Russia 163 See also editEnvironmental issues in Turkey Historical Tarsus hydroelectric power plant Global Energy MonitorFurther reading editNational Energy Plan published 2023 Energy Outlook 2022 See also tr Turkiye Sinai Kalkinma BankasiReferences edit Energy use per person Our World in Data Archived from the original on 28 November 2020 Retrieved 2 December 2020 a b c d e Turkey Country Profile 2020 Climate Transparency Report 2020 Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 2 December 2020 a b OECD 2019 Total Primary Energy Supply TPES by source Turkey International Energy Agency Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Who emits more than their share of CO emissions Our World in Data Archived from the original on 19 December 2019 Retrieved 11 January 2021 Turkey s greenhouse gas emissions up 4 4 in 2016 Anadolu Archived from the original on 31 August 2019 Retrieved 11 January 2021 a b IEA March 2021 Turkey 2021 Energy Policy Review Technical report International Energy Agency Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 OECD 2019 p 117 OECD 2019 pp 115 116 OECD 2019 p 65 Shura 2023 report PDF Shura Retrieved 11 May 2023 Electricity generation by fuel Turkey IEA Archived from the original on 30 December 2019 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Turkey sees up to 20 bcm annual natural gas output from Black Sea Daily Sabah 7 June 2021 Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 Retrieved 3 July 2021 T C Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanligi Turkey s International Energy Strategy T C Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanligi Retrieved 23 April 2021 CO2 emissions Turkey IEA Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Turkiye to increase energy investments with zero emission target Hurriyet Daily News 21 January 2023 Retrieved 21 January 2023 Ozturk Sinan 21 January 2020 Turkey Wealth Fund eyes becoming strategic investment arm of the country Daily Sabah Archived from the original on 22 January 2020 Retrieved 2 April 2020 a b Turkey s Energy Profile and Strategy Ministry of Foreign Affairs Turkey Archived from the original on 16 February 2020 Retrieved 11 March 2020 a b Turkey Sigma 30 March 2020 Turkey s Energy Outlook A Snapshot Sigma Turkey Archived from the original on 3 July 2020 Retrieved 2 July 2020 a b c Energy pricing and non market flows in Turkey s energy sector SHURA Energy Transition Center Archived from the original on 6 August 2020 Retrieved 11 January 2021 Sonmez Mustafa 19 December 2019 Turkey s energy miscalculations have hefty cost Al Monitor Archived from the original on 21 December 2019 Retrieved 21 December 2019 The hidden confessions in Turkey s strategic energy plan www duvarenglish com Archived from the original on 4 July 2020 Retrieved 4 July 2020 Turkiye nin 2019 2023 Enerji Stratejisinde Enerji Donusumunun Yeri The role of Energy Transition in Turkey s 2019 2023 Energy Strategy epturkey in Turkish 15 May 2020 Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 Retrieved 3 July 2021 Turkiye Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanligi 11 Mayis 2020 de Stratejik Plan 2019 2023 yayinladi The Energy Ministry published the 2019 2023 strategic plan on 11 May 2020 Turkey s foreign and security policy needs to support its energy goals Hurriyet Archived from the original on 15 October 2018 Retrieved 15 October 2018 Turkey 2018 Report PDF European Commission Archived PDF from the original on 11 January 2021 Retrieved 11 January 2021 Denge Tablolari Balance Tables Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Turkey Archived from the original on 20 April 2022 a b Cobenefits Archived from the original on 26 February 2020 Retrieved 11 March 2020 a b Turkstream Impact on Turkey s Economy and Energy Security PDF Istanbul Economics amp The Center for Economics and Foreign Policy EDAM Archived PDF from the original on 15 October 2018 Retrieved 26 October 2018 Turkey s energy import bill falls more than 4 in 2019 Daily Sabah 6 February 2020 Archived from the original on 7 February 2020 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Coal Power Plants Coal in Turkey Archived from the original on 16 October 2018 Retrieved 16 October 2018 COVID 19 s blow to energy markets www aa com tr Archived from the original on 28 April 2020 Retrieved 5 May 2020 a b Azerbaijan Becomes Turkey s Top Gas Supplier Modern Diplomacy 21 August 2020 Retrieved 30 April 2021 Europe Beyond Coal 2020 p 15 Bayraktar Alparslan 4 December 2018 Analysis Energy transition in Turkey Hurriyet Archived from the original on 2 December 2019 Retrieved 21 April 2020 a b c d e A New Strategy for EU Turkey Energy Cooperation Turkish Policy Quarterly 27 November 2018 Archived from the original on 21 December 2018 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Bavbek Goksin Assessing the Potential Effects of a Carbon Tax in Turkey PDF EDAM Energy and Climate Change Climate Action Paper Series 2016 6 p 9 Archived PDF from the original on 2 October 2018 Retrieved 16 October 2018 Savaskan Osman 1 February 2021 Political dynamics of local government reform in a development context The case of Turkey Environment and Planning C Politics and Space 39 1 204 225 doi 10 1177 2399654420943903 ISSN 2399 6544 S2CID 225507784 EBRD to finance electricity distribution network expansion in Turkey Power Technology Energy News and Market Analysis 20 December 2019 Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 Retrieved 12 March 2020 Number of licenses issued for gas exports from Turkey reaches 18 Daily Sabah Anadolu Agency 11 February 2020 Archived from the original on 12 February 2020 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Turkey China US to build pumped storage hydro plant www aa com tr Archived from the original on 11 April 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 Drought ramps up power output from gas in Turkey in 2020 Daily Sabah 8 February 2021 Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 Retrieved 21 May 2021 Saygili Hulya Renewable Energy Use in Turkey CBRT blog Archived from the original on 18 February 2019 Retrieved 17 February 2019 Ayas 2020 p 15 Sever S Duygu Accelerating the Energy Transition in the Southern Mediterranean PDF Archived PDF from the original on 2 November 2019 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Energy efficiency to raise savings in public sector Daily Sabah 8 December 2019 Archived from the original on 9 December 2019 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Enhancing Turkey s policy framework for energy efficiency of buildings and recommendations for the way forward based on international experiences PDF Buildings Performance Institute Europe and SHURA Energy Transition Center June 2019 Turkey Promotes Energy Conservation Archived from the original on 8 March 2014 Retrieved 8 March 2014 Acar Sevil Challe Sarah Christopoulos Stamatios Christo Giovanna 2018 Fossil fuel subsidies as a lose lose Fiscal and environmental burdens in Turkey PDF New Perspectives on Turkey 58 93 124 doi 10 1017 npt 2018 7 S2CID 149594404 Archived from the original PDF on 27 February 2020 a b Climate Policy Factbook Report BloombergNEF 20 July 2021 Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 Turkey Energy Policy Tracker Retrieved 15 November 2021 Taylor Damian CarringtonMatthew Revealed the carbon bombs set to trigger catastrophic climate breakdown the Guardian Retrieved 13 May 2022 Analysis New Turkish energy minister bullish for coal but lira weakness limits market S amp P Global 12 July 2018 Archived from the original on 29 October 2020 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Court says environment report necessary for planned coal mine in western Turkey Demiroren News Agency 10 August 2018 Archived from the original on 16 October 2018 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Fossil Fuel Support TUR Archived 31 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine OECD accessed August 2018 Taxing Energy Use 2019 Using Taxes for Climate Action OECD Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 13 April 2020 Kapasite mekanizmasiyla 2019 da 40 santrale 1 6 milyar lira odendi in Turkish Enerji Gunlugu 6 February 2020 Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Ergur Semih 12 May 2023 Turkey Spent Over 200 000 000 in Fossil Fuel Subsidies in 2022 Climate Scorecard Retrieved 25 September 2023 Taxing Energy Use 2019 Country Note Turkey PDF OECD Archived PDF from the original on 24 September 2020 Retrieved 11 January 2021 Leggett Theo 21 January 2018 Reality Check Are diesel cars always the most harmful BBC News Archived from the original on 16 July 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 Kulovic Nermina 14 September 2020 Turkey bringing in another drillship for Black Sea ops Offshore Energy Archived from the original on 20 September 2022 Retrieved 18 September 2022 DifiglioGurayMerdan 2020 p 202 Turkey eyes risky energy partnership with Algeria Al Monitor Independent trusted coverage of the Middle East www al monitor com 15 November 2022 Archived from the original on 29 December 2022 Retrieved 29 December 2022 a b A New Strategy for EU Turkey Energy Cooperation Turkish Policy Quarterly 27 November 2018 Archived from the original on 21 December 2018 Retrieved 21 April 2020 DifiglioGurayMerdan 2020 p 313 DifiglioGurayMerdan 2020 p 312 Turkey to continue gas drilling work around Cyprus Foreign minister Anadolu Agency 16 October 2018 Archived from the original on 22 January 2020 Retrieved 11 January 2021 Fossil Fuel Support TUR Archived 31 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine OECD accessed August 2018 Lawless Ghislaine 24 February 2020 What lies beneath gas pricing disputes and recent events in Southern Europe Arbitration Blog Archived from the original on 8 August 2020 Retrieved 9 March 2020 a b Elektri k Pi yasasi Kapasi te Mekani zmasi Yonetmeli gi Electricity Market Capacity Mechanism Regulation Article 1 and Article 6 clause 2 h Resmi Gazete 30307 20 January 2018 2021 Yili Kapasite Mekanizmasindan Yararlanacak Santraller Listesi Power stations benefiting from the capacity mechanism in 2021 Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 Retrieved 6 July 2021 2023 de 50 santral kapasite mekanizmasindan yararlanacak TEIAS announces the 50 power plants to benefit from the capacity mechanism in 2023 Enerji Gunlugu in Turkish 3 November 2022 Retrieved 9 December 2022 Sahin 2018 p 37 Tech review 7th communication 2019 p 20 Yerli Ve Mi lli Enerji Poli ti kalari Ekseni nde Komur Coal on the Axis of Domestic and National Energy Policies PDF SETAV Archived PDF from the original on 14 February 2019 Retrieved 13 February 2019 Protest against coal power at Sirnak Turkish Archived from the original on 11 September 2019 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Emba Hunutlu coal power plant Banktrack Archived from the original on 21 December 2019 Retrieved 11 March 2020 Afsin de Yapilacak Olan C Termik Santral Icin Cin li Ortaklar Chinese partners for Afsin s to be constructed C thermal power plant www efsushaber com in Turkish Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 Retrieved 21 May 2021 Turkish coal plants to widen their cost advantage in 2Q www argusmedia com 23 February 2021 Retrieved 1 March 2021 Roberts David 14 March 2020 4 astonishing signs of coal s declining economic viability Vox Archived from the original on 18 March 2020 Retrieved 21 March 2020 Sencan Gokce 2017 Political Reasoning and Mechanisms behind Turkey s Coal Intensive Energy Policy in the Era of Renewables University of California Santa Barbara doi 10 13140 RG 2 2 24500 86407 Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 21 April 2020 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Eren Aysen July 2018 Transformation of the water energy nexus in Turkey Re imagining hydroelectricity infrastructure Energy Research amp Social Science 41 22 31 doi 10 1016 j erss 2018 04 013 Turkey s state energy companies to invest 1 5B in 2019 Daily Sabah 18 October 2018 Archived from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Pamuk Humeyra Once darling of foreign investors Turkey s power market struggles Reuters Archived from the original on 11 October 2018 Retrieved 11 October 2018 Ergenc Ceren Gocer Derya 5 May 2023 China s Response to Turkiye s Volatile Authoritarianism Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Turkiye Country Climate and Development Report Report World Bank 13 June 2022 Agency Anadolu 11 March 2020 Solar rooftops expect to see 66 rise by year end Daily Sabah Retrieved 23 March 2020 Akyazi et al 2020 p 6 Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review 2018 PDF International Renewable Energy Agency Archived PDF from the original on 21 January 2019 Retrieved 28 February 2019 a b Lessons from global experiences for accelerating energy transition in Turkey through solar and wind power PDF Report Shura Archived PDF from the original on 20 February 2019 Retrieved 19 February 2019 Turkey to start local solar cell production on June 15 www aa com tr Archived from the original on 23 March 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 Grigoriadis Theocharis N GREEN ENERGY amp REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT II POLICY amp MARKET DESIGN CONSTRAINTS FOR THE TURKISH ENERGY SYSTEM PDF Managing the Risks of Nuclear Energy The Turkish Case Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 Retrieved 11 March 2020 Turkey sets up new nuclear regulator Nuclear Engineering International 13 July 2018 Archived from the original on 9 January 2021 Retrieved 11 January 2021 Our Continuing Investments Konya Seker Archived from the original on 10 November 2018 Retrieved 18 October 2018 Turkey s Compliance with the Industrial Emissions Directive PDF tepav Archived PDF from the original on 31 August 2019 Retrieved 18 October 2018 Hatipoglu Hakan Inventory of LCPs in Turkey LCP Database explained and explored PDF Archived PDF from the original on 19 October 2018 Retrieved 18 October 2018 SahinTurkkan 2019 p 30 DifiglioGurayMerdan 2020 p 37 Coal Phase out in the Turkish Power Sector towards net zero emission targets An Integrated Assessment of Energy Economy Environment Modeling PDF https www energyconnects com news utilities 2023 september turkey turns to china for next step in nuclear construction Turkey s trade deficit jumps 137 per cent in 2022 Duvar 31 January 2023 Retrieved 12 June 2023 Turkey Mid Size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility MidSEFF Stantec Archived from the original on 24 October 2020 Retrieved 12 January 2021 Devranoglu Nevzat Butler Daren 30 December 2022 Factbox Turkey s raft of pre election spending to swell budget Reuters Retrieved 31 December 2022 2 milyon 22 bin ailenin 80 liraya kadar elektrik faturasini devlet odeyecek Diken 28 February 2019 Archived from the original on 28 February 2019 Retrieved 21 April 2020 IEA head Turkey could benefit from energy resource glut in upcoming period Daily Sabah 30 December 2019 Archived from the original on 31 December 2019 Retrieved 12 March 2020 Global Coal Power Economics Model Methodology PDF Archived PDF from the original on 21 March 2020 Retrieved 21 April 2020 a b Wind vs Coal Power i Turkey Solar PV vs Coal in Turkey PDF Carbon Tracker 2020 Archived PDF from the original on 18 March 2020 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Energy Deals 2019 Report PricewaterhouseCoopers February 2020 Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 12 January 2021 TarantoAydinalp KoksalDal 2020 Erdogan announces discounts on residence electricity and natural gas prices ahead of Turkey s elections Hurriyet Daily News 25 December 2018 Archived from the original on 27 December 2019 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Voters in Turkey keep energy policy in mind when voting Survey Hurriyet Daily News 19 March 2019 Archived from the original on 9 June 2020 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Total primary energy supply TPES by source Turkey International Energy Agency Archived from the original on 1 April 2020 Retrieved 28 March 2020 Lignite coal health effects and recommendations from the health sector PDF Health and Environment Alliance HEAL December 2018 Archived PDF from the original on 11 December 2018 Retrieved 10 January 2019 Coal Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Turkey Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 1 November 2020 Ersoy 2019 p 5 Turkey breaks local coal production record in 2018 Anadolu Agency 16 January 2019 Archived from the original on 3 February 2019 Retrieved 2 February 2019 Turkey transfers operating rights of seven coal fields to private companies Hurriyet Daily News 12 October 2018 Archived from the original on 12 October 2018 Retrieved 12 October 2018 IEA March 2021 Turkey 2021 Energy Policy Review Technical report International Energy Agency Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 19 December 2021 Energy consumption by source Turkey Our World in Data Archived from the original on 1 April 2023 Retrieved 2 August 2022 Oil and Gas Turkey International Trade Administration U S Department of Commerce Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 Retrieved 2 August 2022 Adal Hikmet 25 February 2022 Russia Ukraine war How will it affect Turkey s economy Bianet Archived from the original on 25 February 2022 Retrieved 4 March 2022 DifiglioGurayMerdan 2020 pp 203 DifiglioGurayMerdan 2020 pp 206 Turkey s current account deficit at 4 1 bln in November 48 billion in 2022 Reuters 6 January 2023 Archived from the original on 8 January 2023 Retrieved 8 January 2023 Bakheit Nesreen Imahashi Rurika 9 June 2022 China India and Turkey to siphon more Russian oil ahead of EU ban Nikkei Asia Archived from the original on 9 March 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2022 Dezem Vanessa 28 June 2022 EU Gas Swings as Russia Turkey Flows Resume While Risks Loom BNN Bloomberg BNN Bloomberg Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2022 Kulovic Nermina 4 February 2022 Turkish drillship wraps up all planned well tests on Black Sea gas field Offshore Energy Retrieved 2 March 2023 a b c IEA March 2021 Turkey 2021 Energy Policy Review Technical report International Energy Agency Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 19 December 2021 Energy consumption by source Turkey Our World in Data Retrieved 2 August 2022 a b A Cold Winter Turkey and the Global Natural Gas Shortage Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies Edam 6 October 2021 Archived from the original on 17 December 2021 Retrieved 19 December 2021 a b Ukraine War Complicates Turkey s Gas Challenge Energy Intelligence 9 March 2022 Retrieved 7 July 2022 Can Sakarya pave the way for Turkey s gas independence IHS Markit 25 April 2023 Retrieved 29 September 2023 Bakheit Nesreen Imahashi Rurika 9 June 2022 China India and Turkey to siphon more Russian oil ahead of EU ban Nikkei Asia Retrieved 7 July 2022 Dezem Vanessa 28 June 2022 EU Gas Swings as Russia Turkey Flows Resume While Risks Loom BNN Bloomberg Retrieved 7 July 2022 Ergur Semih 5 June 2022 Increasing Usage of Natural Gas in Turkey and Its Effect on Local Economy Climate Scorecard Retrieved 14 July 2022 2021 Natural Gas Distribution Sector Report PDF Natural Gas Distribution Companies Association of Turkey GAZBIR Report Coskun Orhan 31 March 2022 Turkey may hike April industry power plant gas prices more than 20 sources Reuters Retrieved 14 July 2022 Aydin Cem Iskender 1 January 2020 Nuclear energy debate in Turkey Stakeholders policy alternatives and governance issues Energy Policy 136 111041 doi 10 1016 j enpol 2019 111041 ISSN 0301 4215 Nuclear Power in Turkey www world nuclear org World Nuclear Association Archived from the original on 30 November 2020 Retrieved 5 January 2021 Atik Yakma ve Enerji Uretim Tesisi in Turkish Istanbul Buyuksehir Belediyesi Atik Yonetimi Mudurlugu Retrieved 6 December 2021 Dawood Kamran 2016 Hybrid wind solar reliable solution for Turkey to meet electric demand Balkan Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering 4 2 62 66 doi 10 17694 bajece 06954 Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 12 January 2021 Electricity Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Turkey Archived from the original on 16 July 2020 Retrieved 16 November 2020 a b Saygili Hulya Renewable Energy Use in Turkey CBRT blog Archived from the original on 18 February 2019 Retrieved 17 February 2019 Turkish authorities aim to boost renewable power generation to 50 per cent by 2023 Daily Sabah 24 August 2018 Archived from the original on 24 November 2020 Retrieved 12 January 2021 How Turkey Can Ensure a Successful Energy Transition Center for American Progress Archived from the original on 20 February 2019 Retrieved 19 February 2019 Kilickaplan Anil Bogdanov Dmitrii Peker Onur Caldera Upeksha Aghahosseini Arman Breyer Christian 1 December 2017 An energy transition pathway for Turkey to achieve 100 renewable energy powered electricity desalination and non energetic industrial gas demand sectors by 2050 Solar Energy 158 218 235 Bibcode 2017SoEn 158 218K doi 10 1016 j solener 2017 09 030 ISSN 0038 092X Energy use per person Our World in Data Archived from the original on 28 November 2020 Retrieved 2 December 2020 Turkstat report 2020 p 32 Coban Hasan Huseyin 23 November 2020 A 100 Renewable Energy System The Case of Turkey In The Year 2050 Archived from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 7 January 2021 DifiglioGurayMerdan 2020 p 319 Elektri k Pi yasasinda Yeni lenebi li r Enerji Kaynak Garanti Belgesi Yonetmeli gi www resmigazete gov tr Archived from the original on 16 November 2020 Retrieved 2 January 2021 Pitel Laura Bozorgmehr Najmeh 24 January 2022 Turkish industry hit by power cuts amid gas supply troubles Financial Times Archived from the original on 28 January 2022 Direskeneli Haluk 29 November 2021 Turkey Energy And Infrastructure Forecasts For 2022 OpEd Archived from the original on 1 February 2022 Retrieved 1 February 2022 Optimum electricity generation capacity mix for Turkey towards 2030 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 17 April 2021 Colak and Rotherham 2006 A Review of the Forest Vegetation of Turkey Its Status Past and Present and Its Future Conservation PDF Biology and Environment Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 106 B 3 343 354 doi 10 3318 BIOE 2006 106 3 343 S2CID 46955795 Archived from the original PDF on 14 September 2018 Willcox G H 1974 A History of Deforestation as Indicated by Charcoal Analysis of Four Sites in Eastern Anatolia Anatolian Studies 24 117 133 doi 10 2307 3642603 JSTOR 3642603 S2CID 131664221 Hughes J D 2010 Ancient Deforestation Revisited Journal of the History of Biology 44 1 43 57 doi 10 1007 s10739 010 9247 3 PMID 20669043 S2CID 24975334 Conference Review Environmental History of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey University of Hamburg 27 28 October 2017 H Net Gumuscu Osman Ugur Abdullah Aygoren Tulay 2014 Deforestation in Sixteenth Century Anatolia The Case of Hudavendi gar Bursa Sancak Belleten 78 281 167 200 doi 10 37879 belleten 2014 167 ISSN 0041 4255 S2CID 245293300 a b Turkey Countries amp Regions International Energy Agency Archived from the original on 1 April 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 BOTAS strategic plan 2015 2019 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 12 January 2021 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Bauomy Jasmin 8 January 2020 Europe needs gas and Russia has it the story behind the new pipeline Euronews Archived from the original on 13 March 2020 Retrieved 12 March 2020 https www economist com business 2023 10 19 why big oil is beefing up its trading arms Sources2019 2023 Strateji k Plani PDF Report in Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Turkey May 2020 Ayas Ceren August 2020 Decarbonization of Turkey s economy long term strategies and immediate challenges Report CAN Europe SEE Change Net TEPAV Ersoy Mucella 2019 Turkish coal mining sector Current State Strategy for the Future PDF Report Turkish Coal Operations Authority Akyazi Pinar Ertor Sperfeld Franziska Helgenberger Sebastian Sahin Umit Nagel Laura eds December 2020 Cobenefits Policy Report Unlocking the co benefits of decarbonising Turkey s power sector Report IASS IPC UfU Sahin Umit February 2018 Carbon Lock In in Turkey A Comparative Perspective of Low Carbon Transition with Germany and Poland PDF Istanbul Policy Center Report Archived from the original PDF on 31 August 2019 Retrieved 21 April 2020 Sari Ayse Ceren and Deger Saygin 2018 On the way to efficiently supplying more than half of Turkey s electricity from renewables Opportunities to strengthen the YEKA auction model for enhancing the regulatory framework of Turkey s power system transformation PDF Report SHURA Energy Transition Center ISBN 978 605 2095 44 7 Report on the technical review of the seventh national communication of Turkey PDF UNFCCC Report June 2019 Sahin Umit Turkkan Secil January 2019 Turkey s Climate Policies Have Reached a Deadlock It Takes Courage to Resolve It PDF saha Vol Special Issue 2 pp 24 30 ISSN 2149 7885 Europe Beyond Coal January 2020 EUAS A briefing for investors insurers and banks PDF Report permanent dead link OECD February 2019 OECD Environmental Performance Reviews Turkey 2019 Report OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Publishing doi 10 1787 9789264309753 en ISBN 9789264309746 Turkish Greenhouse Gas Inventory report TurkStat report Turkish Statistical Institute Report April 2020 BP Statistical Review of World Energy PDF BP Report 2019 Difiglio Prof Carmine Guray Bora Sekip Merdan Ersin November 2020 Turkey Energy Outlook iicec sabanciuniv edu Report Sabanci University Istanbul International Center for Energy and Climate IICEC ISBN 978 605 70031 9 5 Taranto Yael Aydinalp Koksal Merih Dal Eda December 2020 The external cost of fossil fuel use in power generation heating and road transport in Turkey SHURA Energy Transition Center Report IEA March 2021 Turkey 2021 Energy Policy Review Technical report International Energy Agency Further reading editNational Energy Plan to 2035 published 2022External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Energy in Turkey Gas and electricity markets generation and consumption up to date statistics Shura energy transition graphs Energy Market Regulatory Authority Istanbul International Centre for Energy and Climate at Sabanci University Turkey International Energy Agency Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker Portals nbsp Turkey nbsp Energy Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Energy in Turkey amp oldid 1197724788, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.