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Eunuchs in China

April 10, 2024

A eunuch (/ˈjuːnək/ YOO-nək)[1] is a man who has been castrated.[2] Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.[3]

A group of eunuchs. Mural from the tomb of the prince Zhanghuai, 706 AD.

In China, castration included removal of the penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.[4]

Eunuchs have existed in China since about 146 AD during the reign of Emperor Huan of Han,[5] and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty.[6][7] From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal.

It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials.[8] As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs."[9]

The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.[10]

The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, with the eunuch system being abolished on November 5, 1924.[5] The last Imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting, died in December 1996.[11]

History edit

Qin dynasty edit

Men sentenced to castration were turned into eunuch slaves of the Qin dynasty state to perform forced labor for projects such as the Terracotta Army.[12] The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of rapists who received castration as a punishment.[13][14][15] Men punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor.[16]

Han dynasty edit

In Han dynasty China, castration continued to be used as a punishment for various offenses.[17][18] Sima Qian, the famous Chinese historian, was castrated by order of the Han Emperor of China for dissent.[19] In another incident multiple people, including a chief scribe and his underlings, were subjected to castration.[20]

During the Han dynasty, the euphemism for castration was "sent to the silkworm house" since castrated men had to be shut in an enclosed room like how silkworms were raised during the castration procedure, and when they were recovering in order to prevent death. Castration as a punishment was known as gōngxíng (宮刑 "palace punishment") or fǔxíng (腐刑 "rotting punishment").

The Han dynasty under the reign of Emperor Wu castrated a prince of the kingdom of Loulan from Xinjiang that they were holding hostage at court because he broke a law. Loulan asked for his return in 9 after their king died but the Han dynasty refused since they wanted to cover up the fact that they castrated him.[21][22][23]

Zhang He, the older brother of Zhang Anshi was originally sentenced to death but was castrated instead when his brother pleaded for the sentence to be commuted.

The Han dynasty ordered the castration of Li Yannian (musician) as punishment for a crime.[24][25] Li Yannian's sister Lady Li was a concubine of the Han dynasty emperor.

The Han dynasty ordered the castration of its envoy, Ge Du (Ke Too) because he did not kill the "Mad King" of the Wusun who deserved death in the eyes of the Han dynasty and instead helped the Mad King get doctors to cure his illness.[26][27][28]

Su Wen was a eunuch who supported prince Liu Fuling and his mother Lady Zhao against Liu Ju, Crown Prince of Wei and his mother Wei Zifu.

Near the end of the Han dynasty in 189, a group of eunuchs known as the Ten Attendants managed to gain considerable power at the imperial court, so that several warlords decided they had to be eliminated to restore the Emperor's government.[29] However, the loyalist warlord, He Jin, was lured into a trap inside the palace and killed by the eunuchs.[29] The other warlords led by Yuan Shao then stormed the palace and massacred the Ten Attendants and many other eunuchs.[29][30] In the wake of the fighting, Dong Zhuo seized power.[30]

Castration was abolished twice as a legal punishment in the Han dynasty, the first time prior to 167 B.C. and the second time in the 110s A.D.[31]

Northern Wei edit

Category:北魏宦官 (Northern Wei eunuchs)

In 446 an ethnic Qiang rebellion was crushed by the Northern Wei. Wang Yu was an ethnic Qiang eunuch and he may have been castrated during the rebellion since the Northern Wei would castrated the rebel tribe's young elite. Fengyi prefecture's Lirun town according to the Weishu was where Wang Yu was born, Lirun was to Xi'ans's northeast by 100 miles and modern day Chengcheng stands at its site. Wang Yu patronized Buddhism and in 488 had a temple constructed in his birthplace.[32]

The Northern Wei had the young sons of rebels and traitors castrated and made them serve as eunuchs in the palace like Liu Siyi (Liu Ssu-i), Yuwen Zhou (Yü-wen Chou 宇文冑), Duan Ba, Wang Zhi, Liu Teng and Sun Shao. Gao Huan of Northern Qi had Shu Lüè castrated and become a messenger eunuch because his father Fan Guan (Fan Kuan 樊觀) remained loyal to Northern Wei.[33] The Northern Wei presented northern wives to Liu Song generals Cui Mo and Shen Mo. Lingdu, a son was born to Shen Mo's northern wife. However Shen Mo fled back south to Liu Song when he had the opportunity and the Northern Wei castrated Lingdu in response. Cui Mo never went back south so his northern son would not be punished.[34] The rebels themselves and their sons above the age of 14 were executed by chopping at the waist while the sons below 14 were castrated and served in the palace as eunuchs.[35][36]

The eunuch Zong Ai killed two Northern Wei Emperors and a Northern Wei prince.[37] Empress Dowager Hu mounred for the eunuch Meng Luan.

Northern Qi edit

Empress Dowager Hu (Northern Qi) was said to have initially engaged in sexual relations with her eunuchs—although, in light of their being previously castrated, the traditional historians used the term xiexia (褻狎, "immoral games") rather than "adultery" to describe her acts with them.[38]

Tang dynasty edit

Indigenous tribals from southern China were used as eunuchs during the Sui and Tang dynasties.[39]

The rebel An Lushan had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhu'er (李豬兒) (Li Chu-erh) who was working for An Lushan when he was a teenager. An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died, losing multiple pints of blood. An Lushan revived him after smearing ashes on his injury. Li Zhu'er was An Lushan's eunuch after this and was highly used and trusted by him. Li Zhu'er and another two men helped carry the obese An Lushan when he dressed and undressed. Li Zhu'er also helped An Lushan dress at the Huaqing (Hua-ch'ing) steam baths granted by Emperor Xuanzang. Later, An Lushan was stricken with a skin disease and became blind and paranoid. He started flogging and murdering his subordinates, and Li Zhuer was approached by people who wanted to assassinate An Lushan. An Lushan was stabbed in the stomach and disemboweled by Li Zhuer and Yan Zhuang (Yen Chuang) (嚴莊), another conspirator whom An Lushan had previously beaten. An Lushan screamed, "This is a thief of my own household!" as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself.[40][41][42]

Liao dynasty edit

The Khitans adopted the practice of using eunuchs from the Chinese, and the eunuchs were non-Khitan prisoners of war. When they founded the Liao dynasty, they developed a harem system with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it. The Khitans captured Chinese eunuchs at the Jin court when they invaded the Later Jin. Another source was during their war with the Song dynasty. The Khitan Empress Dowager Chengtian led the Khitan to raid China, capture Han Chinese boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become eunuchs. The emasculation of captured Chinese boys guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao Dynasty harem. She personally led her own army and defeated the Song in 986,[43] fighting the retreating Chinese army. The Empress then ordered the castration of around 100 Chinese boys she had captured, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en (王继恩 (辽朝)). The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks.[44][45][46][47] Another Han Chinese eunuch who was castrated and captured by the Khitan as a boy was Zhao Anren (赵安仁)[48][49] The Han Chinese boys captured and castrated by Empress Chengtian became domestic slaves in the Liao palace and did not gain political power.[50][51][52] Khitan women, especially empresses and imperial concubines actively fought in war on the battlefield.[53][54]

The Liao enacted a new ling (ordinance) on castration, when an yila (i-la) (footsoldier) named Tuli (T'u-li)'s underage daughter was raped by an Imperial consort clan uncle, lang jun (lang-chün) Xiao Yan's (Hsiao Yen)'s slave Haili (Hai-li) in 962 when Emperor Muzong of Liao was reigning. Haili was made a slave to Tuli after being castrated.[55][56][57] Boys under were not executed but instead castrated if they were under 16 during the Qing and Liao dynasties as punishment during rebellions.[58]

Jin dynasty edit

Eunuchs in the Jin dynasty were domestic slaves who served the women of the palace like the concubines and empresses and did not gain political power.[59] Liang Chong 梁珫 was a eunuch in the Jin dynasty. Song Gui (宋珪) was another eunuch in the Jin dynasty.

Yuan dynasty edit

As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo (Korea) provided eunuchs to the Mongols.[60] One of them was Bak Bulhwa,[61] who caused harm to Goryeo.[62] Other Korean eunuchs in the Yuan included Go Yongbo and Bang Sin-u. Some Chinese and Korean eunuchs adopted Mongol names.[63]

Ming dynasty edit

Castration as a legal punishment was banned at the end of the reign of the first Ming emperor, Ming Taizu.[56][64]

Huai'en (died in 1488) was originally surnamed Dai (戴) and born in Shandong's Gaomi city. He was forced to become a eunuch and was castrated as a young boy because his father and other members of the Dai family who worked as government officials were accused of crimes so he was punished as well.

There were eunuchs from China's various ethnic tribes, Mongolia, Korea,[65][66] Vietnam,[67][68][69][70][71] Cambodia, Central Asia, Thailand, and Okinawa.[72]: 14–16 

There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor,[73]: 36ff [74] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan.[75] Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were present in the Ming court,[72]: 14  such as the ones captured from Mongol-controlled Yunnan in 1381, and among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He,[72]: 14ff [76] who served Yongle.[77] Muslim eunuchs were sent as ambassadors to the Timurids.[78] Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An (Nguyễn An), Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[79]

During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors when their demands were not met.[80] Some of the ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king.[81] Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries.[80] Korea stopped sending human tribute after 1435.[80] A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming.[82] The Ming eunuch hats were similar to the Korean royal hats, indicating the foreign origins of the Ming eunuchs, many of whom came from Southeast Asia and Korea.[83] Yishiha was a Jurchen eunuch in the Ming dynasty during the Yongle emperor's period and Jurchen woen were also concubines of the Ming Yongle emperor.[84][85]

By the late Ming, nearly 80 percent of eunuchs came from North China, mainly the Beijing area.[86] They came from a few counties around Beijing like Hejian.[87]

During the Miao Rebellions, the Ming Governor castrated thousands of Miao boys when their tribes revolted, and then gave them as slaves to various officials. The Governor who ordered the castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by the Ming Tianshun Emperor for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event.[72]: 16 

Zhu Shuang (Prince of Qin), while he was high on drugs, had some Tibetan boys castrated, and Tibetan women seized after a war against minority Tibetan peoples. As a result, he was denounced after he died from an overdose.[88]

On 30 January 1406, the Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to give them to the emperor. The Yongle Emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and did not deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.[89]

In the Lê Dynasty the Vietnamese Emperor Lê Thánh Tông was aggressive in his relations with foreign countries including China and cracked down on foreign contacts and enforced an isolationist policy. A large amount of trade between Guangdong (Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan) and Vietnam happened during this time. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by modern historians that Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in regular trade between China and Vietnam instead of being blown off course, and that they were punished after a Vietnamese crackdown on trade with foreign countries.[90]

Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by Vietnamese navy as they were returning to Malacca from China. The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.[91][92][93][94]

A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang including a young man named Wu Rui were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong's Qin subprefecture (Qinzhou), after which they ended up near the coast of Vietnam, in the 1460s, during the Chenghua Emperor's rule (1464–1487). Twelve of them were enslaved to work as agricultural laborers, while the youngest Chinese man, Wu Rui (吳瑞) was selected by the Vietnamese court for castration since he was the only young man in among the thirteen and he became a eunuch at the Vietnamese imperial palace in Thang Long for nearly one fourth of a century. After years of serving the Vietnamese as a eunuch slave in the palace, he was promoted to a position with real power after the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497 to a military position in northern Vietnam as military superintendent since his service in the palace was apparently valued by the Vietnamese. However the Lạng Sơn guard soldier Dương Tam tri (Yang Sanzhi) told him of an escape route back to China and Wu Rui escaped to Longzhou after walking for 9 days through the mountains. The local ethnic minority Tusi chief Wei Chen took him into custody, overruling objections from his family who wanted to send him back to Vietnam. Vietnam found out about his escape and sent an agent to buy Wu Rui back from Wei Chen with 100 Jin in payment since they were scared that Wu Rui would reveal Vietnamese state secrets to China. Wei Chen planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese but told them the amount they were offering was too little and demanded more however before they could agree on a price, Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang magistrate Li Guangning and then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the Ming palace at the Directorate of Ceremonial (silijian taijian 司禮監太監).[95][96][97] The Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư records that in 1467 in An Bang province of Dai Viet (now Quảng Ninh Province) a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore. The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Tong.[98][99]

A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu reported that some Chinese from Nanhai escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that they found out that more than 100 Chinese men remained captives in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam in other incidents. The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries.[100] These 100 men were taken prisoner around the same time as Wu Rui and the historian Leo K. Shin believes all of them may have been involved in illegal trade instead of being blown off course by wind.[101] The over 100 Chinese men who were castrated and made into eunuchs by the Vietnamese remained captives in Vietnam when the incident was reported. Both the incidents of the young Chinese man Wu Rui and the more than 100 Chinese men being castrated and used as eunuchs point to possible involvement in trade according to historians John K. Whitmore and Tana Li which was then suppressed by the Vietnamese government instead of them really being blown off course by the wind.[97] China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration.[102][103]

An anti-pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Ming Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[104] Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque.[105] It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[106]

At the end of the Ming dynasty, there were about 70,000 eunuchs (huànguān or tàijiàn) employed by the emperor with some serving inside the imperial palace. There were 100,000 eunuchs at the height of their numbers during the Ming.[72]: 34ff [107][108][109] In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles (c. 1617), eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices.[110]

The Southern Ming Yongli emperor's wife Empress Wang (Southern Ming) had a boy eunuch slave who later wrote his autobiographical account "Yangjian biji". He was from Huguang province's Jingzhou prefecture. Rebels killed his parents and he was adopted by Liu, one of the rebels. Liu became a Southern Ming soldier. The Southern Ming court needed eunuchs so they ordered high-ranking military officers to give up their older than 7 year old sons to be castrated in Kunming (Yunnan Fu) for the Yongli court in 1656. Over 20 boys were castrated 1 month after the order despite Liu's attempts to save his adopted son from the castration.[111]

Wang Ruoshue (Joseph) and Pang Tianshou (Achilles) were eunuchs at the Southern Ming Yongli emperor's court, and they along with Crown Prince Zhu Cixuan (朱慈煊) (Constantine), Empress Dowager Wang (Southern Ming) (Helena), Empress Dowager Ma (Southern Ming) (Maria), Empress Wang (Southern Ming) (Anne) and Qu Shisi (瞿式耜) (Ch'ü Shih-ssu), the Guangxi provincial governor, were all baptized as Roman Catholics by Jesuits Andreas Wolfgang Koffler and Michał Boym.[112][113][114] A novel was written about them by Robert Elegant.[115][116] Other Southern Ming eunuchs included Gao Qiqian (高起潛) and Lu Jiude (盧九德).

Path to the occupation edit

In Ming China, the royal palace acquired eunuchs from both domestic and foreign sources.[117]: 126–138  On the one hand, the eunuchs in Ming China came from foreign sources. The enemies of Ming China were castrated as a means of punishment when they are captured by the Ming army as prisoners.[117]: 127  For example, the population of Mongol eunuchs in Nanjing increased significantly during Yongle's reign when there was a war between Ming China and the Mongols.[117]: 127  The foreign eunuchs also came as tribute from many small countries around China.[117]: 127  On the other hand, eunuchs also came from indigenous Chinese. In Ming China, many men castrated themselves to be hired in the palace, when the only way for these men to enter into a life of privilege was through eunuchism.[117]: 128  Besides the royal palace, bureaucratic elites, such as mandarin officials, also hired eunuchs to be servants in their families.[117]: 131  With this demand, many men were willing to castrate themselves to become eunuchs.

Daily functions of normal eunuchs edit

Eunuchs in Ming China also played a critical role in the operation of the imperial palace. Their responsibilities varied in significance with jobs that included almost every aspect of everyday routine in the imperial palace. Some of their responsibilities were procuring copper, tin, wood, and iron. Also, they had to repair and construct ponds, castle gates, and palaces in major cities like Beijing and Nanjing, and the mansions and mausolea in the living spaces of imperial relatives.[117]: 131  They prepared meals for a great number of people in the palace. Taking care of the animals in the palace was another one of their jobs. In a word, the eunuchs' work was the cornerstone of the palace's daily operation, and they were responsible for the Emperor and his relatives' comfortable life.[117]: 125 

Relationship with other occupations in the royal palace edit

The eunuchs were also highly associated with other lower ranking occupations in the royal palace. For example, some eunuchs would have special relationships with serving women in the palace. Some eunuchs would form a partnership with serving women to support each other, which was called a "vegetarian couple" (Duishi).[118]: 43  In this kind of relationship, both the eunuchs and serving women could be more secure when they encountered conflicts with those of higher rank such as mandarin bureaucrats.[118]: 60 

Power of eunuchs in the palace edit

The eunuchs also had an opportunity to rise to higher ranks. For example, the duties and jobs of eunuchs gradually changed in Ming dynasty. In the Hongwu Emperor's time, the Emperor decreed that the eunuchs were to be kept in small numbers and of minimal literacy to prevent them from seizing power.[73]: 64  However, in later generations, the Emperors began to train and educate the eunuchs and made them their personal secretaries.[73]: 65  The lack of the restrictions allowed some eunuchs to rise to great power, for example, Wang Zhen, Liu Jin, and Wei Zhongxian especially. There were even a eunuch supervised secret police, which worked for the emperor. It was known as the Eastern Depot and Western Depot.[73]: 65  Also, Zheng He, a famous eunuch in China's history, became an early pioneer of seafaring and spread Chinese influence around the world.[119]

Reputation of eunuchs in China edit

However, the reputation of eunuchs was controversial in Ming China, especially considering the way they had their eyes and ears everywhere. Since the eunuchs served both the harem and the emperors, it was believed that they were able to carry valuable information that could either break or create an emperor's status, so out of fear, Chinese bureaucrat-scholars always depicted eunuchs negatively as greedy, evil, cunning, and duplicitous.[117]: 121  The Chinese seemed to have a stereotypical view toward the eunuchs. This bad reputation may be explained by the fact that the eunuchs, to get employment in the royal palace or official houses, needed to be castrated. Castration gave the eunuchs the license to work in the palace or official houses in Ming China because the officials and the Emperor in Ming China usually kept many concubines.[117]: 133  However, in Chinese society, castration broke with conventional moral rules. A son who could not have a male heir to carry on the family name contradicted Confucian ideology.[117]: 132  The eunuchs, despite their awareness of losing the ability to have children, would get castrated to have better lives. Another stereotypical view of eunuchs in the palace was that they exceeded their power in areas they did not belong, or that they did unpleasant work. For example, they were spies for emperors or officials. The Yongle Emperor gave the eunuchs the authority to be in charge in the implementation of political tasks. As the eunuchs' presence and power grew, they gradually took over the duties of female palace musicians and become the dominant musicians in the Ming palace.[120] When they came to power, eunuchs would even interfere in politics such as the succession to the throne.[117]: 125 

Qing dynasty edit

 
Empress Dowager Cixi carried and accompanied by palace eunuchs, before 1908
 
A Chinese eunuch boy in 1901 during the Qing dynasty with all his genitals removed.

Qing eunuchs had their testicles, scrotum and penises removed.[121][122][123]

A minority of Qing eunuchs were of Mongol[124] and Manchu origin despite laws against Manchus becoming eunuchs.[125][126]

While eunuchs were employed in all Chinese dynasties, their number decreased significantly under the Qing, and the tasks they performed were largely replaced by the Imperial Household Department.[127] At the beginning of the 20th century, there were about 2,000 eunuchs working in the Forbidden City.[128][129] The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption, stealing as much as they could.[130] The position of a eunuch in the Forbidden City offered opportunity for theft and corruption. China was such a poor country that countless men willingly became eunuchs to live a better life.[130] However, eunuchs as the Emperor's slaves had no rights and could be abused at the Emperor's whim. The Emperor Puyi recalled in his memoirs of growing up in the Forbidden City that: "By the age of 11, flogging eunuchs was part of my daily routine. My cruelty and love of power were already too firmly set for persuasion to have any effect on me... Whenever I was in a bad temper the eunuchs would be in for trouble."[128][131]

The Qing beile (princes) were told that their palace women would have sex with their boys slaves so they were told to have the young boy slaves castrated by Nurhaci in 1621.[132][133]

The Imperial Household Department managed eunuchs since the Kangxi reign.[134] The Qing palace leaned towards recruiting eunuchs from Zhili, mainly mid 20 year olds or adolescent Han Chinese[135][136][137] who were not married, mainly from northern Shandong and the counties of Wanping, Jinghai, Daxing and Hejian in southern Hebei near Beijing. Some southern Chinese from Yunnan, Zhejiang and Guangdong people became eunuchs but in a minor amount compared to the counties around Biejing.[138]

Sons of rebels 15 and younger from the Lin Shuangwen rebellion in Taiwan were castrated as ordered by the Qianlong emperor and Heshen.[139][140][141] The Taiwanese boys who were castrated were aged 4 to 15 years old and 40 of them were named on one memorial. This new policy of castrating sons of killers of 3 or more related people and rebels helped solve the supply of young eunuchs for the Qing Summer Palace.[142] The Qing were willing to lower their normal age limit for castration all the way to 4 when using castration as punishment for sons of rebels when it normally wanted eunuchs castrated after 9.[143] Other times, the Qing Imperial Household Department waited until the boys reached 11 years old before castrating them, like when they waited for the two young imprisoned sons of executed murderer Sui Bilong from Shandong to grow up. The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 11-year-old Hunanese boy Fang Mingzai to become a eunuch slave in the Qing palace after his father was executed for murder.[144] The Qing Summer palace, due to this policy of castrating sons of mass murderers and rebels received many young healthy eunuchs.[145] Sons of rebels leaders above 15 were beheaded. Female relatives of Taiwanese rebel leaders (daughters, wives, concubines) were sent to the northeastern frontier in Ningguta in Heilongjiang to become slaves of the Solon. 130 sons of the Taiwanese rebel leaders 15 and younger were taken into custody by the Qing. The rebel leader Zhuang Datian's 4-year-old grandson Zhuang Amo was one of those castrated. There was another Lin family who joined the Lin Shuangwen rebellion. Lin Da was ordered to lead 100 people by Lin Shuangwen and given the title "general Xuanlue". Lin Da was 42 when he was executed by Lingchi. He had six sons; the two older ones died before, and his third son Lin Dou died from sickness before he could be castrated in Beijing, while his fourth and fifth sons were castrated, the 11-year-old Lin Biao and 8-year-old Lin Xian. However, his sixth and youngest son, 7-year-old Lin Mading, was given away to a relative (uncle) named Lin Qin for adoption, and Lin Qin did not join the rebellion, so Lin Mading was not castrated. Lin Mading had 2 children after marrying his wife in 1800 when he was 20.[146]

Descriptions of fingerprints were recorded for castrated sons of criminals and rebels,[147] but it was barely used for other eunuchs when trying to find escapee eunuchs and only a written description of the fingerprints was taken, not an actual print. Fingerprints were used in the Qing bureaucracy in other instances to identify people.[148] Sometimes castrations were not fully done since an undescended testicle would not be removed and it was only found out when puberty brought out the "secondary sex characteristics". If they were found out then they would be sent back to their hometowns and out of the palace. They would still be called eunuchs.[149]

In one case reviewed by the Qianlong emperor, a man named Zhao Youliang (赵友谅) was innocent of all crime but his father Zhao Cheng (赵成) slept with his son's wife. Zhao Youliang didn't want to report his father out of filial piety so he took his wife elsewhere to their relatives, the Niu (牛) family's house to hide her from his father Zhao Cheng. Sun Si (孙四), a friend of Zhao Cheng then helped Zhao Cheng murder 5 members of the Niu family, and then Zhao Cheng blamed his son Zhao Youliang for the murder. Zhao Youliang did not implicate his father out of filial piety when he was being tortured in interrogation but the officials realized one person couldn't have killed 5 the government officials tortured and interrogated the neighbors until they revealed that Sun Si and Zhao Cheng committed the murder. The penalty for mass murdering multiple people was that the same number of people from the perpetrator's family would get executed. The officials did not want to execute Zhao Youliang for his father's crimes so they asked the Qianlong emperor to decide. Qianlong decided that the son was to be sentenced to castration since he deserved death under Qing law because he was the son of a murderer but "commuted" his sentence to castration as mercy because he was personally victimized when his father who slept with his wife, and he had filial piety and said he had to be castrated because his father did not deserve offspring.[150]

There was also a mass murder incident where a murderer injured 12 and murdered 11 unrelated people in 1791. The Qing law on mass murdering said that castration was to be done on sons of murderers who mass murdered against one family and killed 3 or more members of it, but nevertheless the Qing emperor ordered the sons of this mass murderer be castrated as well.[151] After one boy was injured severely and his three brothers were killed in Henan by a murderer surnamed Zhang who was a tenant farmer in 1788, the emperor ordered castration for the 2 sons of Zhang while a lingchi sentenced was passed for Zhang himself.[152]

The Qing passed a law that castration was the punishment for grandsons and sons of rebels by the Imperial Household Department after changing a death sentence to a castration sentence in the case of an 18 year old who was a nephew of a rebel in 1781, however despite the law being inspired by this case, nephews weren't covered in the people to be castrated in the law and only the direct sons and grandsons of the rebels were.[153] Qianlong reintroduced castration of relatives of those who murdered multiple people or rebelled. The Ming code and Tang code both do not have such a law.[154] Castration for sons of rebels was reintroduced in by the Qing in the 18th century after it was abolished in the Ming and Tang dynasties.[155][156] Sons of murderers above 15 were not beheaded unlike sons and grandsons of rebels and instead they were also castrated as eunuchs in the palace. The wives and daughters of murderers would be given to the murder victims' relatives if they still lived unlike wives and daughters of rebels. Qianlong and the Imperial Household Department under Heshen later decreed that sons of murderers who were 16 years old and older would be exiled as become slaves of the Solon on the frontier in Ningguta in Heilongjiang or Ili in Xinjiang after castration while the sons 15 and younger would be kept as eunuchs in the Imperial palace since the younger sons could be controlled while the older sons were uncontrollable in a decision made in 1793.[157] Imposing a penalty of castration upon the sons of rebels and murderers of 3 or more related people was part of a new Qing policy to ensure a supply of young boy eunuchs since the Qianlong emperor ordered young eunuchs to be shifted towards the main imperial residence in the Summer Palace. Norman A. Kutcher connected the Qing policy on obtaining young eunuchs to the observation that young boy eunuchs were prized by female members of the Qing Imperial family as attendants, noted by the British George Carter Stent in the 19th century.[158] Norman Kutcher noted that George Stent said young eunuchs were physically attractive and were used for "impossible to describe" duties by female imperial family members and they were considered "completely pure". Kutcher suggests the boys were used for sexual pleasure by Qing imperial women, connecting them to the boy eunuchs called "earrings" who were used for that purpose.[159][160][161][162][163][164] Boy eunuchs were used for intimate bathroom and bedroom duties by palace ladies.[165][166][167][168]

An amusement part model peasant village with a complete market street (Maimaijie) in the Summer palace was staffed by eunuch actors.[169]

Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet noted on his visit to the Qing summer palace as part of the Macartney Embassy in 1793 that there were two kinds of Chinese eunuchs, the ones who only had their testicles cut off and whose job it was to inspect and maintain buildings, gardens and other works in the palaces, and the ones who were called rasibus by Catholic missionaries there and had all their genitals including penises and testicles cut off since they served in the interior of the palace and served and attended upon the women of the Qing imperial harem and they were as coquettish as the women they served and painted their faces like them. Barrow also noted all the Chinese eunuchs there including the rasibus had their own women slaves who were the daughters of poor people they purchased them from and they used these women for sex.[170][171][172][173]

Sir George Staunton, 1st Baronet explained that the term "black eunuch" did not refer to skin colour but referred to the term used in the Ottoman Empire for eunuchs who had their penis cut off along with their testicles.[174][175]

During the Qing, Chinese eunuchs who were fully castrated with their penises removed had to resort to either dildos, oral sex or foreplay to satisfy women during sex. Qing era writer Liang Zhangju (1775–1849) wrote in his sketches "Wandering Talk" that when palace eunuchs performed oral sex on the women and caressed them with their hands until the women were sexually satisfied and sweating.[176]

Chinese eunuchs used dildos and hormone therapy to have a "dry-run orgasm with diminished sensation", and they could "to reduce the effects of castration" especially if they were past puberty when castrated. Eunuchs still had sexual urges after castration as well as libido. The eunuchs were sexually "frustrated". The eunuch Zhang Delang engaged in sexual acts with a prostitute in Tianjin's Japanese concession where he lived after the fall of the Qing and he also married three women. Another eunuch who worked for him, Yu Chunhe said he was "burning with fever and desire" as he watched the prostitute and Zhang. The Qing court and the eunuchs themselves considered eunuchs as male, not as female or a third sex.[177] The prostitute's body was kissed all over by Zhang Lande as he lifted her and "threw himself on her like a wolf".[178] It was also reported that the eunuch Xiao Dezhang (Hsiao Teh-chang) (Zhang Lande) was suggested by Cixi (Tsu-hsi) as a sexual partner for the Longyu empress (Lung-yu) since the Guangxi emperor (Kuang Hsu) was impotent.[179] Zhang Lande had the building later known as Qingwangfu (Prince Qing's Mansion) in Tianjin built for himself before Zaizhen, Prince Qing bought it from him.[180][181][182] The eunuch Zhang Lande had a love affair with Han Bannerwoman Yu Roung Ling, a sister of Princess Der Ling.

 
Han bannerwoman Yu Roung Ling
 
Empress Longyu with a eunuch on the right behind her and a palace maid on the left behind her
 
Empress Longyu with five eunuchs, including two boys on the far left and far right and Zhang Lande is the third from the left
 
Empress Dowager Cixi, Empress Longyu and eunuch Cui Yugui with other women

The Manchu palace maid Ronger (榮兒) (born 1880) came from the Manchu Hešeri clan. She later adopted the surname He and became known as "He Rong'er". When Ronger turned 18 and retired as a palace maid, the Qing Dowager Empress Cixi married Ronger off to a Han Chinese eunuch surnamed Liu as a present to her. Liu was an adopted son of the eunuch Li Lianying. Ronger recounted in her memoir that the Qing court rules were that all eunuchs must be Han Chinese not from the Eight banners, while all palace maids must be Manchu bannerwomen from the three upper banners of the Eight Banners and Han Chinese girls were forbidden to become palace maids.[183] For 8 years Cixi had Ronger serving her as maid and Cixi gave her the name Ronger. She was 13 when she was recruited at palace maid during mandatory recruitment drives from the banners. She wrote the book "The Memoirs of a Palace Maid" about her life.[184] The rules had been changed to recruit mainly Manchu and Mongol banner girls for palace maids and ban Han banner girls from palace made work in 1806, ostensibly and officially to help Han bannermen reduce their monetary burdens but the historian Shuo Wang also believes it was due to the fact that Han banner girls followed Han customs and not Manchu ones. Any Han bannerman who was not a high official and not of the 6th rank did not have to send his daughters to the palace maid draft while every Manchu and Mongol bannerman had to send their daughters.[185] The "servant girls" were "daughters of Manchu soldiers" and had to "stay ten years at the palace to wait upon Her Majesty, and then they are free to marry".[186]

When George N. Kates lived in Beijing in the 1930s, he lived in a dwelling he rented from a eunuch and his wife, who were given the abode by the Empress Dowager as a gift and the eunuch's wife was a former handmaiden to the Empress Dowager. During the Great Leap Forward, malnutrition caused the wife of the eunuch to die.[187]

Sexual relations and marriage between eunuchs and palace maids were referred to as "Duishi" or "Caihu".[188]

Ma Saihua, a 19-year-old woman was married by the eunuch An Dehai when he was 24.

A yellow bag with bamboo sticks was kept in the Forbidden City and Empress Dowager Cixi once ordered the palace servant girls and court ladies to beat the eunuchs with them.[189] Eunuchs would be punished even more unless they begged their mistress or master for mercy when they were being beaten for infractions and rule breaking.[190] There was a difference between eunuchs who served the inner court of the palace and the outer court of the palace. There were fewer rules and restrictions on outer court eunuchs and they dwelled outside the palace and received less salary. They were the musicians, actors, taking care of the tombs and served as the Imperial Household Department's zongguan and maintained temples, altars, parks and gardens, belonging to 5 different sections. They were subject to the Jingshifang and did mostly menial work. The eunuchs of the inner court were higher in rank and received more salary. Out of the total eunuch population, one fifth to one fourth were from the inner court and they numbered 400 to 500. The inner court eunuchs were of 5 categories, those in the general service, those who serves princesses and princes, those who served the dowager empress, those who served the concubines and empress, and those who served the emperor.[191]

The film "The Conqueror" (征服者) starring actress Chen Hong depicts the castration of the 8–15 year old sons of rebels in the White Lotus Rebellion in 1804.[192]

Zhang Wenxiang (張汶祥) who was accused in the assassination case of Ma Xinyi was executed and his 11-year-old son Zhang Changpao (張長幅) was castrated by the Imperial Household Department to become a eunuch. His son was first tortured in front of him to get him to confess to the assassination which many believed was an inside conspiracy by the Qing government against Ma Xinyi. Zhang Wenxiang's daughter was already married so she was not enslaved by the government.[193][194]

Taiping rebel Shi Dakai's had 2 sons, 5 year old Shi Dingzhong and a younger son named Shi Dingji. His sons were sentenced to imprisonment until they reached 11 when they would then be castrated. It is unknown if it was carried out.

When the Qing forces under Zuo Zongtang put down the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), the sons of Muslim Hui and Salar rebel leaders like Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan (马桂源) in Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai were castrated by the Qing Imperial Household Department once they became 11 years old and were sent to work as eunuch slaves for Qing garrisons in Xinjiang and the wives of the Muslim rebel leaders were also enslaved.[195] Ma Jincheng, a son of the Hui Naqshbandi leader Ma Hualong was also castrated after being held in jail in Xi'an until he was 11 years old.[196] The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 9 sons of Ma Guiyuan since they already reached age 12 and were enslave as eunuchs to Qing soldiers in Xinjiang. Ma Zhenyuan, Ma Benyuan and Ma Guiyuan's wives were all enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons after the husbands were executed. Ma Yulong was the father of the boys Ma Sanhe and Ma Jibang. Ma Dingbang was the father of Ma Qishi, Ma Shaba, Ma Suo and Ma Youzong. Ma Chenglong was the father of Ma Feifei. Their sons were all sentenced to castration.[195]

The sons and grandsons of the Central Asian Muslim conqueror, Yaqub Beg, in China were all castrated. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included 4 sons, 4 grandchildren (2 grandsons and 2 granddaughters), and 4 wives. They either mostly died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu, or were killed. However, his sons, Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson, Aisan Ahung, were the only survivors in 1879. They were all underage children, and put on trial, sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition", or if they were innocent of their fathers' crimes, were to be sentenced to castration and serve as eunuch slaves to Chinese troops, when they reached 11 years old. They were handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated.[197][198][199] In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out; Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace.[200][201][202] Yaqub Beg's sons and grandsons who were captured were under 10 years old Aisin Ahongju, Kadihuli and 10 year old Imahuli .[195] A man in Shaanxi had his penis cut off by his daughter in law, surnamed Xie during the Qing dynasty[203][204][205]

In 1872 boy named Liu Ch'ang-yu from Henan was taken by the Imperial Household Department for castration when he grew of age to be enslaved as a eunuch in a princely establishment since his father had murdered several relatives.[206]

In 1856, some rebels were captured in the metropolitan province (Zhili) and several boys under 15 years old were with them. The adults were beheaded and the children were castrated. A boy named Li Liu was the son of a rebel named Li Mao-tz'e (Li Maozi) who rebelled on the border of Henan (Honan) and Anhui (Anhwei) provinces in 1872. Li Liu was captured when he was 6 years old by Qing government forces in Anhui (Anhwei) and handed over to Yulu (Yu Luh), the governor of Anhui. He was imprisoned in the office of the district magistrate of Huaining (Hwaining) until he reached 11 years old in 1877 and was then ordered to be handed to the Imperial Household Department for castration. His case appeared on 28 November 1877 in the Peking Gazette.[207][208][209][210]

The Qing later changed its law in 1801, 1814, 1835 and 1845, saying that all the sons and grandsons of rebels who were ignorant of their father and grandfather's rebellious intents were to be sent to the Imperial Household Department for castration regardless of whether they were adults or children. Young boys would be imprisoned until reaching 11 and they would be castrated and boys between 11 and 16 would be castrated without respite. Many of these rebellions were caused by the Qing state persecuting religions and were provoked by Qing actions against these religious sects.[211]

During the Qing, punitive castration was done on a man in Shanxi for breaking the law. He was married to a woman but could not father children with her due to his castration. She went back to her parents several times until her father committed murder suicide, with him hanging himself after she was hanged. This case appeared in Chen Dongyuan's book on women's history in China .[212][213][214]

After the execution of anti-Qing revolutionary Xu Xilin (Hsü Hsi-lin) in 1907, his family including his son Xu Xuewen (1906–1991) were arrested by the Qing. Under Qing law, his son under the age of 16 was supposed to be castrated to become a eunuch and serve in the Qing palace.[215] The Qing was overthrown in 1912 and the castration was not carried out. Xu Xuewen later married a German woman, Maria Henriette Margarete Bordan (1915–2003).[216][217] They had a daughter together named Xu Naijin (Nancy Zi) (1937 – August 20, 2005) who married Chiang Hsiao-wen the son of the Republic of China President Chiang Ching-kuo and his wife, a Belarusian woman Chiang Fang-liang (Faina Ipat'evna Vakhreva).[218]

Empress Dowager Longyu wanted the imperial palace to have the right to make more eunuchs during the negotiations for abdication of the Qing in 1912 in the Articles of Favourable Treatment but she was forced to concede her demand.[219][220]

After the revolution of 1911–12 that toppled the Qing, the last emperor, Puyi, continued to live in the Forbidden City with his eunuchs as if the revolution had never happened while receiving financial support from the new Chinese republic until 1924 when the former Emperor and his entourage were expelled from the Forbidden City by the warlord General Feng Yuxiang. In 1923, after a case of arson that Puyi believed was started to cover the theft of his Imperial treasures, Puyi expelled all of the eunuchs from the Forbidden City.[128]

Notable Chinese eunuchs edit

See also: Category:Chinese eunuchs

First millennium BC edit

  • Zhao Gao: favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si (died 210 BC).
  • Sima Qian (old romanization Ssu-ma Chi'en; 2nd/1st century BC): the first person to have practiced modern historiography – gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources to write his monumental history of the Chinese Empire.

First millennium AD edit

  • Cai Lun (old romanization Ts'ai Lun; 1st/2nd century AD): Former attribution to Lun as the inventor of paper has been rescinded following discovery of many earlier manuscripts written on paper. It is now highly questionable if he was directly involved in making paper.

Second millennium AD edit

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  • In Our Time: The Eunuch. Presenter: Melvyn Bragg. Interviewed Guests: Karen Radner, Professor of Ancient Near Eastern History at University College London; Shaun Tougher, Reader in Ancient History at Cardiff University; Michael Hoeckelmann, British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of History at King's College London. Producer: Thomas Morris. Broadcaster: BBC Radio 4. Date: 26 February 2015

External links edit

  Media related to Chinese eunuchs at Wikimedia Commons

  • . China Underground. Archived from the original on 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
  • "Born Eunuchs". Well.com.
  • "The Eunuch Archive". eunuch.org.

April 10, 2024
eunuchs, china, eunuch, juː, nək, been, castrated, throughout, history, castration, often, served, specific, social, function, group, eunuchs, mural, from, tomb, prince, zhanghuai, china, castration, included, removal, penis, well, testicles, emasculation, bot. A eunuch ˈ juː n e k YOO nek 1 is a man who has been castrated 2 Throughout history castration often served a specific social function 3 A group of eunuchs Mural from the tomb of the prince Zhanghuai 706 AD In China castration included removal of the penis as well as the testicles see emasculation Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time 4 Eunuchs have existed in China since about 146 AD during the reign of Emperor Huan of Han 5 and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty 6 7 From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty castration was both a traditional punishment one of the Five Punishments and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He Self castration was a common practice although it was not always performed completely which led to it being made illegal It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high ranking civil servants was that since they were incapable of having children they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty In many cases eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar officials 8 As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor s and to the west of it four stars were identified as his eunuchs 9 The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history In his History of Government Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear cut There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor and the resistance of the virtuous officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part Ray Huang argues that in reality eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda 10 The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912 with the eunuch system being abolished on November 5 1924 5 The last Imperial eunuch Sun Yaoting died in December 1996 11 Contents 1 History 1 1 Qin dynasty 1 2 Han dynasty 1 3 Northern Wei 1 4 Northern Qi 1 5 Tang dynasty 1 6 Liao dynasty 1 7 Jin dynasty 1 8 Yuan dynasty 1 9 Ming dynasty 1 9 1 Path to the occupation 1 9 2 Daily functions of normal eunuchs 1 9 3 Relationship with other occupations in the royal palace 1 9 4 Power of eunuchs in the palace 1 9 5 Reputation of eunuchs in China 1 10 Qing dynasty 2 Notable Chinese eunuchs 2 1 First millennium BC 2 2 First millennium AD 2 3 Second millennium AD 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External linksHistory editQin dynasty edit Men sentenced to castration were turned into eunuch slaves of the Qin dynasty state to perform forced labor for projects such as the Terracotta Army 12 The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of rapists who received castration as a punishment 13 14 15 Men punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor 16 Han dynasty edit In Han dynasty China castration continued to be used as a punishment for various offenses 17 18 Sima Qian the famous Chinese historian was castrated by order of the Han Emperor of China for dissent 19 In another incident multiple people including a chief scribe and his underlings were subjected to castration 20 During the Han dynasty the euphemism for castration was sent to the silkworm house since castrated men had to be shut in an enclosed room like how silkworms were raised during the castration procedure and when they were recovering in order to prevent death Castration as a punishment was known as gōngxing 宮刑 palace punishment or fǔxing 腐刑 rotting punishment The Han dynasty under the reign of Emperor Wu castrated a prince of the kingdom of Loulan from Xinjiang that they were holding hostage at court because he broke a law Loulan asked for his return in 9 after their king died but the Han dynasty refused since they wanted to cover up the fact that they castrated him 21 22 23 Zhang He the older brother of Zhang Anshi was originally sentenced to death but was castrated instead when his brother pleaded for the sentence to be commuted The Han dynasty ordered the castration of Li Yannian musician as punishment for a crime 24 25 Li Yannian s sister Lady Li was a concubine of the Han dynasty emperor The Han dynasty ordered the castration of its envoy Ge Du Ke Too because he did not kill the Mad King of the Wusun who deserved death in the eyes of the Han dynasty and instead helped the Mad King get doctors to cure his illness 26 27 28 Su Wen was a eunuch who supported prince Liu Fuling and his mother Lady Zhao against Liu Ju Crown Prince of Wei and his mother Wei Zifu Near the end of the Han dynasty in 189 a group of eunuchs known as the Ten Attendants managed to gain considerable power at the imperial court so that several warlords decided they had to be eliminated to restore the Emperor s government 29 However the loyalist warlord He Jin was lured into a trap inside the palace and killed by the eunuchs 29 The other warlords led by Yuan Shao then stormed the palace and massacred the Ten Attendants and many other eunuchs 29 30 In the wake of the fighting Dong Zhuo seized power 30 Castration was abolished twice as a legal punishment in the Han dynasty the first time prior to 167 B C and the second time in the 110s A D 31 Northern Wei edit Category 北魏宦官 Northern Wei eunuchs In 446 an ethnic Qiang rebellion was crushed by the Northern Wei Wang Yu was an ethnic Qiang eunuch and he may have been castrated during the rebellion since the Northern Wei would castrated the rebel tribe s young elite Fengyi prefecture s Lirun town according to the Weishu was where Wang Yu was born Lirun was to Xi ans s northeast by 100 miles and modern day Chengcheng stands at its site Wang Yu patronized Buddhism and in 488 had a temple constructed in his birthplace 32 The Northern Wei had the young sons of rebels and traitors castrated and made them serve as eunuchs in the palace like Liu Siyi Liu Ssu i Yuwen Zhou Yu wen Chou 宇文冑 Duan Ba Wang Zhi Liu Teng and Sun Shao Gao Huan of Northern Qi had Shu Lue castrated and become a messenger eunuch because his father Fan Guan Fan Kuan 樊觀 remained loyal to Northern Wei 33 The Northern Wei presented northern wives to Liu Song generals Cui Mo and Shen Mo Lingdu a son was born to Shen Mo s northern wife However Shen Mo fled back south to Liu Song when he had the opportunity and the Northern Wei castrated Lingdu in response Cui Mo never went back south so his northern son would not be punished 34 The rebels themselves and their sons above the age of 14 were executed by chopping at the waist while the sons below 14 were castrated and served in the palace as eunuchs 35 36 The eunuch Zong Ai killed two Northern Wei Emperors and a Northern Wei prince 37 Empress Dowager Hu mounred for the eunuch Meng Luan Northern Qi edit Empress Dowager Hu Northern Qi was said to have initially engaged in sexual relations with her eunuchs although in light of their being previously castrated the traditional historians used the term xiexia 褻狎 immoral games rather than adultery to describe her acts with them 38 Tang dynasty edit Indigenous tribals from southern China were used as eunuchs during the Sui and Tang dynasties 39 The rebel An Lushan had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhu er 李豬兒 Li Chu erh who was working for An Lushan when he was a teenager An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died losing multiple pints of blood An Lushan revived him after smearing ashes on his injury Li Zhu er was An Lushan s eunuch after this and was highly used and trusted by him Li Zhu er and another two men helped carry the obese An Lushan when he dressed and undressed Li Zhu er also helped An Lushan dress at the Huaqing Hua ch ing steam baths granted by Emperor Xuanzang Later An Lushan was stricken with a skin disease and became blind and paranoid He started flogging and murdering his subordinates and Li Zhuer was approached by people who wanted to assassinate An Lushan An Lushan was stabbed in the stomach and disemboweled by Li Zhuer and Yan Zhuang Yen Chuang 嚴莊 another conspirator whom An Lushan had previously beaten An Lushan screamed This is a thief of my own household as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself 40 41 42 Liao dynasty edit The Khitans adopted the practice of using eunuchs from the Chinese and the eunuchs were non Khitan prisoners of war When they founded the Liao dynasty they developed a harem system with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it The Khitans captured Chinese eunuchs at the Jin court when they invaded the Later Jin Another source was during their war with the Song dynasty The Khitan Empress Dowager Chengtian led the Khitan to raid China capture Han Chinese boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become eunuchs The emasculation of captured Chinese boys guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao Dynasty harem She personally led her own army and defeated the Song in 986 43 fighting the retreating Chinese army The Empress then ordered the castration of around 100 Chinese boys she had captured supplementing the Khitan s supply of eunuchs to serve at her court among them was Wang Ji en 王继恩 辽朝 The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks 44 45 46 47 Another Han Chinese eunuch who was castrated and captured by the Khitan as a boy was Zhao Anren 赵安仁 48 49 The Han Chinese boys captured and castrated by Empress Chengtian became domestic slaves in the Liao palace and did not gain political power 50 51 52 Khitan women especially empresses and imperial concubines actively fought in war on the battlefield 53 54 The Liao enacted a new ling ordinance on castration when an yila i la footsoldier named Tuli T u li s underage daughter was raped by an Imperial consort clan uncle lang jun lang chun Xiao Yan s Hsiao Yen s slave Haili Hai li in 962 when Emperor Muzong of Liao was reigning Haili was made a slave to Tuli after being castrated 55 56 57 Boys under were not executed but instead castrated if they were under 16 during the Qing and Liao dynasties as punishment during rebellions 58 Jin dynasty edit Eunuchs in the Jin dynasty were domestic slaves who served the women of the palace like the concubines and empresses and did not gain political power 59 Liang Chong 梁珫 was a eunuch in the Jin dynasty Song Gui 宋珪 was another eunuch in the Jin dynasty Yuan dynasty edit As with all parts of the Mongol Empire Goryeo Korea provided eunuchs to the Mongols 60 One of them was Bak Bulhwa 61 who caused harm to Goryeo 62 Other Korean eunuchs in the Yuan included Go Yongbo and Bang Sin u Some Chinese and Korean eunuchs adopted Mongol names 63 Ming dynasty edit Castration as a legal punishment was banned at the end of the reign of the first Ming emperor Ming Taizu 56 64 Huai en died in 1488 was originally surnamed Dai 戴 and born in Shandong s Gaomi city He was forced to become a eunuch and was castrated as a young boy because his father and other members of the Dai family who worked as government officials were accused of crimes so he was punished as well There were eunuchs from China s various ethnic tribes Mongolia Korea 65 66 Vietnam 67 68 69 70 71 Cambodia Central Asia Thailand and Okinawa 72 14 16 There were Korean Jurchen Mongol Central Asian and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor 73 36ff 74 including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan 75 Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were present in the Ming court 72 14 such as the ones captured from Mongol controlled Yunnan in 1381 and among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He 72 14ff 76 who served Yongle 77 Muslim eunuchs were sent as ambassadors to the Timurids 78 Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang Ruan An Nguyễn An Fan Hong Chen Wu and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming 79 During Ming s early contentious relations with Joseon when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria Korean officials were even flogged by Korean born Ming eunuch ambassadors when their demands were not met 80 Some of the ambassadors were arrogant such as Sin Kwi saeng who in 1398 got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king 81 Sino Korean relations later became amiable and Korean envoys seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries 80 Korea stopped sending human tribute after 1435 80 A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming 82 The Ming eunuch hats were similar to the Korean royal hats indicating the foreign origins of the Ming eunuchs many of whom came from Southeast Asia and Korea 83 Yishiha was a Jurchen eunuch in the Ming dynasty during the Yongle emperor s period and Jurchen woen were also concubines of the Ming Yongle emperor 84 85 By the late Ming nearly 80 percent of eunuchs came from North China mainly the Beijing area 86 They came from a few counties around Beijing like Hejian 87 During the Miao Rebellions the Ming Governor castrated thousands of Miao boys when their tribes revolted and then gave them as slaves to various officials The Governor who ordered the castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by the Ming Tianshun Emperor for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event 72 16 Zhu Shuang Prince of Qin while he was high on drugs had some Tibetan boys castrated and Tibetan women seized after a war against minority Tibetan peoples As a result he was denounced after he died from an overdose 88 On 30 January 1406 the Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to give them to the emperor The Yongle Emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and did not deserve castration and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again 89 In the Le Dynasty the Vietnamese Emperor Le Thanh Tong was aggressive in his relations with foreign countries including China and cracked down on foreign contacts and enforced an isolationist policy A large amount of trade between Guangdong Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan and Vietnam happened during this time Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese It has been speculated by modern historians that Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in regular trade between China and Vietnam instead of being blown off course and that they were punished after a Vietnamese crackdown on trade with foreign countries 90 Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by Vietnamese navy as they were returning to Malacca from China The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured 91 92 93 94 A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang including a young man named Wu Rui were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong s Qin subprefecture Qinzhou after which they ended up near the coast of Vietnam in the 1460s during the Chenghua Emperor s rule 1464 1487 Twelve of them were enslaved to work as agricultural laborers while the youngest Chinese man Wu Rui 吳瑞 was selected by the Vietnamese court for castration since he was the only young man in among the thirteen and he became a eunuch at the Vietnamese imperial palace in Thang Long for nearly one fourth of a century After years of serving the Vietnamese as a eunuch slave in the palace he was promoted to a position with real power after the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497 to a military position in northern Vietnam as military superintendent since his service in the palace was apparently valued by the Vietnamese However the Lạng Sơn guard soldier Dương Tam tri Yang Sanzhi told him of an escape route back to China and Wu Rui escaped to Longzhou after walking for 9 days through the mountains The local ethnic minority Tusi chief Wei Chen took him into custody overruling objections from his family who wanted to send him back to Vietnam Vietnam found out about his escape and sent an agent to buy Wu Rui back from Wei Chen with 100 Jin in payment since they were scared that Wu Rui would reveal Vietnamese state secrets to China Wei Chen planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese but told them the amount they were offering was too little and demanded more however before they could agree on a price Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang magistrate Li Guangning and then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the Ming palace at the Directorate of Ceremonial silijian taijian 司禮監太監 95 96 97 The Đại Việt sử ky toan thư records that in 1467 in An Bang province of Dai Viet now Quảng Ninh Province a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Tong 98 99 A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu reported that some Chinese from Nanhai escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam s military The escapees also reported that they found out that more than 100 Chinese men remained captives in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam in other incidents The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries 100 These 100 men were taken prisoner around the same time as Wu Rui and the historian Leo K Shin believes all of them may have been involved in illegal trade instead of being blown off course by wind 101 The over 100 Chinese men who were castrated and made into eunuchs by the Vietnamese remained captives in Vietnam when the incident was reported Both the incidents of the young Chinese man Wu Rui and the more than 100 Chinese men being castrated and used as eunuchs point to possible involvement in trade according to historians John K Whitmore and Tana Li which was then suppressed by the Vietnamese government instead of them really being blown off course by the wind 97 China s relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration 102 103 An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Ming Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color 104 Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque 105 It is unknown who really was behind the anti pig slaughter edict 106 At the end of the Ming dynasty there were about 70 000 eunuchs huanguan or taijian employed by the emperor with some serving inside the imperial palace There were 100 000 eunuchs at the height of their numbers during the Ming 72 34ff 107 108 109 In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu s The Book of Swindles c 1617 eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices 110 The Southern Ming Yongli emperor s wife Empress Wang Southern Ming had a boy eunuch slave who later wrote his autobiographical account Yangjian biji He was from Huguang province s Jingzhou prefecture Rebels killed his parents and he was adopted by Liu one of the rebels Liu became a Southern Ming soldier The Southern Ming court needed eunuchs so they ordered high ranking military officers to give up their older than 7 year old sons to be castrated in Kunming Yunnan Fu for the Yongli court in 1656 Over 20 boys were castrated 1 month after the order despite Liu s attempts to save his adopted son from the castration 111 Wang Ruoshue Joseph and Pang Tianshou Achilles were eunuchs at the Southern Ming Yongli emperor s court and they along with Crown Prince Zhu Cixuan 朱慈煊 Constantine Empress Dowager Wang Southern Ming Helena Empress Dowager Ma Southern Ming Maria Empress Wang Southern Ming Anne and Qu Shisi 瞿式耜 Ch u Shih ssu the Guangxi provincial governor were all baptized as Roman Catholics by Jesuits Andreas Wolfgang Koffler and Michal Boym 112 113 114 A novel was written about them by Robert Elegant 115 116 Other Southern Ming eunuchs included Gao Qiqian 高起潛 and Lu Jiude 盧九德 Path to the occupation edit In Ming China the royal palace acquired eunuchs from both domestic and foreign sources 117 126 138 On the one hand the eunuchs in Ming China came from foreign sources The enemies of Ming China were castrated as a means of punishment when they are captured by the Ming army as prisoners 117 127 For example the population of Mongol eunuchs in Nanjing increased significantly during Yongle s reign when there was a war between Ming China and the Mongols 117 127 The foreign eunuchs also came as tribute from many small countries around China 117 127 On the other hand eunuchs also came from indigenous Chinese In Ming China many men castrated themselves to be hired in the palace when the only way for these men to enter into a life of privilege was through eunuchism 117 128 Besides the royal palace bureaucratic elites such as mandarin officials also hired eunuchs to be servants in their families 117 131 With this demand many men were willing to castrate themselves to become eunuchs Daily functions of normal eunuchs edit Eunuchs in Ming China also played a critical role in the operation of the imperial palace Their responsibilities varied in significance with jobs that included almost every aspect of everyday routine in the imperial palace Some of their responsibilities were procuring copper tin wood and iron Also they had to repair and construct ponds castle gates and palaces in major cities like Beijing and Nanjing and the mansions and mausolea in the living spaces of imperial relatives 117 131 They prepared meals for a great number of people in the palace Taking care of the animals in the palace was another one of their jobs In a word the eunuchs work was the cornerstone of the palace s daily operation and they were responsible for the Emperor and his relatives comfortable life 117 125 Relationship with other occupations in the royal palace edit The eunuchs were also highly associated with other lower ranking occupations in the royal palace For example some eunuchs would have special relationships with serving women in the palace Some eunuchs would form a partnership with serving women to support each other which was called a vegetarian couple Duishi 118 43 In this kind of relationship both the eunuchs and serving women could be more secure when they encountered conflicts with those of higher rank such as mandarin bureaucrats 118 60 Power of eunuchs in the palace edit The eunuchs also had an opportunity to rise to higher ranks For example the duties and jobs of eunuchs gradually changed in Ming dynasty In the Hongwu Emperor s time the Emperor decreed that the eunuchs were to be kept in small numbers and of minimal literacy to prevent them from seizing power 73 64 However in later generations the Emperors began to train and educate the eunuchs and made them their personal secretaries 73 65 The lack of the restrictions allowed some eunuchs to rise to great power for example Wang Zhen Liu Jin and Wei Zhongxian especially There were even a eunuch supervised secret police which worked for the emperor It was known as the Eastern Depot and Western Depot 73 65 Also Zheng He a famous eunuch in China s history became an early pioneer of seafaring and spread Chinese influence around the world 119 Reputation of eunuchs in China edit However the reputation of eunuchs was controversial in Ming China especially considering the way they had their eyes and ears everywhere Since the eunuchs served both the harem and the emperors it was believed that they were able to carry valuable information that could either break or create an emperor s status so out of fear Chinese bureaucrat scholars always depicted eunuchs negatively as greedy evil cunning and duplicitous 117 121 The Chinese seemed to have a stereotypical view toward the eunuchs This bad reputation may be explained by the fact that the eunuchs to get employment in the royal palace or official houses needed to be castrated Castration gave the eunuchs the license to work in the palace or official houses in Ming China because the officials and the Emperor in Ming China usually kept many concubines 117 133 However in Chinese society castration broke with conventional moral rules A son who could not have a male heir to carry on the family name contradicted Confucian ideology 117 132 The eunuchs despite their awareness of losing the ability to have children would get castrated to have better lives Another stereotypical view of eunuchs in the palace was that they exceeded their power in areas they did not belong or that they did unpleasant work For example they were spies for emperors or officials The Yongle Emperor gave the eunuchs the authority to be in charge in the implementation of political tasks As the eunuchs presence and power grew they gradually took over the duties of female palace musicians and become the dominant musicians in the Ming palace 120 When they came to power eunuchs would even interfere in politics such as the succession to the throne 117 125 Qing dynasty edit nbsp Empress Dowager Cixi carried and accompanied by palace eunuchs before 1908 nbsp A Chinese eunuch boy in 1901 during the Qing dynasty with all his genitals removed Qing eunuchs had their testicles scrotum and penises removed 121 122 123 A minority of Qing eunuchs were of Mongol 124 and Manchu origin despite laws against Manchus becoming eunuchs 125 126 While eunuchs were employed in all Chinese dynasties their number decreased significantly under the Qing and the tasks they performed were largely replaced by the Imperial Household Department 127 At the beginning of the 20th century there were about 2 000 eunuchs working in the Forbidden City 128 129 The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption stealing as much as they could 130 The position of a eunuch in the Forbidden City offered opportunity for theft and corruption China was such a poor country that countless men willingly became eunuchs to live a better life 130 However eunuchs as the Emperor s slaves had no rights and could be abused at the Emperor s whim The Emperor Puyi recalled in his memoirs of growing up in the Forbidden City that By the age of 11 flogging eunuchs was part of my daily routine My cruelty and love of power were already too firmly set for persuasion to have any effect on me Whenever I was in a bad temper the eunuchs would be in for trouble 128 131 The Qing beile princes were told that their palace women would have sex with their boys slaves so they were told to have the young boy slaves castrated by Nurhaci in 1621 132 133 The Imperial Household Department managed eunuchs since the Kangxi reign 134 The Qing palace leaned towards recruiting eunuchs from Zhili mainly mid 20 year olds or adolescent Han Chinese 135 136 137 who were not married mainly from northern Shandong and the counties of Wanping Jinghai Daxing and Hejian in southern Hebei near Beijing Some southern Chinese from Yunnan Zhejiang and Guangdong people became eunuchs but in a minor amount compared to the counties around Biejing 138 Sons of rebels 15 and younger from the Lin Shuangwen rebellion in Taiwan were castrated as ordered by the Qianlong emperor and Heshen 139 140 141 The Taiwanese boys who were castrated were aged 4 to 15 years old and 40 of them were named on one memorial This new policy of castrating sons of killers of 3 or more related people and rebels helped solve the supply of young eunuchs for the Qing Summer Palace 142 The Qing were willing to lower their normal age limit for castration all the way to 4 when using castration as punishment for sons of rebels when it normally wanted eunuchs castrated after 9 143 Other times the Qing Imperial Household Department waited until the boys reached 11 years old before castrating them like when they waited for the two young imprisoned sons of executed murderer Sui Bilong from Shandong to grow up The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 11 year old Hunanese boy Fang Mingzai to become a eunuch slave in the Qing palace after his father was executed for murder 144 The Qing Summer palace due to this policy of castrating sons of mass murderers and rebels received many young healthy eunuchs 145 Sons of rebels leaders above 15 were beheaded Female relatives of Taiwanese rebel leaders daughters wives concubines were sent to the northeastern frontier in Ningguta in Heilongjiang to become slaves of the Solon 130 sons of the Taiwanese rebel leaders 15 and younger were taken into custody by the Qing The rebel leader Zhuang Datian s 4 year old grandson Zhuang Amo was one of those castrated There was another Lin family who joined the Lin Shuangwen rebellion Lin Da was ordered to lead 100 people by Lin Shuangwen and given the title general Xuanlue Lin Da was 42 when he was executed by Lingchi He had six sons the two older ones died before and his third son Lin Dou died from sickness before he could be castrated in Beijing while his fourth and fifth sons were castrated the 11 year old Lin Biao and 8 year old Lin Xian However his sixth and youngest son 7 year old Lin Mading was given away to a relative uncle named Lin Qin for adoption and Lin Qin did not join the rebellion so Lin Mading was not castrated Lin Mading had 2 children after marrying his wife in 1800 when he was 20 146 Descriptions of fingerprints were recorded for castrated sons of criminals and rebels 147 but it was barely used for other eunuchs when trying to find escapee eunuchs and only a written description of the fingerprints was taken not an actual print Fingerprints were used in the Qing bureaucracy in other instances to identify people 148 Sometimes castrations were not fully done since an undescended testicle would not be removed and it was only found out when puberty brought out the secondary sex characteristics If they were found out then they would be sent back to their hometowns and out of the palace They would still be called eunuchs 149 In one case reviewed by the Qianlong emperor a man named Zhao Youliang 赵友谅 was innocent of all crime but his father Zhao Cheng 赵成 slept with his son s wife Zhao Youliang didn t want to report his father out of filial piety so he took his wife elsewhere to their relatives the Niu 牛 family s house to hide her from his father Zhao Cheng Sun Si 孙四 a friend of Zhao Cheng then helped Zhao Cheng murder 5 members of the Niu family and then Zhao Cheng blamed his son Zhao Youliang for the murder Zhao Youliang did not implicate his father out of filial piety when he was being tortured in interrogation but the officials realized one person couldn t have killed 5 the government officials tortured and interrogated the neighbors until they revealed that Sun Si and Zhao Cheng committed the murder The penalty for mass murdering multiple people was that the same number of people from the perpetrator s family would get executed The officials did not want to execute Zhao Youliang for his father s crimes so they asked the Qianlong emperor to decide Qianlong decided that the son was to be sentenced to castration since he deserved death under Qing law because he was the son of a murderer but commuted his sentence to castration as mercy because he was personally victimized when his father who slept with his wife and he had filial piety and said he had to be castrated because his father did not deserve offspring 150 There was also a mass murder incident where a murderer injured 12 and murdered 11 unrelated people in 1791 The Qing law on mass murdering said that castration was to be done on sons of murderers who mass murdered against one family and killed 3 or more members of it but nevertheless the Qing emperor ordered the sons of this mass murderer be castrated as well 151 After one boy was injured severely and his three brothers were killed in Henan by a murderer surnamed Zhang who was a tenant farmer in 1788 the emperor ordered castration for the 2 sons of Zhang while a lingchi sentenced was passed for Zhang himself 152 The Qing passed a law that castration was the punishment for grandsons and sons of rebels by the Imperial Household Department after changing a death sentence to a castration sentence in the case of an 18 year old who was a nephew of a rebel in 1781 however despite the law being inspired by this case nephews weren t covered in the people to be castrated in the law and only the direct sons and grandsons of the rebels were 153 Qianlong reintroduced castration of relatives of those who murdered multiple people or rebelled The Ming code and Tang code both do not have such a law 154 Castration for sons of rebels was reintroduced in by the Qing in the 18th century after it was abolished in the Ming and Tang dynasties 155 156 Sons of murderers above 15 were not beheaded unlike sons and grandsons of rebels and instead they were also castrated as eunuchs in the palace The wives and daughters of murderers would be given to the murder victims relatives if they still lived unlike wives and daughters of rebels Qianlong and the Imperial Household Department under Heshen later decreed that sons of murderers who were 16 years old and older would be exiled as become slaves of the Solon on the frontier in Ningguta in Heilongjiang or Ili in Xinjiang after castration while the sons 15 and younger would be kept as eunuchs in the Imperial palace since the younger sons could be controlled while the older sons were uncontrollable in a decision made in 1793 157 Imposing a penalty of castration upon the sons of rebels and murderers of 3 or more related people was part of a new Qing policy to ensure a supply of young boy eunuchs since the Qianlong emperor ordered young eunuchs to be shifted towards the main imperial residence in the Summer Palace Norman A Kutcher connected the Qing policy on obtaining young eunuchs to the observation that young boy eunuchs were prized by female members of the Qing Imperial family as attendants noted by the British George Carter Stent in the 19th century 158 Norman Kutcher noted that George Stent said young eunuchs were physically attractive and were used for impossible to describe duties by female imperial family members and they were considered completely pure Kutcher suggests the boys were used for sexual pleasure by Qing imperial women connecting them to the boy eunuchs called earrings who were used for that purpose 159 160 161 162 163 164 Boy eunuchs were used for intimate bathroom and bedroom duties by palace ladies 165 166 167 168 An amusement part model peasant village with a complete market street Maimaijie in the Summer palace was staffed by eunuch actors 169 Sir John Barrow 1st Baronet noted on his visit to the Qing summer palace as part of the Macartney Embassy in 1793 that there were two kinds of Chinese eunuchs the ones who only had their testicles cut off and whose job it was to inspect and maintain buildings gardens and other works in the palaces and the ones who were called rasibus by Catholic missionaries there and had all their genitals including penises and testicles cut off since they served in the interior of the palace and served and attended upon the women of the Qing imperial harem and they were as coquettish as the women they served and painted their faces like them Barrow also noted all the Chinese eunuchs there including the rasibus had their own women slaves who were the daughters of poor people they purchased them from and they used these women for sex 170 171 172 173 Sir George Staunton 1st Baronet explained that the term black eunuch did not refer to skin colour but referred to the term used in the Ottoman Empire for eunuchs who had their penis cut off along with their testicles 174 175 During the Qing Chinese eunuchs who were fully castrated with their penises removed had to resort to either dildos oral sex or foreplay to satisfy women during sex Qing era writer Liang Zhangju 1775 1849 wrote in his sketches Wandering Talk that when palace eunuchs performed oral sex on the women and caressed them with their hands until the women were sexually satisfied and sweating 176 Chinese eunuchs used dildos and hormone therapy to have a dry run orgasm with diminished sensation and they could to reduce the effects of castration especially if they were past puberty when castrated Eunuchs still had sexual urges after castration as well as libido The eunuchs were sexually frustrated The eunuch Zhang Delang engaged in sexual acts with a prostitute in Tianjin s Japanese concession where he lived after the fall of the Qing and he also married three women Another eunuch who worked for him Yu Chunhe said he was burning with fever and desire as he watched the prostitute and Zhang The Qing court and the eunuchs themselves considered eunuchs as male not as female or a third sex 177 The prostitute s body was kissed all over by Zhang Lande as he lifted her and threw himself on her like a wolf 178 It was also reported that the eunuch Xiao Dezhang Hsiao Teh chang Zhang Lande was suggested by Cixi Tsu hsi as a sexual partner for the Longyu empress Lung yu since the Guangxi emperor Kuang Hsu was impotent 179 Zhang Lande had the building later known as Qingwangfu Prince Qing s Mansion in Tianjin built for himself before Zaizhen Prince Qing bought it from him 180 181 182 The eunuch Zhang Lande had a love affair with Han Bannerwoman Yu Roung Ling a sister of Princess Der Ling nbsp Han bannerwoman Yu Roung Ling nbsp Empress Longyu with a eunuch on the right behind her and a palace maid on the left behind her nbsp Empress Longyu with five eunuchs including two boys on the far left and far right and Zhang Lande is the third from the left nbsp Empress Dowager Cixi Empress Longyu and eunuch Cui Yugui with other womenThe Manchu palace maid Ronger 榮兒 born 1880 came from the Manchu Heseri clan She later adopted the surname He and became known as He Rong er When Ronger turned 18 and retired as a palace maid the Qing Dowager Empress Cixi married Ronger off to a Han Chinese eunuch surnamed Liu as a present to her Liu was an adopted son of the eunuch Li Lianying Ronger recounted in her memoir that the Qing court rules were that all eunuchs must be Han Chinese not from the Eight banners while all palace maids must be Manchu bannerwomen from the three upper banners of the Eight Banners and Han Chinese girls were forbidden to become palace maids 183 For 8 years Cixi had Ronger serving her as maid and Cixi gave her the name Ronger She was 13 when she was recruited at palace maid during mandatory recruitment drives from the banners She wrote the book The Memoirs of a Palace Maid about her life 184 The rules had been changed to recruit mainly Manchu and Mongol banner girls for palace maids and ban Han banner girls from palace made work in 1806 ostensibly and officially to help Han bannermen reduce their monetary burdens but the historian Shuo Wang also believes it was due to the fact that Han banner girls followed Han customs and not Manchu ones Any Han bannerman who was not a high official and not of the 6th rank did not have to send his daughters to the palace maid draft while every Manchu and Mongol bannerman had to send their daughters 185 The servant girls were daughters of Manchu soldiers and had to stay ten years at the palace to wait upon Her Majesty and then they are free to marry 186 When George N Kates lived in Beijing in the 1930s he lived in a dwelling he rented from a eunuch and his wife who were given the abode by the Empress Dowager as a gift and the eunuch s wife was a former handmaiden to the Empress Dowager During the Great Leap Forward malnutrition caused the wife of the eunuch to die 187 Sexual relations and marriage between eunuchs and palace maids were referred to as Duishi or Caihu 188 Ma Saihua a 19 year old woman was married by the eunuch An Dehai when he was 24 A yellow bag with bamboo sticks was kept in the Forbidden City and Empress Dowager Cixi once ordered the palace servant girls and court ladies to beat the eunuchs with them 189 Eunuchs would be punished even more unless they begged their mistress or master for mercy when they were being beaten for infractions and rule breaking 190 There was a difference between eunuchs who served the inner court of the palace and the outer court of the palace There were fewer rules and restrictions on outer court eunuchs and they dwelled outside the palace and received less salary They were the musicians actors taking care of the tombs and served as the Imperial Household Department s zongguan and maintained temples altars parks and gardens belonging to 5 different sections They were subject to the Jingshifang and did mostly menial work The eunuchs of the inner court were higher in rank and received more salary Out of the total eunuch population one fifth to one fourth were from the inner court and they numbered 400 to 500 The inner court eunuchs were of 5 categories those in the general service those who serves princesses and princes those who served the dowager empress those who served the concubines and empress and those who served the emperor 191 The film The Conqueror 征服者 starring actress Chen Hong depicts the castration of the 8 15 year old sons of rebels in the White Lotus Rebellion in 1804 192 Zhang Wenxiang 張汶祥 who was accused in the assassination case of Ma Xinyi was executed and his 11 year old son Zhang Changpao 張長幅 was castrated by the Imperial Household Department to become a eunuch His son was first tortured in front of him to get him to confess to the assassination which many believed was an inside conspiracy by the Qing government against Ma Xinyi Zhang Wenxiang s daughter was already married so she was not enslaved by the government 193 194 Taiping rebel Shi Dakai s had 2 sons 5 year old Shi Dingzhong and a younger son named Shi Dingji His sons were sentenced to imprisonment until they reached 11 when they would then be castrated It is unknown if it was carried out When the Qing forces under Zuo Zongtang put down the Dungan Revolt 1862 1877 the sons of Muslim Hui and Salar rebel leaders like Ma Benyuan 马本源 and Ma Guiyuan 马桂源 in Ningxia Gansu and Qinghai were castrated by the Qing Imperial Household Department once they became 11 years old and were sent to work as eunuch slaves for Qing garrisons in Xinjiang and the wives of the Muslim rebel leaders were also enslaved 195 Ma Jincheng a son of the Hui Naqshbandi leader Ma Hualong was also castrated after being held in jail in Xi an until he was 11 years old 196 The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 9 sons of Ma Guiyuan since they already reached age 12 and were enslave as eunuchs to Qing soldiers in Xinjiang Ma Zhenyuan Ma Benyuan and Ma Guiyuan s wives were all enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons after the husbands were executed Ma Yulong was the father of the boys Ma Sanhe and Ma Jibang Ma Dingbang was the father of Ma Qishi Ma Shaba Ma Suo and Ma Youzong Ma Chenglong was the father of Ma Feifei Their sons were all sentenced to castration 195 The sons and grandsons of the Central Asian Muslim conqueror Yaqub Beg in China were all castrated Surviving members of Yaqub Beg s family included 4 sons 4 grandchildren 2 grandsons and 2 granddaughters and 4 wives They either mostly died in prison in Lanzhou Gansu or were killed However his sons Yima Kuli K ati Kuli Maiti Kuli and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors in 1879 They were all underage children and put on trial sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father s rebellious sedition or if they were innocent of their fathers crimes were to be sentenced to castration and serve as eunuch slaves to Chinese troops when they reached 11 years old They were handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated 197 198 199 In 1879 it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out Yaqub Beg s son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace 200 201 202 Yaqub Beg s sons and grandsons who were captured were under 10 years old Aisin Ahongju Kadihuli and 10 year old Imahuli 195 A man in Shaanxi had his penis cut off by his daughter in law surnamed Xie during the Qing dynasty 203 204 205 In 1872 boy named Liu Ch ang yu from Henan was taken by the Imperial Household Department for castration when he grew of age to be enslaved as a eunuch in a princely establishment since his father had murdered several relatives 206 In 1856 some rebels were captured in the metropolitan province Zhili and several boys under 15 years old were with them The adults were beheaded and the children were castrated A boy named Li Liu was the son of a rebel named Li Mao tz e Li Maozi who rebelled on the border of Henan Honan and Anhui Anhwei provinces in 1872 Li Liu was captured when he was 6 years old by Qing government forces in Anhui Anhwei and handed over to Yulu Yu Luh the governor of Anhui He was imprisoned in the office of the district magistrate of Huaining Hwaining until he reached 11 years old in 1877 and was then ordered to be handed to the Imperial Household Department for castration His case appeared on 28 November 1877 in the Peking Gazette 207 208 209 210 The Qing later changed its law in 1801 1814 1835 and 1845 saying that all the sons and grandsons of rebels who were ignorant of their father and grandfather s rebellious intents were to be sent to the Imperial Household Department for castration regardless of whether they were adults or children Young boys would be imprisoned until reaching 11 and they would be castrated and boys between 11 and 16 would be castrated without respite Many of these rebellions were caused by the Qing state persecuting religions and were provoked by Qing actions against these religious sects 211 During the Qing punitive castration was done on a man in Shanxi for breaking the law He was married to a woman but could not father children with her due to his castration She went back to her parents several times until her father committed murder suicide with him hanging himself after she was hanged This case appeared in Chen Dongyuan s book on women s history in China 212 213 214 After the execution of anti Qing revolutionary Xu Xilin Hsu Hsi lin in 1907 his family including his son Xu Xuewen 1906 1991 were arrested by the Qing Under Qing law his son under the age of 16 was supposed to be castrated to become a eunuch and serve in the Qing palace 215 The Qing was overthrown in 1912 and the castration was not carried out Xu Xuewen later married a German woman Maria Henriette Margarete Bordan 1915 2003 216 217 They had a daughter together named Xu Naijin Nancy Zi 1937 August 20 2005 who married Chiang Hsiao wen the son of the Republic of China President Chiang Ching kuo and his wife a Belarusian woman Chiang Fang liang Faina Ipat evna Vakhreva 218 Empress Dowager Longyu wanted the imperial palace to have the right to make more eunuchs during the negotiations for abdication of the Qing in 1912 in the Articles of Favourable Treatment but she was forced to concede her demand 219 220 After the revolution of 1911 12 that toppled the Qing the last emperor Puyi continued to live in the Forbidden City with his eunuchs as if the revolution had never happened while receiving financial support from the new Chinese republic until 1924 when the former Emperor and his entourage were expelled from the Forbidden City by the warlord General Feng Yuxiang In 1923 after a case of arson that Puyi believed was started to cover the theft of his Imperial treasures Puyi expelled all of the eunuchs from the Forbidden City 128 Notable Chinese eunuchs editSee also Category Chinese eunuchs First millennium BC edit Zhao Gao favourite of Qin Shihuangdi who plotted against Li Si died 210 BC Sima Qian old romanization Ssu ma Chi en 2nd 1st century BC the first person to have practiced modern historiography gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources to write his monumental history of the Chinese Empire First millennium AD edit Cai Lun old romanization Ts ai Lun 1st 2nd century AD Former attribution to Lun as the inventor of paper has been rescinded following discovery of many earlier manuscripts written on paper It is now highly questionable if he was directly involved in making paper Second millennium AD edit Jia Xian c 1010 c 1070 Chinese mathematician invented the Jia Xian triangle for the calculation of square roots and cube roots Zheng He 1371 1433 famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean Huang Hao eunuch in the state of Shu also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms Cen Hun eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period Gao Lishi a loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong Li Fuguo Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule Yu Chao en Tang eunuch who began his career as army supervisor Yang Liangyao Bian Lingcheng 邊令誠 Wang Zhen first Ming eunuch with much power see Tumu Crisis Gang Bing patron saint of eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to the Yongle Emperor Yishiha admiral in charge of expeditions down the Amur River under the Yongle and Xuande Emperors Liu Jin corrupt eunuch official of the Ming dynasty and de facto emperor member of the Eight Tigers Wei Zhongxian eunuch of the Ming dynasty considered the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history Wu Rui a Chinese eunuch in Le Dynasty Annam Vietnam An Dehai Li Lianying a despotic eunuch of the Qing dynasty Xin Xiuming 1878 1959 Entered Emperor Puyi s service in 1902 left palace service in 1911 became abbot of the Taoist temple at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery by 1930 wrote memoir Eunuch s Recollection 老太监的回忆 Sun Yaoting 1902 1996 last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history References edit eὐnoῦxos Liddell Henry George Scott Robert A Greek English Lexicon at the Perseus Project eunuch dictionary cambridge org Retrieved 2021 02 25 Eunuch The New Oxford Dictionary of English Oxford Clarendon Press 1998 p 634 ISBN 978 0 19 861263 6 Vern L Bullough 2001 Encyclopedia of birth control ABC CLIO p 248 ISBN 1 57607 181 2 Retrieved 11 January 2011 a b Robles Pablo Knife spigot chilli sauce the making of a Forbidden City eunuch South China Morning Post Retrieved 2022 03 12 Melissa S Dale Inside the World of the Eunuch 2018 ISBN 9888455753 page 14 Victor T Cheney A Brief History Of Castration Second Edition 2006 ISBN 1467816663 page 14 For an extended discussion see Mitamura Taisuke Chinese Eunuchs The Structure of Intimate Politics tr Charles A Pomeroy Tokyo 1970 a short condensed version of Mitamura s original book 三田村泰助 宦官 Chuko Shinsho Tokyo 1963 Patterson Orlando 2018 Chapter 11 The Ultimate Slave Slavery and Social Death A Comparative Study Harvard University Press p 325 ISBN 978 0 674 91613 5 Huang Ray 1981 1587 A Year of No Significance The Ming Dynasty in Decline New Haven Yale University Press ISBN 0 300 02518 1 Faison Seth 1996 12 20 The Death of the Last Emperor s Last Eunuch The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2020 02 04 Bayerischen Landesamtes fur Denkmalpflege 2001 Qin Shihuang Bayerisches Landesamt fur Denkmalpflege p 273 ISBN 3 87490 711 2 Retrieved 11 January 2011 Mark Edward Lewis 2007 The early Chinese empires Qin and Han Harvard University Press p 252 ISBN 978 0 674 02477 9 Retrieved 11 January 2011 Korolkov Maxim Calculating Crime and Punishment Unofficial Law Enforcement Quantification and Legitimacy in Early Imperial China Critical Analysis of Law 76 ISSN 2291 9732 Windrow Hayden January 2006 A Short History of Law Norms and Social Control in Imperial China PDF Asian Pacific Law amp Policy Journal 7 265 Archived from the original PDF on 2022 03 18 Retrieved 2021 10 22 History of Science Society 1952 Osiris Vol 10 Saint Catherine Press p 144 Retrieved 11 January 2011 Britannica Educational Publishing 2010 The History of China The Rosen Publishing Group p 76 ISBN 978 1 61530 181 2 Retrieved 11 January 2011 Qian Ma 2005 Women in traditional Chinese theater the heroine s play University Press of America p 149 ISBN 0 7618 3217 3 Retrieved 11 January 2011 Edward Theodore Chalmers Werner 1919 China of the Chinese Charles Scribner s Sons p 152 Retrieved 11 January 2011 castration inflicted li ling Ch ien Ssu Ma 2008 The Grand Scribe s Records The Memoirs of Han China Part 1 Indiana University Press p 231 ISBN 978 0 253 34028 3 Retrieved 11 January 2011 Dettenhofer Maria H 2009 4 Eunuchs Women and Imperial Courts In Scheidel Walter ed Rome and China Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires illustrated ed Oxford Studies in Early Empires Oxford University Press USA p 87 ISBN 978 0 19 533690 0 tarily castrated themselves in early Christianity emasculation was practiced to ensure chastity The church father Origen is the most We know the sad story of the young prince of Lou Lan a walled state on the western border Wood Frances 2002 The Silk Road Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia illustrated ed University of California Press p 53 ISBN 0 520 24340 4 danger of pronouncing upon history in China and his predecessor Sima Qian was castrated on imperial orders after defending General Li Ling who had been forced to For field crops they rely on Shanshan Loulan and Qiemo Hulsewe Anthony Francois Paulus 1955 Remnants of Han Law Vol 1 Leiden E J Brill p 127 CASTRATION It seems quite clear that as a principal punishment castration was abolished some time before 167 BC 79 but it was reintroduced mostly and especially during the Later Han period in commutation of the death penalty Ssu ma Ch ien 2019 Nienhauser William H ed The Grand Scribe s Records Vol XI Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 04846 2 Han Yen was a grandson of the Marquis T ui tang of Kung kao by a concubine 22 When the present After Li Yen nien had been convicted of a crime he was sentenced to castration and served in the imperial kennels Martini Remo 2009 Studi in onore di Remo Martini Vol 2 reprint ed Giuffre Editore p 541 ISBN 978 8814145490 an offence and suffered the punishment of castration being sent in addition to serve in the kennels of the imperial king however the prince had been held liable for an offence under han law and been sentenced to castration hence Waugh Daniel C 1999 Selections from the Han Narrative Histories Silk Road Seattle University of Washington Wood Frances 2002 The Silk Road Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia illustrated ed University of California Press p 59 ISBN 0 520 24340 4 Yu Taishan 2004 A History of the Relationships Between the Western and Eastern Han Wei Jin Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania p 37 a b c Rafe de Crespigny October 2017 He Jin A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23 220 AD Retrieved 25 February 2020 a b Rafe de Crespigny October 2017 Dong Zhuo A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23 220 AD Retrieved 25 February 2020 Kim Chin LeBlang Theodore R The Death Penalty in Traditional China Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 5 85 Watt James C Y Angela Falco Howard Boris Ilʹich Marshak Su Bai Zhao Feng Maxwell K Hearn Denise Patry Leidy Chao Hui Jenny Lui Valentina Ivanova Raspopova Zhixin Sun 2004 China Dawn of a Golden Age 200 750 AD illustrated ed Metropolitan Museum of Art p 23 ISBN 1 58839 126 4 Wang Yi t ung 1953 Slaves and Other Comparable Social Groups During The Northern Dynasties 386 618 Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 16 3 4 Harvard Yenching Institute 310 doi 10 2307 2718246 JSTOR 2718246 Tang Qiaomei 2016 Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China First Through Six Century PDF Doctoral dissertation Harvard University Graduate School of Arts amp Sciences p 151 MacCormack Geoffrey 2005 On the Pre Tang Development of the Law of Treason moufan dani and pan PDF Journal of Asian Legal History 5 1 18 Martini Remo 2009 Studi in onore di Remo Martini Vol 2 reprint ed Giuffre Editore p 546 ISBN 978 8814145490 Compared with the eunuch Zong Ai of the Northern Wei Dynasty Zhao Gao and Wei Zhongxian were all inferior DayDayNews 2020 03 27 Archived from the original on 2021 10 20 Li Baiyao 李百藥 卷9 武成胡后 北齊書 Book of Northern Qi in Literary Chinese Rideout J K 1949 The Rise of the Eunuchs During The T ang Dynasty PDF Archived from the original PDF on 4 December 2010 Liu Xu 1960 Biography of An Lu shan Issue 8 Chiu Tang shu Vol 8 Translated by Levy Howard Seymour University of California Press Chinese Dynastic Histories translations pp 42 43 Chamney Lee Fall 2012 The An Shi Rebellion and Rejection of the Other in Tang China 618 763 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of History and Classics Edmonton Alberta University of Alberta p 41 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 978 1069 Holcombe Charles 2017 A History of East Asia From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty First Century 2 revised ed Cambridge University Press p 110 ISBN 978 1 108 10777 8 Bennett Peterson Barbara 2000 Notable women of China Shang dynasty to the early twentieth century Routledge p 259 ISBN 978 0 7656 0504 7 Retrieved 13 February 2020 McMahon Keith 6 June 2013 McMahon 2013 261 269 Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 1 4422 2290 8 Retrieved 24 April 2014 Ebrey Patricia Buckley 2016 9 State Forced Relocations in China 900 1500 In Ebrey Patricia Buckley Smith Paul Jakov eds State Power in China 900 1325 illustrated ed University of Washington Press p 315 ISBN 978 0 295 99848 0 Lin Hang 2020 Empress Dowagers on Horseback Yingtian and Chengtian of the Khitan Liao 907 1125 PDF Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 73 4 598 doi 10 1556 062 2020 00031 S2CID 234577680 Archived from the original PDF on March 18 2022 Alt URL 世界新聞傳播學院 圖書資訊學系 1994 資訊傳播與圖書館學 Volumes 1 2 世界新聞傳播學院圖書資訊學系籌備小組暨圖書館 p 38 Private collectors of Liao were few mainly because there had been very few books printed in the Khitan language and the rate of Wang Chi en L fl Since he was good looking he was castrated and made to be a eunuch Gary Seaman 1991 Seaman Gary Marks Daniel eds Rulers from the Steppe State Formation on the Eurasian Periphery Vol 2 illustrated ed Ethnographics Press Center for Visual Anthropology University of Southern California pp 212 213 ISBN 1 878986 01 5 The biography of Wang Chi en informs us that Wang knew the Khitan language and that he held several positions in The other Liao eunuch with a biography Chao An jen was also captured as a prisoner of war at a young age and Standen Naomi 2006 Unbounded Loyalty Frontier Crossings in Liao China illustrated ed University of Hawaii Press pp 238 205 210 ISBN 0 8248 2983 2 王 茜 2012 辽金宦官研究 学位论文 gt 哲学与人文科学 硕士论文 吉林大学 辽代后宫制度研究 April 2009 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Wittfogel Karl A Feng Chia Sheng 1946 History of Chinese Society Liao 907 1125 Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 36 American Philosophical Society i 752 doi 10 2307 1005570 JSTOR 1005570 The Queen of Liao Jingzong Xiao Chuo the most familiar Queen Mother of the Central Plains Dynasty the figure of Wu Zetian in the Liao Kingdom DayDayNews November 3 2019 The concubines of the Liao Dynasty frequently participated in politics and their power was overwhelming the world The royal family and the posterity are united in power and the posterity is powerful MINNEWS 2021 10 21 Franke Herbert 1983 The Treastise on Punishments in the Liao History Central Asiatic Journal 27 1 2 Harrassowitz Verlag 9 38 JSTOR 41927386 a b Martini Remo 2009 Studi in onore di Remo Martini Vol 2 reprint ed Giuffre Editore p 548 ISBN 978 8814145490 Franke Herbert 1992 Chinese Law in a Multinational Society The Case of the Liao 907 1125 Asia Major 5 2 Academia Sinica 111 27 JSTOR 41625268 Muhlhahn Klaus 2009 Criminal Justice in China A History Harvard University Press p 310 ISBN 978 0 674 05433 2 张 宏 2010 金代后宫制度研究 吉林大学 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Robinson David M 2009 Empire s Twilight Northeast Asia Under the Mongols Harvard University Press p 48 ISBN 978 0 674 03608 6 Retrieved 8 June 2019 Ebrey Patricia Buckley Walthall Anne 2013 East Asia A Cultural Social and Political History 3 ed Cengage Learning p 180 ISBN 978 1 285 52867 0 Lee Peter H 2010 Sourcebook of Korean Civilization Volume One From Early Times to the 16th Century Columbia University Press p 681 ISBN 978 0 231 51529 0 Retrieved 8 June 2019 Endicott West Elizabeth 2000 Notes on Shamans Fortune Tellers and Yin Yang Practitioners and Civil Administration in Yuan China In Amitai Reuven Morgan David Orrin eds The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy illustrated revised ed BRILL p 236 ISBN 9004119469 Mote Frederick W 2003 Imperial China 900 1800 Vol 0 of Titolo collana illustrated ed Harvard University Press p 582 ISBN 0674012127 Mote Frederick W Twitchett Denis Fairbank John King 1988 The Cambridge history of China The Ming dynasty 1368 1644 Part 1 Cambridge University Press p 976 ISBN 0 521 24332 7 Retrieved 11 January 2011 Schirokauer Conrad Brown Miranda Lurie David Gay Suzanne 2012 A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations Cengage Learning pp 247ff ISBN 978 1 133 70924 4 Walker Hugh Dyson 20 November 2012 East Asia A New History Author House pp 259ff ISBN 978 1 4772 6517 8 Nguyen Tai Thu Hoang Thị Thơ eds 2008 The History of Buddhism in Vietnam Washington DC Council for Research in Values and Philosophy p 169 ISBN 978 1 56518 098 7 The History of Buddhism in Vietnam Buddhism Vietnam PDF PDF Chan Buddhism Zen Baldanza Kathlene 2016 Ming China and Vietnam Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia Cambridge University Press p 58 ISBN 978 1 316 53131 0 a b c d e Tsai Shih shan Henry 1996 The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty SUNY Press ISBN 0 7914 2687 4 Retrieved 28 June 2010 a b c d Dardess John W 2012 Ming China 1368 1644 A Concise History of a Resilient Empire Lanham Maryland Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 4422 0490 4 Mote Frederick W Twitchett Denis 26 February 1988 The Cambridge History of China Volume 7 The Ming Dynasty 1368 1644 Cambridge University Press pp 212 ISBN 978 0 521 24332 2 Tsai Shih shan Henry 1 July 2011 Perpetual happiness the Ming emperor Yongle University of Washington Press pp 33 ISBN 978 0 295 80022 6 1421 The New York Times 2 February 2003 Bosworth Michael L 1999 The Rise and Fall of 15th Century Chinese Sea Power PDF Military Revolution Archived from the original PDF on 1 July 2016 Retrieved 17 June 2018 Watt James C Y Leidy Denise Patry 2005 Defining Yongle Imperial Art in Early Fifteenth Century China PDF The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York Retrieved 17 June 2018 Association for Asian Studies Ming Biographical History Project Committee Goodrich Luther Carrington 房兆楹 January 1976 Dictionary of Ming Biography 1368 1644 Columbia University Press pp 1363ff ISBN 978 0 231 03833 1 a b c Wang Yuan kang 2010 Harmony and War Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 52240 3 Retrieved 1 July 2019 Twitchett Denis C Mote Frederick W 28 January 1998 The Cambridge History of China Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty Cambridge University Press pp 283ff ISBN 978 0 521 24333 9 김한규 1999 한중관계사 II 아르케 pp 581 585 ISBN 89 88791 02 9 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule University of California Press p 22 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 Mitamura Taisuke 1992 Chinese Eunuchs The Structure of Intimate Politics Tut Bks Translated by C A Pomeroy illustrated reprint revised ed Charles E Tuttle p 54 ISBN 0 8048 1881 9 Tsai Shih shan Henry 1996 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty SUNY series in Chinese local studies Suny Series Literacy Culture and Learning illustrated ed SUNY Press p 129 ISBN 0 7914 2687 4 David M Robinson Dora C Y Ching Chu Hung Iam Scarlett Jang Joseph S C Lam Julia K Murray Kenneth M Swope 2008 Culture Courtiers and Competition The Ming Court 1368 1644 Harvard East Asian Monographs p 15 ISBN 978 0 674 02823 4 Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland North China Branch Shanghai 1877 Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Kelly amp Walsh p 168 Chan Hok Lam 2007 Ming Taizu s Problem with His Sons Prince Qin s Criminality and Early Ming Politics Asia Major 20 1 Academia Sinica 74 82 ISSN 0004 4482 JSTOR 41649928 Wade Geoff 1 July 2007 Ryukyu in the Ming Reign Annals 1380s 1580s PDF Working Paper Series Asia Research Institute National University of Singapore p 75 SSRN 1317152 Archived from the original PDF on 5 September 2009 Retrieved 6 July 2014 李慶新 貿易 移殖與文化交流 15 17 世紀廣東人與越南 PDF 廣東省社會科學院歷史研究所 南開大學中國社會歷史研究中心 p 12 Archived from the original PDF on 2013 05 29 Retrieved 5 January 2013 Tsai 1996 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty Ming Tai Huan Kuan p 15 at Google Books Rost 1887 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo China reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple s Oriental Repertory and the Asiatic Researches and Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Volume 1 p 252 at Google Books Rost 1887 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo China and Indian archipelage reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Second Series Volume 1 p 252 at Google Books Wade 2005 Archived 2021 02 25 at the Wayback Machine Wade 2005 p 3785 86 Leo K Shin 2007 Ming China and Its Border with Annam PDF In Diana Lary ed The Chinese State at the Borders PDF illustrated ed UBC Press p 91 ISBN 978 0774813334 Archived from the original on 2018 05 14 Retrieved 5 January 2013 Cooke 2011 p 109 The Tongking Gulf Through History p 109 at Google Books a b Li 2015 p 202 Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours p 202 at Google Books Cooke 2011 p 108 The Tongking Gulf Through History p 108 at Google Books Nguyễn Hải Kế 22 April 2013 Co MỘT VAN ĐỒN Ở GIỮA YEN BANG YEN QUẢNG KHONG TĨNH LẶNG Dua Hoang in Vietnamese Archived from the original on 27 July 2013 Retrieved 26 July 2013 Wade 2005 p 2078 79 Leo K Shin 2007 Ming China and Its Border with Annam In Diana Lary ed The Chinese State at the Borders illustrated ed UBC Press p 92 ISBN 978 0774813334 Retrieved 5 January 2013 Tsai 1996 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty Ming Tai Huan Kuan p 16 at Google Books Tsai 1996 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty Ming Tai Huan Kuan p 245 at Google Books Crossing Culture in the Blue and White with Arabic or Persian inscriptions under Emperor Zhengde r 1506 21 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2012 03 21 Retrieved 2016 09 17 Naquin Susan 16 December 2000 Peking Temples and City Life 1400 1900 University of California Press pp 213ff ISBN 978 0 520 92345 4 ter Haar B J 2006 Telling Stories Witchcraft and Scapegoating in Chinese History BRILL pp 4ff ISBN 90 04 14844 2 Naquin Susan 16 December 2000 Peking Temples and City Life 1400 1900 University of California Press pp 126 ISBN 978 0 520 92345 4 Parker Geoffrey 15 March 2013 Global Crisis War Climate and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century Yale University Press pp 117ff ISBN 978 0 300 18919 3 Laven Mary 13 May 2013 Mission to China Matteo Ricci and the Jesuit Encounter with the East Faber amp Faber pp 116ff ISBN 978 0 571 27178 8 Yingyu Zhang 2017 The Book of Swindles Selections from a Late Ming Collection Translated by Christopher Rea Bruce Rusk New York NY Columbia University Press Struve Lynn A ed 1993 Voices from the Ming Qing Cataclysm China in Tigers Jaws unabridged ed Yale University Press p 240 ISBN 0 300 07553 7 M Boym Brevis Sinarum Imperii Descriptio ff 63v 64 cit ap Monika Miazek Meczynska The Chinese Christians Fighting for the Ming Dynasty the Story of an Embassy in Leuven Chiense Studies XXI p 38 Tsai Shih shan Henry 1996 Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty The SUNY series in Chinese local studies Suny Series Literacy Culture and Learning SUNY Press p 56 ISBN 1 4384 2236 9 of the fifteen Chinese provinces and that the Chinese Christians numbered about 150 000 Among them included such influential eunuchs as Pang Tianshou known to the Europeans as Achilles Pang and Wang Ruoshe or joseph Wang Zurcher E 1990 The Jesuit Mission in Fujian in Late Ming Times Levels of Response In Vermeer Eduard B ed Development and Decline of Fukien Province in the 17th and 18th Centuries illustrated ed E J BRILL p 422 ISBN 9004091718 And five years later this curious episode of l eglise du serail was to reach its climax at the court of the last Ming pretender Yongli in his refuge in Guangxi where we find apart from the chief eunuch Achilles Pang Elegant Robert 2018 The Imperial China Trilogy Manchu Mandarin and Dynasty Open Road Media ISBN 978 1 5040 5374 7 The Grand Eunuch Achilles Pang was for his part certain that the combined prayers of the Holy Father and the Father General would move the Lord of Heaven to smite the Manchus The influx of new missionaries he also requested would Elegant Robert 2017 Manchu A Novel Open Road Media ISBN 978 1 5040 4226 0 Yet Achilles Pang had almost lost faith in mortal men s ability to avert the Dynasty s doom when he watched the gaudy sunset of November 3 1650 the day Francis Arrowsmith led his Invincible Force into the Empire The Grand Eunuch s a b c d e f g h i j k l Tsai Shih shan Henry 1991 The demand and supply of Ming eunuchs Journal of Asian History 121 146 a b Hsieh Bao Hua 1999 From charwoman to Empress Dowager Serving women in the Ming palace Ming Studies 42 26 80 Dreyer Edward 2006 Zheng He China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty Longman p 188 Lam Joseph S C 2008 Culture Courtiers and Competition The Ming Court 1368 1644 Harvard University Press p 29 Dale Melissa S 2018 Inside the World of the Eunuch A Social History of the Emperor s Servants in Qing China Book collections on Project MUSE illustrated reprint ed Hong Kong University Press ISBN 978 9888455751 Jia Yinghua 2008 The Last Eunuch of China The Life of Sun Yaoting illustrated ed China Intercontinental Press ISBN 978 7508514079 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed Univ of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 Dale Melissa S 2018 Inside the World of the Eunuch A Social History of the Emperor s Servants in Qing China ed illustrated reprint Hong Kong University Press 9888455753 p 45 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule ed reprint University of California Press 0520969847 p 22 Rawski Evelyn S 1998 The Last Emperors A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions ed illustrated reprint University of California Press 0520228375 p 163 John W Dardess 2010 Governing China 150 1850 Hackett Publishing pp 57 ISBN 978 1 60384 311 9 a b c Hudson Roger August 2013 The Eunuchs are Expelled History Today Retrieved 28 March 2016 Chinese Cultural Studies Mary M Anderson Hidden Power The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China Archived from the original on 27 July 2008 Retrieved 18 August 2008 a b Behr Edward The Last Emperor London Futura 1987 page 73 Behr Edward The Last Emperor London Futura 1987 page 74 Wakeman Frederic E 1985 CHAPTER SIX Establishing Qing Rule Volume 1 Vol 1 illustrated ed University of California Press p 454 doi 10 1525 9780520340749 011 ISBN 0 520 04804 0 Torbert Preston M 1977 The Chʻing Imperial Household Department A Study of Its Organization and Principal Functions 1662 1796 illustrated ed Harvard Univ Asia Center p 22 ISBN 0 674 12761 7 ISSN 0073 0483 谢选骏全集126卷 谢选骏 p 375 Rawski Evelyn S 2001 The Last Emperors A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions A Philip E Lilienthal book EBSCO eBook Collection illustrated reprint ed University of California Press p 163 ISBN 0 520 22837 5 Peyrefitte Alain 2013 The Immobile Empire unabridged ed Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group p 244 ISBN 978 0 345 80394 8 Peyrefitte Alain 1993 The Collision of Two Civilisations The British Expedition to China in 1792 4 Translated by Jon Rothschild illustrated reprint ed Harvill p 244 ISBN 0 00 272677 7 Hsieh Bao Hua 2014 Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China Lexington Books pp 214 215 216 ISBN 978 0 7391 4516 6 Chuang Chi fa 2002 Review of Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in Early and Mid Qing China The Formation of a Tradition by David Ownby T oung Pao 88 1 3 Brill 196 JSTOR 4528897 QIANLONG BATTLE PRINTS PDF Battle of Qurman Painting from 1760 Lost Fragment from 李 怡芸 2014 06 21 首批台灣太監 淨身事件簿重現 中時新聞網 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed University of California Press p 169 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 Dale Melissa S 2018 Inside the World of the Eunuch A Social History of the Emperor s Servants in Qing China illustrated reprint ed Hong Kong University Press pp 34 35 ISBN 978 9888455751 Alt URL Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed University of California Press pp 275 169 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed University of California Press p 231 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 林 育德 2014 06 05 一個臺灣太監之死 清代男童集體閹割事件簿 啟動文化 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed University of California Press p 277 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed University of California Press p 178 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed University of California Press p 20 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 WALEY COHEN JOANNA 2015 5 Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law In Turner Karen G Feinerman James V Guy R Kent eds The Limits of the Rule of Law in China Asian Law Series reprint ed University of Washington Press pp 124 125 ISBN 978 0 295 80389 0 Martini Remo 2009 Studi in onore di Remo Martini Vol 2 reprint ed Giuffre Editore p 552 ISBN 978 8814145490 Xu Xiaoqun 2020 Heaven Has Eyes A History of Chinese Law Oxford University Press p 37 ISBN 978 0 19 006005 3 Martini Remo 2009 Studi in onore di Remo Martini Vol 2 reprint ed Giuffre Editore p 548 ISBN 978 8814145490 WALEY COHEN JOANNA 2015 5 Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law In Turner Karen G Feinerman James V Guy R Kent eds The Limits of the Rule of Law in China Asian Law Series reprint ed University of Washington Press p 119 ISBN 978 0 295 80389 0 Keller Perry ed 2017 XII The Qing Another Elitist Order The Citizen and the Chinese State The Library of Essays on Chinese Law Routledge ISBN 978 1 351 89272 8 Bourgon Jerome Erismann Julie 2014 Figures of Deterrence in Late Imperial China Frequency Spatial Repartition and Types of Crimes Targeted by Dismemberment under the Qing Dynasty Crime Histoire amp Societes 18 2 49 84 doi 10 4000 chs 1487 MacCormack Geoffrey 1996 The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Law Spirit of the laws University of Georgia Press p 207 ISBN 0 8203 1722 5 Kutcher Norman A 2010 Unspoken Collusions The Empowerment of Yuanming Yuan Eunuchs in the Qianlong Period Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 70 2 Harvard Yenching Institute 472 473 doi 10 1353 jas 2010 0012 JSTOR 40930907 S2CID 159183602 Kutcher Norman A 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule reprint ed University of California Press p 12 ISBN 978 0 520 96984 1 Stent George Carter 1877 Chinese Eunuchs Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society New Series 11 Shanghai North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 177 Section 1 Eunuchs are able to procreate Born Eunuchs Home Page and Library Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland North China Branch Shanghai 1877 Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Kelly amp Walsh p 177 Dale Melissa S 2018 Inside the World of the Eunuch A Social History of the Emperor s Servants in Qing China illustrated reprint ed Hong Kong University Press p 67 ISBN 978 9888455751 Alt URL Doran Christine September 2010 Chinese Palace Eunuchs Shadows of the Emperor PDF Nebula7 3 Anderson Mary M 1990 Hidden Power The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China G Reference Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series Prometheus Books p 308 ISBN 0 87975 574 1 Cheney Victor T 2006 A Brief History Of Castration Second Edition Author House p 22 ISBN 1 4678 1666 3 Mitamura Taisuke 1992 Chinese Eunuchs The Structure of Intimate Politics Tut Bks Translated by C A Pomeroy illustrated reprint revised ed Charles E Tuttle p 37 ISBN 0 8048 1881 9 Penthouse Volume 5 Issues 7 12 Penthouse International 1970 p 67 Ringmar Erik 2013 Liberal Barbarism Cultural Sociology Part of the Cultural Sociology book series CULTSOC Palgrave Macmillan 45 46 doi 10 1057 9781137031600 3 Barrow John 1804 Travels in China containing descriptions observations and comparisons made and collected in the course of a short residence at the imperial palace of Yuen Min Yuen and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton T Cadell and W Davies pp 230 231 232 Zheng Yangwen 2005 The Social Life of Opium in China Cambridge University Press p 60 ISBN 1 139 44617 7 Proudfoot William Jardine 1861 Barrow s Travels in China An investigation into the origin and authenticity of the facts and observations related in a work entitled Travels in China by John Barrow F R S afterwards Sir J Barrow Bart Preceded by a preliminary inquiry into the nature of the powerful motive of the same author and its influence on his duties at the Chinese capital as comptroller to the British Embassy in 1793 G Philip pp 28 29 Barrow John Sir 1764 1848 1805 Travels in China containing descriptions observations and comparisons made and collected in the course of a short residence at the imperial palace of Yuen min yuen and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton Philadelphia Printed and sold by W F M Laughlin no 28 North second street pp 90 91 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Staunton George Macartney George Gower Erasmus 1797 An authentic account of an embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China including cursory observations made and information obtained in travelling through that ancient empire and a small part of Chinese Tartary together with a relation of the voyage undertaken on the occasion of His Majesty s ship the Lion and the ship Hindostan in the East India company s service to the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Pekin as well as of their return to Europe taken chiefly from the papers of His Excellency the Earl of Macartney Sir Erasmus Gower and of other gentlemen in the several departments of the embassy G Nicol pp 313 314 315 Peyrefitte Alain 2013 The Immobile Empire illustrated reprint ed Vintage Books pp 260 261 ISBN 978 0 345 80395 5 伴随 编辑部编著 2014 历史的疤痕 Beijing Book Co Inc ISBN 978 7531731887 Dale Melissa S 2018 Inside the World of the Eunuch A Social History of the Emperor s Servants in Qing China illustrated reprint ed Hong Kong University Press p 61 ISBN 978 9888455751 Alt URL Shi Dan 1991 Shi Dan ed Memoires d un eunuque dans la Cite Interdite Translated by Nadine Perront Ph Picquier p 186 ISBN 2877300986 Ca ne vous plait pas demanda l ene d une petite voix boudeuse Pour toute reponse Zhang Lande se jeta sur elle comme un loup il la souleva dans ses bras puis en l embarassant sur tout le corps il alla s asseoir sur le bord petits gemissements qui me lacererent l echine de decahrges electriques moncorps etait comme paralyse paralyse et douloureaux j avais la sensation d etre ecorche vif le contact de mas vetements semblait electriser mes nerfs affoles J etais brulant de fievre et de desir J enten Anderson Mary M 1990 Hidden Power The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China G Reference Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series Prometheus Books p 294 ISBN 0 87975 574 1 About Qingwangfu qingwangfu Archived from the original on 2016 06 20 Shan Yi Li Boutique Hotel Tripadvisor Xu Lin July 6 2016 Top 20 fabulously wealthy people in ancient China China org cn 金 易 沈 义玲 March 2005 宫女谈往录 紫禁城出版社 ISBN 9787800470554 Hsieh Bao Hua 2014 Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China Lexington Books p 236 ISBN 978 0 7391 4516 6 Wang Shuo 2008 7 QING IMPERIAL WOMEN Empresses Concubines and Aisin Gioro Daughters In Walthall Anne ed Servants of the Dynasty Palace Women in World History An Ahmanson foundation book in the humanities Vol 7 of California world history library illustrated ed University of California Press p 144 ISBN 978 0520254442 Archived from the original on 2021 10 31 Princess Der Ling 1911 Two Years in The Forbidden City Moffat Yard p 120 Bordewich Fergus M 1991 Cathay a journey in search of old China The Destinations Bks illustrated ed Prentice Hall Press p xxiv ISBN 0 13 202136 6 Hsieh Bao Hua 2014 Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China Lexington Books p 199 ISBN 978 0 7391 4516 6 Princess Der Ling 1911 Two Years in The Forbidden City Moffat Yard pp 116 117 Hsieh Bao Hua 2014 Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China Lexington Books p 212 ISBN 978 0 7391 4516 6 Dale Melissa S 2018 Inside the World of the Eunuch A Social History of the Emperor s Servants in Qing China illustrated reprint ed Hong Kong University Press p 78 ISBN 978 9888455751 Alt URL Levy Emanuel Aug 7 1995 The Conqueror Variety 鄧 之誠 骨董瑣記 續記 三記 reprint ed 中國書堂 pp 105 106 唐 浩明 2017 唐浩明评点曾国藩奏折 Beijing Book Co Inc ISBN 978 7555242406 a b c 清 左 宗棠 2009 左宗棠全集 五 Beijing Book Co Inc ISBN 978 7999010807 Compiled by 王子华 姚继德 云南省少数民族古籍整理出版规划办公室 2004 云南回族人物碑传精选 Volume 1 云南民族出版社 p 417 ISBN 7536729790 Translations of the Peking Gazette 1880 p 83 Retrieved 12 May 2011 The American annual cyclopedia and register of important events of the year Volume 4 D Appleton and Company 1888 p 145 Retrieved 12 May 2011 Appletons annual cyclopedia and register of important events Embracing political military and ecclesiastical affairs public documents biography statistics commerce finance literature science agriculture and mechanical industry Volume 19 Appleton 1886 p 145 Retrieved 12 May 2011 Peter Tompkins 1963 The eunuch and the virgin a study of curious customs C N Potter p 32 Retrieved 30 November 2010 The Chinese Recorder Volume 27 American Presbyterian Mission Press 1896 p 287 British Medical Journal0 Volume 2 Assoc 1880 p 552 http www columbia edu cu weai exeas resources pdf your honor handout4 pdf bare URL PDF http download1 nssd org DownPaper dll DownCurPaper amp CD 2011SK185 amp Info BMHNACBOANACAFABALGBBPBOBKADALADACAMAAADAGBPACABABAMAAAB amp FILE 000 004 39015023 pdf amp FileName C7 E5 B4 FA B5 C4 B9 AC D0 CC pdf dead link Domain Unavailable PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2022 03 28 Retrieved 2021 10 20 Translations of the Peking Gazette for 1882 SHANGHAI Reprinted from the North China Herald Supreme Court and Consular Gazette 1883 pp 12 13 China Hai guan zong shui wu si shu 1875 Medical Reports Issues 9 16 Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs p 52 Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery Volume 25 1880 pp 98 99 United States Congress House House Documents Otherwise Publ as Executive Documents 13th Congress 2d Session 49th Congress 1st Session Volume 24 United States congressional serial set p 4 5 Correspondence Respecting the Alleged Existence of Chinese Slavery in Hong Kong Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty Series C Vol 3185 reprint ed G E Eyre and W Spottiswoode 1882 p 60 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China A Page in the History of Religions Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China A Page in the History of Religions Jan Jakob Maria Groot Verhandelingen Der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie Van Wetenschappen Afd Letterkunde Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen Afd Letterkunde J Miller 1904 pp 255 256 Ropp Paul S 1976 The Seeds of Change Reflections on the Condition of Women in the Early and Mid Ch ing Signs 2 1 University of Chicago Press 7 doi 10 1086 493330 JSTOR 3173419 S2CID 143701642 Ropp Paul S 1981 Dissent in Early Modern China Ju lin Wai shih and Chʼing Social Criticism Michigan studies on China Studies on China Women and Culture Series illustrated ed University of Michigan Press p 124 ISBN 0472100068 A man s foremost respon sibilities were to serve his parents and his sovereign a woman s to preserve her chastity for her one and only husband To perpetuate his family a childless husband was considered fully justified in taking a concubine but wives of impotent men had no such recourse 10 Ch en Tung yuan cites the case of a Shansi woman married to a man who had been castrated for a crime She frequently ran away from him to return to her mother but her father would invariably send her back to her husband When she reappeared one day at her parents home almost immediately after her father had sent her back the father was so chagrined that he hanged her and then hanged himself see p 245 陳 東原 中国妇女生活史 p 245 山西 割 The Japan Weekly Mail July 27 1907 pp 90 91 徐學文 geni com 1906 Maria Henriette Margarete Bordan geni com 1915 Nancy Zi geni com 1937 Johnston Reginald F 2011 Twilight in the Forbidden City illustrated reprint reissue Cambridge University Press p 222 ISBN 978 1 108 02965 0 McCormick Frederick 1913 The Flowery Republic D Appleton p 402 Bibliography editChen Gilbert 2016 Castration and connection Kinship organization among Ming Eunuchs Ming Studies 2016 74 27 47 doi 10 1080 0147037X 2016 1179552 S2CID 152169027 Li Tana 2015 8 EPIDEMICS TRADE AND LOCAL WORSHIP IN VIETNAM LEIZHOU PENINSULA AND HAINAN ISLAND In Mair Victor H Kelley Liam eds Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours CHINA SOUTHEAST ASIA History illustrated reprint ed Institute of Southeast Asian Studies ISBN 978 9814620536 Retrieved 5 January 2019 Cooke Nola Li Tana Anderson James eds 2011 The Tongking Gulf Through History illustrated ed University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0 8122 4336 9 Retrieved 4 January 2013 Keay John 2010 China A History HarperCollins UK ISBN 978 0 00 737208 9 Retrieved 5 September 2013 Lary Diana 2007 Diana Lary ed The Chinese State at the Borders illustrated ed UBC Press ISBN 978 0 7748 1333 4 Retrieved 4 January 2013 Kutcher Norman 2018 Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule Oakland CA University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 29752 4 lt ref gt McMahon Keith 2013 Women Shall Not Rule Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 1 4422 2290 8 Retrieved 5 September 2013 Peterson Barbara Bennett ed 2000 Notable Women of China Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century illustrated ed M E Sharpe ISBN 0 7656 1929 6 Retrieved 5 September 2013 Robinson David 1995 Notes on Eunuchs in Hebei during the Mid Ming Period Ming Studies 1 1 16 doi 10 1179 014703795788763645 Shin Leo K 2007 5 Ming China and Its Border with Annam In Lary Diana ed The Chinese State at the Borders illustrated ed UBC Press ISBN 978 0774813334 Retrieved 4 January 2013 Tsai Shih Shan Henry 1996 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty Ming Tai Huan Kuan illustrated ed SUNY Press ISBN 0791426874 Retrieved 5 January 2013 Tuotuo Liaoshi History of Liao Beijing Zhonghua shuju 1974 or Tuotuo Liaoshi Beijing Zhonghua shuju 1974 Toqto a et al 1344 Liao Shi 宋史 History of Liao in Chinese Van Derven H J ed 2000 Warfare in Chinese History Vol 47 illustrated ed BRILL ISBN 9004117741 Retrieved 5 September 2013 Wade Geoff 2005 Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi lu an open access resource Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E Press National University of Singapore Retrieved 6 November 2012 Wang Yuan Kang 2013 Harmony and War Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics illustrated ed Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 52240 3 Retrieved 5 September 2013 Whitmore John K 2011 Chapter 6 Van Đồn the Mạc Gap and the End of the Jiaozhi Ocean System Trade and State in Đại Việt Circa 1450 1550 In Cooke Nola Li Tana Anderson James eds The Tongking Gulf Through History illustrated ed University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0812243369 Retrieved 4 January 2013 祝建龙 Zhu Jianlong April 2009 辽代后宫制度研究 Research on the System of Imperial Harem in the Liao Dynasty Master s thesis in Chinese Jilin University Retrieved 4 October 2013 Hidden Power The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China Brooklyn cuny edu Archived from the original on 27 July 2008 Wilson Jean D Roehrborn Claus 1 December 1999 Long Term consequences of Castration in Men Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology amp Metabolism 84 12 4324 4331 doi 10 1210 jcem 84 12 6206 PMID 10599682 Tsai Shih Shan Henry 1 January 1996 The Eunuchs of Ming Dynasty China SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2687 6 A Eunuch Cooks Boys to Make a Tonic of Male Essence in Zhang Yingyu The Book of Swindles Selections from a Late Ming Collection translated by Christopher Rea and Bruce Rusk New York NY Columbia University Press 2017 pp 138 141 Mary M Anderson Hidden Power The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China Prometheus Books 1990 Taisuke Mitamura trans by Charles A Pomeroy Chinese Eunuchs The Structure of Intimate Politics Tuttle Publishing 1970 Shih Shan Henry Tsai The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty State University of New York Press 1995 English language Abstracts of the thesis Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty Archived 25 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine In Our Time The Eunuch Presenter Melvyn Bragg Interviewed Guests Karen Radner Professor of Ancient Near Eastern History at University College London Shaun Tougher Reader in Ancient History at Cardiff University Michael Hoeckelmann British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of History at King s College London Producer Thomas Morris Broadcaster BBC Radio 4 Date 26 February 2015External links edit nbsp Media related to Chinese eunuchs at Wikimedia Commons 38 rare pictures of eunuchs during Qing Dynasty China Underground Archived from the original on 2015 11 28 Retrieved 2019 01 26 Born Eunuchs Well com The Eunuch Archive eunuch org Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Eunuchs in China amp oldid 1217964608, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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