Bahmani Sultanate
The Bahmani Sultanate (Persian: سلطاننشین بهمنی) was a late medieval Muslim empire that ruled the Deccan Plateau in South India. The Bahmani Sultanate came to power in 1347 during the Rebellion of Ismail Mukh against the Tughlaq dynasty of Delhi after he abdicated in favour of Zafar Khan, who would establish the Bahmani Sultanate. The Bahmani Sultanate was in perpetual war with its neighbors, including its rival to the south, the Vijayanagara Empire.[6]
Bahmani Sultanate | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1347–1527 | |||||
Map of the Bahmani Sultanate at its greatest extent[1] | |||||
| Status | Sultanate | ||||
| Capital | |||||
| Common languages | Persian (official)[2] Marathi Deccani Urdu Telugu Kannada | ||||
| Religion | Sunni Islam (de jure)[3] Shia Islam (de facto)[3][4] Sufism[5] | ||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||
| Sultan | |||||
• 1347–1358 | Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah | ||||
• 1525–1527 | Kalim-Allah Shah | ||||
| Historical era | Late Medieval | ||||
• Established | 3 August 1347 | ||||
• Disestablished | 1527 | ||||
| Currency | Taka | ||||
| |||||
| Today part of | India | ||||
The Sultanate would begin its decline under the reign of Mahmood Shah. In 1518, the Bahmani Sultanate split up into the Deccan sultanates, ending its 180 year rule over the Deccan.[7][8]
Origin edit
Zafar Khan, the founder of the Bahmani Sultanate, was either of Afghan, or Turk origin.[9][10][11][12] Encyclopedia Iranica states him to be a Khorasani adventurer, who claimed descent from Bahrām Gōr.[13] According to the medieval historian Ferishta, his obscurity makes it difficult to track his origin, but he is nonetheless stated as of Afghan birth.[14] Ferishta further writes, Zafar Khan had earlier been a servant of a Brahmin astrologer at Delhi named Gangu (hence the name Hasan Gangu),[15][16] and says that he was from North India.[17] Historians have not found any corroboration for the legend,[18][19] but Barani, who was the court chronicler of Sultan Firuz Shah, as well as some other scholars have also called him as Hasan Gangu.[20] Another theory of origin for Zafar Khan is that he was of Brahman origin,[21] and that Bahman is a corrupted personalized form of Brahman,[22] with Hasan Gangu being Hindu Brahman who became Muslim.[23][21] However this view has been discredited by S.A.Q Husaini, who considers the idea of a Brahmin origin or Zafar Khan originally being a Hindu convert to Islam from Punjab untenable.[24]
History edit
Barani states that Hasan Gangu was "born in very humble circumstances. For the first thirty years of his life he was nothing more than a field laborer."[25] He was made a commander of a hundred horsemen by the Sultan who was pleased with his honesty. This sudden rise in the military and socio-economic ladder was common in this era of Muslim India.[26] Zafar Khan or Hasan Gangu was among the inhabitants of Delhi who were forced to migrate to the Deccan, to build a large Muslim settlement in the region of Daulatabad.[27] Zafar Khan was a man of ambition and looked forward to the adventure. He had long hoped to employ his body of horsemen in the Deccan region for slaying and plundering Hindus, as the Deccan was seen as the place of bounty in Muslim imagination at the time.[28] He was rewarded with an Iqta for taking part in the conquest of Kampili.[29] He made various raids against neighboring Hindus until he could gain influence and wealth and became a powerful military chief.[28]
Rise edit
Before the establishment of his kingdom, he was Governor of Deccan and a commander on behalf of Tughlaq. During the rebellion by the Amirs of the Deccan, led by the elderly Afghan, Ismail Mukh, also known as Nasir-ud-din Ismail Shah. On 3 August 1347, the Afghan noble Nasir-ud-Din Ismail Shah, whom the rebel amirs of the Deccan placed on the throne of Daulatabad in 1345) abdicated in favor of Zafar Khan, resulting the establishment of the Bahmani Kingdom with its headquarters at Hasanabad (Gulbarga). the Sultan of Delhi had besieged the rebels at the citadel of Daulatabad. As another rebellion had begun in Gujarat, the Sultan left and installed Shaikh Burhan-ud-din Bilgrami and Malik Jauhar and other nobles in charge of the siege. Meanwhile, as these nobles were unable to stop the Deccani amirs from pursuing the imperial army, Hasan Gangu, a native of Delhi, then being pursued by the governor of Berar, Imad-ul-Mulk, and was the leader to whom the Deccani Amirs had re-assembled, attacked and slew Imad-ul-Mulk and marched on towards Daulatabad. Here Hasan Gangu and the Deccani amirs put to flight the imperial forces which had been left to besiege. The rebels at Daulatabad had the sense to see Hasan Gangu as the man of the hour, and the proposal to crown Hasan Gangu, entitled Zafar Khan, was accepted without a dissentient voice on 3 August 1347.[31][32][33][34][35] His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces with its headquarters at Hasanabad (Gulbarga) and all his coins were minted at Hasanabad.[31][36]
With the support of the influential Indian Chishti Sufi Shaikhs, he was crowned "Alauddin Bahman Shah Sultan – Founder of the Bahmani Dynasty".[37] They bestowed upon him a robe allegedly worn by the Prophet. The extension of the Sufi's notion of spiritual sovereignty lent legitimacy to the planting of the Sultanate's political authority, where the land, people, and produce of the Deccan were merited state protection, no longer available for plunder with impunity. These Sufis legitimized the transplantation of Indo-Muslim rulership from one region in South Asia to another, converting the land of the Bahmanids into being recognized as Dar ul-Islam, while it was previously considered Dar ul-Harb.[38]
Turkish or Indo-Turkish troops, explorers, saints, and scholars moved from Delhi and North India to the Deccan with the establishment of the Bahmanid sultanate.[3] How many of these were Shi'ites is unclear.[3] Nonetheless, there is enough evidence to demonstrate that a number of nobility at the Bahmani court identified as Shi'ites or had significant Shi'ite inclinations.[a][3]
Alauddin was succeeded by his son Mohammed Shah I.[40] His conflicts with the Vijayanagar empire were singularly savage wars, as according to the historian Ferishta, "the population of the Carnatic was so reduced that it did not recover for several ages."[41] The Bahmanids' aggressive confrontation with the two main Hindu kingdoms of the southern Deccan, Warangal and Vijayanagara in the first Bahmani-Vijayanagar War, made them renowned among Muslims as warriors of the faith.[42]
The Vijayanagara empire and the Bahmanids fought over the control of the Godavari-basin, Tungabadhra Doab, and the Marathwada country, although they seldom required a pretext for declaring war,[43] as military conflicts were almost a regular feature and lasted as long as these kingdoms continued.[44] Military slavery involved captured slaves from Vijayanagara whom were then converted to islam and integrated into the host society, so they could begin military careers within the Bahmanid empire.[45][46]
Ghiyasuddin succeeded his father Muhammad II at the age of seventeen, but was blinded and imprisoned by a Turkic slave called Taghalchin,[47][48] who had held a grudge on the Sultan for the latter's refusal to appoint him as a governor. He had lured the Sultan into putting himself in the former's power, using the beauty of his daughter, who was accomplished in music and arts, and had introduced her to the Sultan at a feast.[49][50] He was succeeded by Shamsuddin, who was a puppet king under Taghalchin. Firuz and Ahmed, the sons of the fourth sultan Daud, marched to Gulbarga to avenge Ghiyasuddin. Firuz declared himself the sultan, and defeated Taghalchin's forces. Taghalchin was killed and Shamsuddin was blinded.[51]
Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah became the sultan in 1397.[52] Firuz Shah fought against the Vijayanagara Empire on many occasions and the rivalry between the two dynasties continued unabated throughout his reign, with victories in 1398 and 1406, but a defeat in 1419. One of his victories resulted in his marriage to Deva Raya's daughter.
Firuz Shah expanded the nobility by enabling Hindus and granting them high office.[53] In his reign, Sufis such as Gesudaraz, a Chishti saint who had immigrated from Dehli to Daulatabad, were prominent in court and daily life.[54] He was the first author to write in the Dakhni dialect of Urdu.[55] The Dakhni language became widespread, practised by various milieus from the court to the Sufis. It was established as a lingua franca of the Muslims of the Deccan, as not only the aspect of a dominant urban elite, but an expression of the regional religious identity.[56]
Firuz Shah was succeeded by his younger brother Ahmad Shah I Wali. Following the establishment of Bidar as capital of the sultanate in 1429,[57] Ahmad Shah I converted to Shi'ism.[3] Ahmad Shah's reign was marked by relentless military campaigns and expansionism. He imposed destruction and slaughter on Vijayanagara and finally captured the remnants of Warangal.[58]
Alauddin Ahmad II succeeded his father to the throne in 1436.[59] He ordered the construction of the Chand Minar. For the first half-century after the establishment of the Bahmanids, the original North Indian colonists and their sons had administered the empire quite independent of either the non-Muslim Hindus, or the Muslim foreign immigrants.
However, the later Bahmani Sultans, mainly starting from his father Ahmad Shah Wali I, began to recruit foreigners from overseas, whether because of depletion among the ranks of the original settlers, or the feelings of dependency upon the Persian courtly model, or both.[60] This resulted in factional strife that first became acute in the reign of his son Alauddin Ahmad Shah II.[61] In 1446, the powerful Dakhani nobles persuaded the Sultan that the Persians were responsible for the failure of the Konkan invasion.[62]
The Sultan, drunk, condoned a terrible massacre of Persian Shi'a Sayyids by the Sunni Dakhani nobles and their Sunni Abyssinian slaves.[63] A few survivors escaped the massacre dressed in women's clothing and convinced the Sultan of their innocence.[64] Ashamed of his own folly, the Sultan punished the Dakhani leaders who were responsible for the massacre, putting them to death or throwing them in prison, and reduced their families to beggary.[65] It is noteworthy that the accounts of the violent events included exaggerations as it came from the pen of the chroniclers who were themselves mainly foreigners and products of Safavid Persia.[66]
The eldest sons of Humayun Shah, Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III and Muhammad Shah III Lashkari ascended the throne successively, while they were young boys. The vizier Mahmud Gawan ruled as regent during this period, until Muhammad Shah reached age. Mahmud Gawan is known for setting up the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, a center of religious as well as secular education.[67] Gawan was considered a great statesman, and a poet of repute.
Mahmud Gawan was caught in a struggle between a rivalry between two groups of nobles, the Dakhanis and the Afaqis. The Dakhanis made the indigenous Muslim elite of the Bahmanid dynasty, being descendants of Sunni immigrants from Northern India, while the Afaqis were foreign newcomers from the West such as Gawan, who were mostly Shi'is.[68][69] The Dakhanis believed that the privileges, patronage and positions of power in the Sultanate should have been reserved solely for them.[70]
The divisions included sectarian religious divisions where the Afaqis were looked upon heretics by the Sunnis as the former were Shi'as,[71] while Eaton cites a linguistic divide where the Dakhanis spoke Dakhni while the Afaqis favored the Persian language.[72] Although Mahmud Gawan was a foreigner, he attempted to reconcile the factions and strengthen the Sultanate by allotting offices to the Dakhanis.
Nonetheless, Mahmud Gawan found it difficult to win their confidence; the party strife could not be stopped and his opponents eventually managed to poison the ears of the Sultan.[73] Mahmud Gawan was executed by Muhammad Shah III, an act that the latter regretted until he died in 1482.[74] Upon his death, Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri, the father of the founder of the Nizam Shahi dynasty became the regent of the king.[75] Nizam-ul-Mulk, as leader of the Dakhani party, led a cold-blooded massacre of Iranian Georgians and Turkmens in the capital of Bidar.[76][77]
The sultanate included parts of the modern states of Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Telangana. It vied for control of the Deccan with the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire to the south. The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425, when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar). The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate (1466–1481) of Mahmud Gawan.[78]
Later rulers and decline edit
Muhammad Shah II was succeeded by his son Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, the last Bahmani ruler to have real power.[79] In 1501, Mahmud Shah Bahmani united his amirs and wazirs in an agreement to wage annual Jihad against Vijayanagara. The expeditions were financially ruinous.[80]
The last Bahmani Sultans were puppet monarchs under their Barid Shahi Prime Ministers, who were de facto rulers. After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states: Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda (Hyderabad), Barid Shahi of Bidar, Imad Shahi of Berar, Adil Shahi of Bijapur. They are collectively known as the "Deccan Sultanates".[7]
Historiography edit
Modern scholars like Sherwani, and Eaton have based their accounts of the Bahmani dynasty mainly upon the medieval chronicles of Firishta, and Syed Ali Tabatabai. Other contemporary works were Sivatatva Chintamani and Guru Charitra. Afanasy Nikitin traveled this kingdom. He contrasts the huge "wealth of the nobility with the wretchedness of the peasantry and the frugality of the Hindus".[81]
Culture edit
The dynasty patronized Indo-Muslim and Persian culture from Northern India and the Middle East.[82] However, the society of the Bahmnanis were dominated prominently by Iranians, Afghans, and Turks.[83] They also had considerable and social influence such as with the celebration of Nowruz by Bahmani rulers.[83] This also comes as Mohammed Shah I ascended the throne on Nowruz.[84] According to Khafi Khan and Ferishta, musicians flocked to the court from Lahore, Delhi, Persia and Khorasan.[85]
The Bahmani Sultans were patrons of the Persian language, culture and literature, and some members of the dynasty became well-versed in that language and composed its literature in that language.[86]
The first sultan, Alauddin Bahman Shah is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern Carnatic chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.[87][88]
Bidriware edit
The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work on copper and silver that it came to be known as Bidri.[89] Firuz Shah, having a passion for languages, married a large number of Indians of various ethnicities, Georgians, Iranians and Arabs, to practise speaking their languages with them. In addition he was known for speaking several Indian languages.[90][91]
Bidriware is a metal handicraft from the city of Bidar in Karnataka, India. It was developed in the 14th century C.E. during the rule of the Bahmani Sultans.[89] The term "bidriware" originates from the township of Bidar, which is still the chief center of production.[92] The metal used is white brass that is blackened and inlaid with silver.[92] As a native art form, Bidriware obtained a Geographical Indications (GI) registry on 3 January 2006.[93]
Turquoise Throne edit
The Turquoise Throne (Hindustani: Takht-e-firozā, Hindi: तख़्त-ए-फ़िरोज़ा) was a jeweled royal throne mentioned by Firishta. It was the seat of the sultans of the Bahmani Sultanate since Mohammed Shah I (r. 1358–1375). It was a gift of Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka, then king of the Telangana region.[94]: 77–78 It was mentioned by Firishta that on 23 March 1363,[b] this throne replaced an earlier silver throne that the first Bahmani sultan Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah used.
Gunpowder weapons in the Sultanate edit
The Bahmani Sultanate was the first state to invent and utilize gunpowder artillery and firearms within the Indian Subcontinent, in 1347. Their firearms were the most advanced of their time, surpassing even those of the Yuan Dynasty and the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. The first recorded use of firearms in South Asia was at the Battle of Adoni in 1368. In the Deccans, the Bahmani sultanate led by Mohammed Shah I used a train of artillery against the Vijayanagara Empire who was under Harihara II.[95][96]
Paranda Fort was possibly constructed by Mahmud Gawan. The fort represents an example of military architecture and engineering and served as military base for the Bahmani Sultanate & other Deccan sultanates.
Architecture edit
The Bahmani Sultanate is renowned for its architecture, although much of it has been destroyed. Below are some ruins showcasing the masterpieces of their architectural legacy.[97] The Gulbarga Fort, Haft Gumbaz, and Jama Masjid in Gulbarga, Bidar Fort and Madrasa Mahmud Gawan[67] in Bidar, are some of the major architectural contributions.
The later rulers are buried in an elaborate tomb complex, known as the Bahmani Tombs.[98] The exterior of one of the tombs is decorated with coloured tiles. Arabic, Persian and Urdu inscriptions are inscribed inside the tombs.[98][99]
The Bahmani rulers made some beautiful tombs and mosques in Bidar and Gulbarga. They also built many forts at Daulatabad, Golconda and Raichur. The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture.[according to whom?] They invited architects from Persia, Turkey and Arabia. Some of the magnificent structures built by the Bahmanis were the Jami Masjid at Gulbarga, Chandand Minar and the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa at Bidar.[97]
The Persianate Indo-Islamic style of architecture developed during this period was later adopted by the Deccan Sultanates as well.
Gallery edit
- Calligraphy in coloured tiles
- Mosque with 32 pillars in the Solapur Bhuikot Fort
- Ashtur Tombs
-
- Cannons located at the Solapur Fort
- The triple moat of Bidar fort
- Tombs of Bidar Shahi kings at Barid Shahi Park in Bidar
- Main Entrance (Hatti Darwaja)
- Solapur Bhuikot Fort
- Bahmani's era Cannons in Paranda fort
- A Bahmani's era Cannon Located at Bidar Fort
- Haft Gumbaz, tomb of Taj-ud-Din Firuz Shah in Kalaburagi
- Chand Minar at Daulatabad fort complex
Family trees and list of rulers edit
See also edit
References edit
Notes edit
Citations edit
- ^ "Schwartzberg Atlas — Digital South Asia Library". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
- ^ Ansari 1988, pp. 494–499.
- ^ a b c d e f Khalidi, Umar (1990). "The Shiʿites of the Deccan: An Introduction". Rivista degli studi orientali. 64, Fasc. 1/2, SGUARDI SULLA CULTURA A SCIITA NEL DECCAN GLANCES ON SHI'ITE DECCAN CULTURE: 5.
- ^ John Morris Roberts, Odd Arne Westad (2013). The History of the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199936762.
- ^ Eaton, Richard Maxwell (1978). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton University Press. p. 49.
- ^ George C. Kohn (2006). Dictionary of Wars. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438129167.
- ^ a b Haig, 1925, pp. 425–426.
- ^ history of the decan. Mittal Publications. 1990. p. 15.
- ^ Jenkins, Everett (2015). The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 1, 570-1500): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas, Volume 1. McFarland. p. 257. ISBN 9781476608884.
Zafar Khan alias Alauddin Hasan Gangu ('Ala al-Din Hasan Bahman Shah), an Afghan or a Turk soldier, revolted against Delhi and established the Muslim Kingdom of Bahmani on August 3 in the South (Madura) and ruled as Sultan Alauddin Bahman Shah.
- ^ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India. Psychology Press. p. 181. ISBN 9780415329200.
The Bahmani sultanate of the Deccan Soon after Muhammad Tughluq left Daulatabad, the city was conquered by Zafar Khan, a Turkish or Afghan officer of unknown descent, had earlier participated in a mutiny of troops in Gujarat.
- ^ Wink, André (2020). The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700-1800 CE. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9781108417747.
Finally, and more importantly, the independent Bahmani dynasty of the Deccan was founded in 1348 by Zafar Khan, probably an Afghan who broke away from Delhi with the support of Afghan and Mongol "New Muslims"
- ^ Kerr, Gordon (2017). A Short History of India: From the Earliest Civilisations to Today's Economic Powerhouse. Oldcastle Books Ltd. p. 160. ISBN 9781843449232.
In the early fourteenth century, the Muslim Bahmani kingdom of the Deccan emerged following Alauddin's conquest of the south. Zafar Khan, an Afghan general and governor appointed by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, was victorious against the troops of the Delhi Sultanate, establishing the Bahmani kingdom with its capital at Ahsanabad (modern-day Gulbarga).
- ^ "ḤASAN GĀNGU". Encyclopædia Iranica.
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- ^ A. Rā Kulakarṇī; M. A. Nayeem; Teotonio R. De Souza (1996). Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi. Popular Prakashan. p. 34. ISBN 9788171545797.
- ^ a b Gribble (1896). A History of the Deccan: Volume 1. Luzac and Company. p. 17.
- ^ Richard Eaton (2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761:Eight Indian Lives · Part 1, Volume 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 9780521254847.
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- ^ a b Mahajan, V.D. (1991). History of Medieval India, Part I, New Delhi:S. Chand, ISBN 81-219-0364-5, pp.279–80
- ^ Bhattacharya. Indian History. p. 928
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- ^ Dale, Stephen F. (2009). The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Cambridge University Press. p. 31.
...may have contributed to the decision by a group of Shi'i Muslims from the Deccan, the Bahmani, to proclaim the new Muslim Sultanate there.
- ^ Prasad 1933, p. 417.
- ^ Abraham Elahy (2015). the Age of Wrath:A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin Books Limited.
- ^ Sheila Blair, Sheila S. Blair, Jonathan M. Bloom (25 September 1996). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press. p. 159. ISBN 0300064659.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ E. J. Brill (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. p. 1072. ISBN 9789004097940.
- ^ MEDIEVAL INDIA UPSC PREPARATION BOOKS HISTORY SERIES. Mocktime Publication. 2011.
- ^ Richard M. Eaton (17 November 2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives, Part 1, Volume 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780521254847.
- ^ Roy S. Fischel (2020). Local States in an Imperial World. p. 72. ISBN 9781474436090.
- ^ The Cambridge Shorter History of India. CUP Archive. p. 285.
- ^ Sherwani 1946, p. 129.
- ^ Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1951). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi sultanate. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
- ^ Haroon Khan Sherwani (1985). The Bahmanis of the Deccan. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 93.
- ^ Sherwani 1946, p. 132.
- ^ Prasad 1933, p. 423.
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- ^ Annemarie Schimmel (1975). Classical Urdu Literature from the Beginning to Iqbāl. Harrassowitz. p. 132.
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- ^ Yazdani, 1947, pp. 23.
- ^ Bowman, John; Bowman, John Stewart (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. p. 275. ISBN 9780231110044.
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- ^ Richard Maxwell Eaton (2015). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700 : Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9781400868155.
- ^ Sir Wolseley Haig (1907). Historic Landmarks of the Deccan. Pioneer Press. p. 4.
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- ^ Annemarie Schimmel (2022). Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. Brill. ISBN 9789004492998.
- ^ Shanti Sadiq Ali (1996). The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times. Orient Longman. p. 46. ISBN 9788125004851.
- ^ Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan: Volumes 2-3, Issues 1-2. Research Society of Pakistan. 1965. p. 10.
- ^ Muhammad Suleman Siddiqi (1990). "Sufi-State Relationship Under the Bahmanids (A.d. 1348-1538)". Rivista Degli Studi Orientali. 64 (1/2): 91. JSTOR 41880628.
Firishta and Tabatabai, presents a very grim picture of the locals and refer to them as permanent enemies of the Sadat. There is some exaggeration in their account but one must not forget that these accounts of unfortunate affairs are all from the pen of the aliens, who are the products of Safavid Persia.
- ^ a b c Yazdani, 1947, pp. 91–98.
- ^ Jamal Malik (2020). Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition. Brill. p. 168. ISBN 9789004422711.
- ^ Burjor Avari (2013). Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 9780415580618.
- ^ Indian History. Allied Publishers. 1988. p. 137. ISBN 9788184245684.
- ^ Wilhelm von Pochhammer (2005). India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent. Allied. p. 219. ISBN 9788177647150.
- ^ Sanjay Subrahmanyam (1996). Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World. Variorum. p. 75. ISBN 9780860785071.
- ^ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One. Har-Anand Publications. p. 187. ISBN 9788124110645.
- ^ Yazdani, 1947, pp. 10.
- ^ Radhey Shyam (1966). The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 17. ISBN 9788120826519.
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ A Textbook of History Grade 7. Macmillan.
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- ^ (N. H. Ansari) (24 August 2011). Encyclopaedia Iranica: BAHMANID DYNASTY.
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{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ a b Datta, Rangan (6 June 2023). "Bidar Fort in Karnataka: A treasure trove of south Indian heritage". The Telegraph. My Kolkata. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
- ^ a b Yazdani, 1947, pp. 114–142.
- ^ Sara Mondini (2016). "The Use of Quranic Inscriptions in the Bahmani Royal Mausoleums The Case of Three Tombstones from Ashtur". Eurasiatica. 4. doi:10.14277/6969-085-3/EUR-4-12.
Sources edit
- Avari, Burjor (2013), Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A history of Muslim power and presence in the Indian subcontinent, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-58061-8
- Ansari, N. H. (1988). "Bahmanid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5. pp. 494–499.
- Chandra, Satish (2004), Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One, Har-Anand Publications, ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5
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- Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India (Fourth ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9780415329194
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- Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1946). The Bahmanis of the Deccan.
- Yazdani, Ghulam (1947). Bidar, Its History and Monuments.
External links edit
- Overton, Keelan (2016). "Bahmanī dynasty". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
- Library of Congress – A Country Study: India