fbpx
Wikipedia

Sushruta Samhita

April 08, 2024

The Sushruta Samhita (Sanskrit: सुश्रुतसंहिता, lit. 'Suśruta's Compendium', IAST: Suśrutasaṃhitā) is an ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery, and one of the most important such treatises on this subject to survive from the ancient world. The Compendium of Suśruta is one of the foundational texts of Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine), alongside the Charaka-Saṃhitā, the Bhela-Saṃhitā, and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript.[1][2] It is one of the two foundational Hindu texts on the medical profession that have survived from ancient India.[3][4]

Palm leaves of the Sushruta Samhita or Sahottara-Tantra from Nepal, stored at Los Angeles County Museum of Art. The text is dated 12th-13th century while the art is dated 18th-19th century.

The Suśrutasaṃhitā is of great historical importance because it includes historically unique chapters describing surgical training, instruments and procedures which is still followed by modern science of surgery.[5][2][6][page needed] One of the oldest Sushruta Samhita palm-leaf manuscripts is preserved at the Kaiser Library, Nepal.[7]

History edit

Ancient qualifications of a Nurse

That person alone is fit to nurse or to attend the bedside of a patient, who is cool-headed and pleasant in his demeanor, does not speak ill of any body, is strong and attentive to the requirements of the sick, and strictly and indefatigably follows the instructions of the physician.

—Sushruta Samhita Book 1, Chapter XXXIV
Translator: Bhishagratna[8]

Date edit

The most detailed and extensive consideration of the date of the Suśrutasaṃhitā is that published by Meulenbeld in his History of Indian Medical Literature (1999-2002). Meulenbeld stated that the Suśrutasaṃhitā is likely a work that includes several historical layers, whose composition may have begun in the last centuries BCE and was completed in its presently surviving form by another author who redacted its first five sections and added the long, final section, the "Uttaratantra."[1] It is likely that the Suśruta-saṃhitā was known to the scholar Dṛḍhabala [Wikidata] (fl. 300-500 CE), which gives the latest date for the version of the work that has survived into the modern era.[1]

In Suśrutasaṃhitā - A Scientific Synopsis, the historians of Indian science Ray, Gupta and Roy noted the following view, which is broadly the same as Meulenbeld's:[9]

"The Chronology Committee of the National Institute of Sciences of India (Proceedings, 1952),[10] was of the opinion that third to fourth centuries A. D. may be accepted as the date of the recension of the Suśruta Saṃhitā by Nāgārjuna, which formed the basis of Dallaṇa's commentary."

The above view remains the consensus amongst university scholars of the history of Indian medicine and Sanskrit literature.

Hoernle's view edit

Regrettably, given its subsequent influence, a century ago, the scholar Rudolf Hoernle (1841 – 1918) proposed that because the author of Satapatha Brahmana, a Vedic text from the mid-first-millennium BCE, was aware of Sushruta's doctrines, Sushruta's doctrines should be dated based on the composition date of Satapatha Brahmana.[11] The composition date of the Brahmana was itself unclear, added Hoernle, but he estimated it to be about the sixth century BCE.[11]

Unfortunately, Hoernle's date of 600 BCE for the Suśrutasaṃhitā continues to be widely and uncritically cited in spite of much intervening scholarship over the last century. Yet because of further research, scores of scholars have subsequently published more considered opinions on the date of the work, and these many views have been summarized by Meulenbeld in his History of Indian Medical Literature.[12]

Central to the problem of chronology is the fact that the Suśrutasaṃhitā is the work of several hands. The internal tradition recorded in manuscript colophons and by medieval commentators makes clear that an old version of the Suśrutasaṃhitā consisted of sections 1-5, with the sixth part having been added by a later author. However, the oldest manuscripts we have of the work already include the sixth section, called the Uttara-tantra. Manuscript colophons routinely call the whole work "The Suśrutasaṃhitā together with the Uttara-tantra," reinforcing the idea that this was perceived as a five+one composition.

Selected views on chronology edit

As mentioned above, scores of scholars have proposed hypotheses on the formation and dating of the Suśrutasaṃhitā.[12] The following are some of these views that broadly follow Hoernle's old 1907 publication.[13]

Rao in 1985 suggested that the original layer to the Sushruta Samhita was composed in 1st millennium BCE by "elder Sushruta" consisting of five books and 120 chapters, which was redacted and expanded with Uttara-tantra as the last layer of text in 1st millennium CE, bringing the text size to six books and 184 chapters.[14] Walton et al., in 1994, traced the origins of the text to 1st millennium BCE.[15]

Tipton in a 2008 historical perspectives review, states that uncertainty remains on dating the text, how many authors contributed to it and when. Estimates range from 1000 BCE, 800–600 BCE, 600 BCE, 600–200 BCE, 200 BCE, 1–100 CE, and 500 CE.[16] Partial resolution of these uncertainties, states Tipton, has come from a comparison of the Sushruta Samhita text with several Vedic hymns particularly the Atharvaveda such as the hymn on the creation of man in its 10th book,[17] the chapters of Atreya Samhita which describe the human skeleton,[18] better dating of ancient texts that mention Sushruta's name, and critical studies on the ancient Bower Manuscript by Hoernle.[16] The first Sushruta Samhita was likely composed by the mid 1st millennium BCE.[16]

Authorship edit

 
A statue of Sushruta (600 BCE) at Royal Australasian College of Surgeons (RACS) in Melbourne, Australia.

Sushruta or Suśruta (Sanskrit: सुश्रुत, IAST: Suśruta, lit. 'well heard',[19] an adjective meaning "renowned"[20]) is named in the text as the author, who is presented in later manuscripts and printed editions a narrating the teaching of his guru, Divodāsa.[21][22] A person of this name is said in early texts such as the Buddhist Jatakas to have been a physician who taught in a school in Kashi (Varanasi) and lived in Varanasi too,[23][24][25] sometime between 1200 BCE and 600 BCE.[26] The earliest known mentions of the name Sushruta firmly associated with the tradition of the Suśrutasaṃhitā is in the Bower Manuscript (4th or 5th century CE), where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas.[27]

Rao in 1985 suggested that the author of the original "layer" was "elder Sushruta" (Vrddha Sushruta), although this name appears nowhere in the early Sanskrit literature. The text, states Rao, was redacted centuries later "by another Sushruta, then by Nagarjuna, and thereafter Uttara-tantra was added as a supplement".[14] It is generally accepted by scholars that there were several ancient authors called "Suśruta" who contributed to this text.[28]

Affiliation edit

The text has been called a Hindu text by many scholars.[29][30][31] The text discusses surgery with the same terminology found in more ancient Hindu texts,[32][33] mentions Hindu gods such as Narayana, Hari, Brahma, Rudra, Indra and others in its chapters,[34][35] refers to the scriptures of Hinduism namely the Vedas,[36][37] and in some cases, recommends exercise, walking and "constant study of the Vedas" as part of the patient's treatment and recovery process.[38] The text also uses terminology of Samkhya and other schools of Hindu philosophy.[39][40][41]

The Sushruta Samhita and Caraka Samhita have religious ideas throughout, states Steven Engler, who then concludes "Vedic elements are too central to be discounted as marginal".[41] These ideas include the use of terms and same metaphors that are pervasive in the Hindu scriptures – the Vedas, and the inclusion of theory of Karma, self (Atman) and Brahman (metaphysical reality) along the lines of those found in ancient Hindu texts.[41] However, adds Engler, the text also includes another layer of ideas, where empirical rational ideas flourish in competition or cooperation with religious ideas.[41] Following Engler's study, contemporary scholars have abandoned the distinction "religious" vs. "empirico-rational" as no longer being a useful analytical distinction.

The text may have Buddhist influences, since a redactor named Nagarjuna has raised many historical questions, whether he was the same person of Mahayana Buddhism fame.[28] Zysk states that the ancient Buddhist medical texts are significantly different from both Sushruta and Caraka Samhita. For example, both Caraka and Sushruta recommend Dhupana (fumigation) in some cases, the use of cauterization with fire and alkali in a class of treatments, and the letting out of blood as the first step in treatment of wounds. Nowhere in the Buddhist Pali texts, states Zysk, are these types of medical procedures mentioned.[42] Similarly, medicinal resins (Laksha) lists vary between Sushruta and the Pali texts, with some sets not mentioned at all.[43] While Sushruta and Caraka are close, many afflictions and their treatments found in these texts are not found in Pali texts.[44]

In general, states Zysk, Buddhist medical texts are closer to Sushruta than to Caraka,[42] and in his study suggests that the Sushruta Samhita probably underwent a "Hinduization process" around the end of 1st millennium BCE and the early centuries of the common era after the Hindu orthodox identity had formed.[45] Clifford states that the influence was probably mutual, with Buddhist medical practice in its ancient tradition prohibited outside of the Buddhist monastic order by a precedent set by Buddha, and Buddhist text praise Buddha instead of Hindu gods in their prelude.[46] The mutual influence between the medical traditions between the various Indian religions, the history of the layers of the Suśruta-saṃhitā remains unclear, a large and difficult research problem.[28]

Sushruta is reverentially held in Hindu tradition to be a descendant of Dhanvantari, the mythical god of medicine,[47] or as one who received the knowledge from a discourse from Dhanvantari in Varanasi.[21]

Manuscripts and transmission edit

 
A page from the ancient medical text, Susruta Samhita.

One of the oldest palm-leaf manuscripts of Sushruta Samhita has been discovered in Nepal. It is preserved at the Kaiser Library, Nepal as manuscript KL–699, with its digital copy archived by Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (NGMCP C 80/7).[7] The partially damaged manuscript consists of 152 folios, written on both sides, with 6 to 8 lines in transitional Gupta script. The manuscript has been verifiably dated to have been completed by the scribe on Sunday, April 13, 878 CE (Manadeva Samvat 301).[7] The first book to publish an edition and translation of part of this manuscript appeared in 2023.[5]

Much of the scholarship on the Suśruta-saṃhitā is based on editions of the text that were published during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This includes the important edition by Vaidya Yādavaśarman Trivikramātmaja Ācārya that also includes the commentary of the scholar Dalhaṇa.[48]

The printed editions are based on the small subset of surviving manuscripts that was available in the major publishing centers of Bombay, Calcutta and elsewhere when the editions were being prepared — sometimes as few as three or four manuscripts. But these do not adequately represent the large number of manuscript versions of the Suśruta-saṃhitā that have survived into the modern era. Taken together, all printed versions of the Suśrutasaṃhitā are based on no more than ten percent of the more than 230 manuscripts of the work that exist today.[49] These manuscripts exist in the libraries in India and abroad today. More than two hundred manuscripts of the work exist, and a critical edition of the Suśruta-saṃhitā is yet to be prepared.[50]

Contents edit

Anatomy and empirical studies

The different parts or members of the body as mentioned before including the skin, cannot be correctly described by one who is not well versed in anatomy. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it, and examine its different parts.

—Sushruta Samhita, Book 3, Chapter V
Translators: Loukas et al[51]

The Sushruta Samhita is among the most important ancient medical treatises.[1][52] It is one of the foundational texts of the medical tradition in India, alongside the Caraka-Saṃhitā, the Bheḷa-Saṃhitā, and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript.[1][2][52]

Scope edit

The Sushruta Samhita was composed after Charaka Samhita, and except for some topics and their emphasis, both discuss many similar subjects such as General Principles, Pathology, Diagnosis, Anatomy, Sensorial Prognosis, Therapeutics, Pharmaceutics and Toxicology.[53][54][1]

The Sushruta and Charaka texts differ in one major aspect, with Sushruta Samhita providing the foundation of surgery, while Charaka Samhita being primarily a foundation of medicine.[53]

Chapters edit

The Sushruta Samhita, in its extant form, is divided into 186 chapters and contains descriptions of 1,120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.[55]

The Suśruta-Saṃhitā is divided into two parts: the first five books (Skt. Sthanas) are considered to be the oldest part of the text, and the "Later Section" (Skt. Uttaratantra) that was added by the author Nagarjuna.[56] The content of these chapters is diverse, some topics are covered in multiple chapters in different books, and a summary according to the Bhishagratna's translation is as follows:[57][58][59]

Sushruta Samhita
Book Chapter Topics (incomplete)[note 1] Translation
Comments

Prevention versus cure edit

Sushruta, states Tipton, asserts that a physician should invest the effort to prevent diseases as much as curative remedial procedures.[134] An important means for prevention, states Sushruta, is physical exercise and hygienic practices.[134] The text adds that excessive strenuous exercise can be injurious and make one more susceptible to diseases, cautioning against such excess.[16] Regular moderate exercise, suggests Sushruta, improves resistance to disease and physical decay.[134] Sushruta has written Shlokas on the prevention of diseases.

Human skeleton edit

The Sushruta Samhita states, per Hoernle's translation, that "the professors of Ayurveda speak of three hundred and sixty bones, but books on Shalya-Shastra (surgical science) know of only three hundred".[135] The text then lists the total of 300 as follows: 120 in the extremities (e.g. hands, legs), 117 in the pelvic area, sides, back, abdomen and breast, and 63 in the neck and upwards.[135] The text then explains how these subtotals were empirically verified.[136] The discussion shows that the Indian tradition nurtured diversity of thought, with Sushruta school reaching its own conclusions and differing from the Atreya-Caraka tradition.[136]

The osteological system of Sushruta, states Hoernle, follows the principle of homology, where the body and organs are viewed as self-mirroring and corresponding across various axes of symmetry.[137] The differences in the count of bones in the two schools is partly because Charaka Samhita includes thirty two teeth sockets in its count, and their difference of opinions on how and when to count a cartilage as bone (both count cartilages as bones, unlike current medical practice).[138][139]

Surgery edit

Training future surgeons

Students are to practice surgical techniques on gourds and dead animals.

—Sushruta Samhita, Book 1, Chapter IX
Translator: Engler[41]

The Sushruta Samhita is best known in non-specialist sources on medical history for its approach and discussions of surgery.[53] It is amongst the first medical treatises in history to suggest that a student of surgery should learn about human body and its organs by systematically examining a dead body.[140] A student should practice, states the text, on objects resembling the diseased or body part.[141] Incision studies, for example, are recommended on Pushpaphala (squash, Cucurbita maxima), Alabu (bottle gourd, Lagenaria vulgaris), Trapusha (cucumber, Cucumis pubescens), leather bags filled with fluids and bladders of dead animals.[142]

The ancient text, state Menon and Haberman, describes haemorrhoidectomy, amputations, plastic, rhinoplastic, ophthalmic, lithotomic and obstetrical procedures.[53]

The Sushruta Samhita mentions various methods including sliding graft, rotation graft and pedicle graft.[143] Reconstruction of a nose (rhinoplasty) which has been cut off, using a flap of skin from the cheek is also described.[144] Labioplasty too has received attention in the samahita.[145]

Medicinal herbs edit

The Sushruta Samhita, along with the Sanskrit medicine-related classics Atharvaveda and Charak Samhita, together describe more than 700 medicinal herbs.[146] The description, states Padma, includes their taste, appearance and digestive effects to safety, efficacy, dosage and benefits.[146]

Rhinoplasty edit

Rhinoplasty, surgery to repair the flesh of the nose, is performed to achieve two results:

 
Some shastras (tools) and kartarika (scissors and forceps) mentioned in Sushruta Samhita
  • To improve the breathing function of the nose
  • To improve the cosmetic appearance of the nose

Sushruta's treatise provides the first written record of a cheek flap rhinoplasty, a technique still used today to reconstruct a nose.[5] The text mentions more than 15 methods to repair it.  These include using a flap of skin from the cheek, which is akin to the most modern technique today.[147][148]

The nose in Indian society has remained a symbol of dignity and respect throughout antiquity. Rhinoplasty was an especially important development in India because of the long-standing tradition of rhinotomy (amputation of the nose) as a form of punishment. Convicted criminals would often have their noses amputated to mark them as untrustworthy, but amputation was also frequently practiced on women accused of adultery – even if they were not proven guilty. Once branded in this fashion, an individual had to live with the stigma for the rest of his or her life. Reconstructive surgery, therefore, offered a hope of redemption and normalcy.

Reception edit

See also: Sushruta § Legacy

Transmission outside South Asia edit

The text was translated to Arabic as Kitab Shah Shun al-Hindi' in Arabic, also known as Kitab i-Susurud, in Baghdad during the early 8th century at the instructions of a member of the Barmakid family of Baghdad.[149][14] Yahya ibn Barmak facilitated a major effort at collecting and translating Sanskrit texts such as Vagbhata's Astangahrdaya Samhita, Ravigupta's Siddhasara and Sushruta Samhita.[150] The Arabic translation reached Europe by the end of the medieval period.[151][152] There is disputed evidence that in Renaissance Italy, the Branca family of Sicily[151] and Gasparo Tagliacozzi (Bologna) were familiar with the rhinoplastic techniques mentioned in the Sushruta Samhita.[153][154][152]

The text was known to the Khmer king Yaśovarman I (fl. 889-900) of Cambodia. Suśruta was also known as a medical authority in Tibetan literature.[149]

Commentaries edit

The earliest surviving commentary on the whole text, known as Nibandha-samgraha, was written by Dalhana in ca. 1200 CE.

Earlier commentaries existed but have only been transmitted to modern times in fragmentary form. These include lost or partially-lost commentaries by Jejjaṭa (ca. 700 CE),[155] Gayadāsa (ca. 1000 CE),[156] and Cakrapāṇidatta (ca. 1025 CE).[157]

Commentaries continued to be written on the work into the nineteenth century, e.g., the Suśrutārthasandīpanī by Haranachandra written in 19th century AD.

Modern reception edit

A number of Sushruta's contributions have been discussed in modern literature. Some of these include Hritshoola (heart pain), circulation of vital body fluids (such as blood (rakta dhatu) and lymph (rasa dhatu), Diabetes (Madhumeha), obesity, and hypertension.[55] Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in Sushruta Samhita.[158][159] The text discusses kidney stones and its surgical removal.[160]

Editions and translations edit

The first printed edition of the text was prepared by Madhusudan Gupta (2 vols, Calcutta 1835, 1836). A partial English translation by U. C. Datta appeared in 1883. The first complete English translation of the Sushruta Samhita was by Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, who published it in three volumes between 1907 and 1916 (reprinted 1963, 2006).[161][note 1]

An English translation of both the Sushruta Samhita and Dalhana's commentary was published in three volumes by P. V. Sharma in 1999.[162] Scholars of Ayurveda generally consider this to be the most accurate and scholarly translation of the complete work to date.[citation needed]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b Bhishagratna translation includes parts of Dalhana commentary, and used modern medical terminology and Western words such as "egg" for sonita (menstrual blood), an approach that has led scholars to question parts of his translation.[60][61]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f Meulenbeld 1999, pp. 203–389 (Volume IA).
  2. ^ a b c Rây 1980.
  3. ^ E. Schultheisz (1981), History of Physiology, Pergamon Press, ISBN 978-0080273426, page 60-61, Quote: "(...) the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine".
  4. ^ Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199360079, page 79;
    Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, ISBN 978-1412928168, page 547, Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries"
  5. ^ a b c Wujastyk, Dominik; Birch, Jason; Klebanov, Andrey; Parameswaran, Madhu K.; Rimal, Madhusudan; Chakraborty, Deepro; Bhatt, Harshal; Lele, Vandana; Mehta, Paras (2023). On the Plastic Surgery of the Ears and Nose. Heidelberg Asian Studies Publishing. doi:10.11588/hasp.1203.
  6. ^ Valiathan 2007.
  7. ^ a b c Kengo Harimoto (2011). "In search of the Oldest Nepalese Manuscript". Rivista degli Studi Orientali. 84: 85–88.
  8. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, p. 307.
  9. ^ Ray, Priyadaranjan; Gupta, Hirendra Nath; Roy, Mira (1980). Suśruta saṃhitā: (a scientific synopsis). New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. p. 4. OCLC 985517620.
  10. ^ India, National Institute of Sciences of (1952). Proceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India. National Institute of Sciences of India.
  11. ^ a b Hoernle 1907, p. 8.
  12. ^ a b Meulenbeld, G. J (2000). A history of Indian medical literature. Vol. IA. Groningen. pp. 342–344. ISBN 90-6980-124-8. OCLC 872371654.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^ Hoernle 1907.
  14. ^ a b c Ramachandra S.K. Rao, Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicine: historical perspective, Volume 1, 2005 Reprint (Original: 1985), pp 94-98, Popular Prakashan
  15. ^ Walton 1994, p. 586.
  16. ^ a b c d Tipton 2008, pp. 1553–1556.
  17. ^ Hoernle 1907, pp. 109–111.
  18. ^ Banerjee 2011, pp. 320–323.
  19. ^ Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1237.
  20. ^ Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit Dictionary (1899).
  21. ^ a b Bhishagratna, Kunjalal (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, based on Original Sanskrit Text. Calcutta. p. 1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  22. ^ "The Suśruta Project – The textual and cultural history of medicine in South Asia based on newly-discovered manuscript evidence". Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  23. ^ Hoernle 1907, pp. 7–8.
  24. ^ Amaresh Datta, various. The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume One (A To Devo)). Sahitya academy. p. 311.
  25. ^ "Know all about Sushruta, the first ever plastic surgeon who was Indian". India Today. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  26. ^ David O. Kennedy. Plants and the Human Brain. Oxford. p. 265.
  27. ^ Kutumbian 2005, pp. XXXII–XXXIII.
  28. ^ a b c Meulenbeld 1999, pp. 347–350 (Volume IA).
  29. ^ Boslaugh 2007, p. 547, Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita (600 AD) is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries"..
  30. ^ Schultheisz 1981, pp. 60–61, Quote: "(...) the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine.".
  31. ^ Loukas 2010, p. 646, Quote: Susruta's Samhita emphasized surgical matters, including the use of specific instruments and types of operations. It is in his work that one finds significant anatomical considerations of the ancient Hindu.".
  32. ^ Hoernle 1907, pp. 8, 109–111.
  33. ^ Raveenthiran, Venkatachalam (2011). "Knowledge of ancient Hindu surgeons on Hirschsprung disease: evidence from Sushruta Samhita of circa 1200-600 bc". Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 46 (11): 2204–2208. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2011.07.007. PMID 22075360.
  34. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, p. 156 etc.
  35. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 6–7, 395 etc.
  36. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 157, 527, 531, 536 etc.
  37. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 181, 304–305, 366, lxiv-lxv etc.
  38. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, p. 377 etc.
  39. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 113-121 etc.
  40. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 285, 381, 407, 409, 415 etc.
  41. ^ a b c d e Engler 2003, pp. 416–463.
  42. ^ a b Zysk 2000, p. 100.
  43. ^ Zysk 2000, p. 81, 83.
  44. ^ Zysk 2000, pp. 74–76, 115–116, 123.
  45. ^ Zysk 2000, p. 4-6, 25-26.
  46. ^ Terry Clifford (2003), Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry: The Diamond Healing, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120817845, pages 35-39
  47. ^ Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "suśruta"
  48. ^ Ācārya, Yādavaśarman Trivikrama (1938). Suśrutasaṃhitā, Suśrutena viracitā, Vaidyavaraśrīḍalhaṇācāryaviracitayā Nibandhasaṃgrahākhyavyākhyayā samullasitā, Ācāryopāhvena Trivikramātmajena Yādavaśarmaṇā saṃśodhitā. Mumbayyāṃ: Nirnaya Sagara Press.
  49. ^ Kumarapuram., Kunjunni Raja (1973). New catalogus catalogorum : an alphabet. register of Sanskrit and allied works and authors. OCLC 157800144.
  50. ^ Wujastyk, Dominik (2013). "New Manuscript Evidence for the Textual and Cultural History of Early Classical Indian Medicine". In Wujastyk, Dominik; Cerulli, Anthony; Preisendanz, Karin (eds.). Medical Texts and Manuscripts in Indian Cultural History. New Delhi: Manohar. pp. 141–57.
  51. ^ Loukas 2010, pp. 646–650.
  52. ^ a b Wujastyk, Dominik (2003). The Roots of Ayurveda. London etc.: Penguin. pp. 149–160. ISBN 978-0140448245.
  53. ^ a b c d Menon IA, Haberman HF (1969). "Dermatological writings of ancient India". Med Hist. 13 (4): 387–392. doi:10.1017/s0025727300014824. PMC 1033984. PMID 4899819.
  54. ^ Ray, Priyadaranjan; Gupta, Hirendra Nath; Roy, Mira (1980). Suśruta Saṃhita (a Scientific Synopsis). New Delhi: INSA.
  55. ^ a b Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)[page needed]
  56. ^ Prof.P.V.Sharma, Ayurveda Ka Vaijnannika Itihas,7th ed., Ch. 2, Pg.87, Chaukhambha orientalia, Varanasi (2003)
  57. ^ Bhishagratna 1907.
  58. ^ Bhishagratna 1911.
  59. ^ Bhishagratna 1916.
  60. ^ Martha Ann Selby (2005), Asian Medicine and Globalization (Editor: Joseph S. Alter), University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978-0812238662, page 124
  61. ^ RP Das (1991), Medical Literature from India, Sri Lanka, and Tibet (Editors: Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld, I. Julia Leslie), BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004095229, pages 25-26
  62. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 1–15.
  63. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 16–20.
  64. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 21–32.
  65. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 33–35.
  66. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 36–44.
  67. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 45–55.
  68. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 56–63.
  69. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 64–70.
  70. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 71–73.
  71. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 74–77.
  72. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 78–87.
  73. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 88–97.
  74. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 98–105.
  75. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 106–119.
  76. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 120–140.
  77. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 141–154.
  78. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 155–161.
  79. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 162–175.
  80. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 176–182.
  81. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 183–193.
  82. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 194–211.
  83. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 212–219.
  84. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 220–227.
  85. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 228–237.
  86. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 238–246.
  87. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 247–255.
  88. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 256–265.
  89. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 266–269.
  90. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 270–283.
  91. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 284–287.
  92. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 288–571.
  93. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 1–17.
  94. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 18–24.
  95. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 25–30.
  96. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 31–34.
  97. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 35–42.
  98. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 43–49.
  99. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 50–54.
  100. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 55–60.
  101. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 61–66.
  102. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 67–71.
  103. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 72–78.
  104. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 79–84.
  105. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 85–93.
  106. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 94–96.
  107. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 97–100.
  108. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 101–111.
  109. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 113–121.
  110. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 122–133.
  111. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 134–143.
  112. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 144–158.
  113. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 158–172.
  114. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 173–190.
  115. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 191–197.
  116. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 198–208.
  117. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 209–215.
  118. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 216–238.
  119. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 259–264.
  120. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 265–477.
  121. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 478–671.
  122. ^ Bhishagratna 1911, pp. 673–684.
  123. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, pp. 685–736.
  124. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 1–105.
  125. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 106–117.
  126. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 117–123.
  127. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 131–140.
  128. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 141–163.
  129. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 169–337.
  130. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 338–372.
  131. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 387–391.
  132. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 396–405.
  133. ^ Bhishagratna 1916, pp. 406–416.
  134. ^ a b c Tipton 2008, p. 1554.
  135. ^ a b Hoernle 1907, p. 70.
  136. ^ a b Hoernle 1907, pp. 70–72.
  137. ^ Hoernle 1907, p. 72.
  138. ^ Hoernle 1907, pp. 73–74.
  139. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, p. xxiv-xxv.
  140. ^ Zysk, Kenneth G. (1986). "The Evolution of Anatomical Knowledge in Ancient India, with Special Reference to Cross-Cultural Influences". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 106 (4): 687–705. doi:10.2307/603532. JSTOR 603532. PMID 11617255.
  141. ^ Majno, Guido (February 1976). "The Healing Hand". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 57 (2): 230. doi:10.1097/00006534-197602000-00022. ISSN 0032-1052. S2CID 10270499.
  142. ^ Bhishagratna 1907, p. xxi.
  143. ^ Lana Thompson. Plastic Surgery. ABC-CLIO. p. 8.
  144. ^ Melvin A. Shiffman, Alberto Di Gi. Advanced Aesthetic Rhinoplasty: Art, Science, and New Clinical Techniques. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 132.
  145. ^ Sharma, Kumar. History BA (Programme) Semester II: Questions and Answers, University of Delhi. Pearson Education India. p. 147.
  146. ^ a b Padma, T. V. (2005). "Ayurveda". Nature. 436 (7050): 486. Bibcode:2005Natur.436..486P. doi:10.1038/436486a. PMID 16049472.
  147. ^ "An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, Based on Original Sanskrit Text. Edited and Published by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna. With a Full ... Notes, Comperative Views, Index, Glossary An (Book)". www.worldhistory.org. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  148. ^ "Sushruta Samhita: The Ancient Treatise on Surgery". Live History India. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  149. ^ a b Meulenbeld 1999, p. 352 (Volume IA).
  150. ^ Charles Burnett (2015), The Cambridge World History, Volume 5, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521190749, page 346
  151. ^ a b Scuderi, Nicolò; Toth, Bryant A. (2016). International Textbook of Aesthetic Surgery. Springer. ISBN 9783662465998.
  152. ^ a b Menick, Frederick J (11 October 2017). "Paramedian Forehead Flap Nasal Reconstruction: History of the Procedure, Problem, Presentation". Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  153. ^ Lock etc., page 607
  154. ^ New Scientist Jul 26, 1984, p. 43
  155. ^ "Jejjaṭa's commentary on the Suśrutasaṃhitā (Work) - Pandit". www.panditproject.org. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  156. ^ "Nyāyacandrikā (Work) - Pandit". www.panditproject.org. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  157. ^ "Bhānumatī (Work) - Pandit". www.panditproject.org. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  158. ^ Kearns & Nash (2008)
  159. ^ Aufderheide, A. C.; Rodriguez-Martin, C. & Langsjoen, O. (page 148)
  160. ^ Lock etc., page 836
  161. ^ Kenneth Zysk (2010), Medicine in the Veda: Religious Healing in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814004, page 272 with footnote 36
  162. ^ Sharma, Priya Vrata (2001). Suśruta-Saṃhitā, with English Translation of Text and Ḍalhaṇa's Commentary Along with Critical Notes. Haridas Ayurveda Series 9. Vol. 3 vols. Varanasi: Chowkhambha Visvabharati. OCLC 42717448.

Bibliography edit

  • Boslaugh, Sarah (2007). Encyclopedia of Epidemiology. Vol. 1. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1412928168.
  • Balodhi, J. P. (1987). "Constituting the outlines of a philosophy of Ayurveda: mainly on mental health import". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 29 (2): 127–31. PMC 3172459. PMID 21927226.
  • Banerjee, Anirban D.; et al. (2011). "Susruta and Ancient Indian Neurosurgery". World Neurosurgery. 75 (2): 320–323. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2010.09.007. PMID 21492737.
  • Bhishagratna, Kaviraj KL (1907). . Calcutta. Archived from the original on 4 November 2008. Alt URL
  • Bhishagratna, Kaviraj KL (1911). . Calcutta. Archived from the original on 31 August 2008. Alt URL
  • Bhishagratna, Kaviraj KL (1916). . Calcutta. Archived from the original on 4 February 2010. Alt URL
  • Dwivedi, Girish; Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence" (PDF). Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences. 49 (4).
  • Engler, Steven (2003). "" Science" vs." Religion" in Classical Ayurveda". Numen. 50 (4): 416–463. doi:10.1163/156852703322446679. hdl:11205/105.
  • Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
  • Kutumbian, P. (2005). Ancient Indian Medicine. Orient Longman. ISBN 978-812501521-5.
  • Loukas, M; et al. (2010). "Anatomy in ancient India: A focus on the Susruta Samhita". Journal of Anatomy. 217 (6): 646–650. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01294.x. PMC 3039177. PMID 20887391.
  • Rana, R. E.; Arora, B. S. (2002). "History of plastic surgery in India". Journal of Postgraduate Medicine. 48 (1): 76–8. PMID 12082339.
  • Rây, Priyadaranjan; et al. (1980). Suśruta saṃhitā: a scientific synopsis. Indian National Science Academy. OCLC 7952879.
  • Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999). A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Brill (all volumes, 1999-2002). ISBN 978-9069801247.
  • Sharma, P. V. (1992). History of medicine in India, from antiquity to 1000 A.D. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. OCLC 26881970.
  • Schultheisz, E. (1981). History of Physiology. Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0080273426.
  • Raveenthiran, Venkatachalam (2011). "Knowledge of ancient Hindu surgeons on Hirschsprung disease: evidence from Sushruta Samhita of circa 1200-600 bc". Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 46 (11): 2204–2208. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2011.07.007. PMID 22075360.
  • Tipton, Charles (2008). "Susruta of India, an unrecognized contributor to the history of exercise physiology". Journal of Applied Physiology. 104 (6): 1553–1556. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00925.2007. PMID 18356481. S2CID 22761582.
  • Valiathan, M. S (2007). The legacy of Suśruta. Orient Longman. ISBN 9788125031505. OCLC 137222991.
  • Walton, John (1994). The Oxford medical companion. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-262355-3.
  • Zysk, Kenneth (2000). Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120815285.
  • Chari PS. 'Sushruta and our heritage', Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.

External links edit

  • Sushruta Samhita, Translated by Rudolf Hoernle
  • Sushruta Samhita Volume 1, in English, Translated by KK Lal Bhisaghratna
  • Sushruta Samhita Volume 2, in English, Translated by KK Lal Bhisaghratna
  • Sushruta Samhita Volume 3, in English, Translated by KK Lal Bhisaghratna
  • Sutrasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
  • Nidanasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
  • Sharirasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
  • Cikitsasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
  • Kalpasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
  • Uttaratantra, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
  • The Sushruta Project: The textual and cultural history of medicine in South Asia based on newly-discovered manuscript evidence. An academic research project at the University of Alberta (2020-2024).

April 08, 2024
sushruta, samhita, sanskrit, तस, suśruta, compendium, iast, suśrutasaṃhitā, ancient, sanskrit, text, medicine, surgery, most, important, such, treatises, this, subject, survive, from, ancient, world, compendium, suśruta, foundational, texts, ayurveda, indian, . The Sushruta Samhita Sanskrit स श र तस ह त lit Susruta s Compendium IAST Susrutasaṃhita is an ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery and one of the most important such treatises on this subject to survive from the ancient world The Compendium of Susruta is one of the foundational texts of Ayurveda Indian traditional medicine alongside the Charaka Saṃhita the Bhela Saṃhita and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript 1 2 It is one of the two foundational Hindu texts on the medical profession that have survived from ancient India 3 4 Palm leaves of the Sushruta Samhita or Sahottara Tantra from Nepal stored at Los Angeles County Museum of Art The text is dated 12th 13th century while the art is dated 18th 19th century The Susrutasaṃhita is of great historical importance because it includes historically unique chapters describing surgical training instruments and procedures which is still followed by modern science of surgery 5 2 6 page needed One of the oldest Sushruta Samhita palm leaf manuscripts is preserved at the Kaiser Library Nepal 7 Contents 1 History 1 1 Date 1 1 1 Hoernle s view 1 1 2 Selected views on chronology 1 2 Authorship 1 3 Affiliation 1 4 Manuscripts and transmission 2 Contents 2 1 Scope 2 2 Chapters 2 3 Prevention versus cure 2 4 Human skeleton 2 5 Surgery 2 6 Medicinal herbs 2 7 Rhinoplasty 3 Reception 3 1 Transmission outside South Asia 3 2 Commentaries 3 3 Modern reception 4 Editions and translations 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External linksHistory editAncient qualifications of a Nurse That person alone is fit to nurse or to attend the bedside of a patient who is cool headed and pleasant in his demeanor does not speak ill of any body is strong and attentive to the requirements of the sick and strictly and indefatigably follows the instructions of the physician Sushruta Samhita Book 1 Chapter XXXIVTranslator Bhishagratna 8 Date edit The most detailed and extensive consideration of the date of the Susrutasaṃhita is that published by Meulenbeld in his History of Indian Medical Literature 1999 2002 Meulenbeld stated that the Susrutasaṃhita is likely a work that includes several historical layers whose composition may have begun in the last centuries BCE and was completed in its presently surviving form by another author who redacted its first five sections and added the long final section the Uttaratantra 1 It is likely that the Susruta saṃhita was known to the scholar Dṛḍhabala Wikidata fl 300 500 CE which gives the latest date for the version of the work that has survived into the modern era 1 In Susrutasaṃhita A Scientific Synopsis the historians of Indian science Ray Gupta and Roy noted the following view which is broadly the same as Meulenbeld s 9 The Chronology Committee of the National Institute of Sciences of India Proceedings 1952 10 was of the opinion that third to fourth centuries A D may be accepted as the date of the recension of the Susruta Saṃhita by Nagarjuna which formed the basis of Dallaṇa s commentary The above view remains the consensus amongst university scholars of the history of Indian medicine and Sanskrit literature Hoernle s view edit Regrettably given its subsequent influence a century ago the scholar Rudolf Hoernle 1841 1918 proposed that because the author of Satapatha Brahmana a Vedic text from the mid first millennium BCE was aware of Sushruta s doctrines Sushruta s doctrines should be dated based on the composition date of Satapatha Brahmana 11 The composition date of the Brahmana was itself unclear added Hoernle but he estimated it to be about the sixth century BCE 11 Unfortunately Hoernle s date of 600 BCE for the Susrutasaṃhita continues to be widely and uncritically cited in spite of much intervening scholarship over the last century Yet because of further research scores of scholars have subsequently published more considered opinions on the date of the work and these many views have been summarized by Meulenbeld in his History of Indian Medical Literature 12 Central to the problem of chronology is the fact that the Susrutasaṃhita is the work of several hands The internal tradition recorded in manuscript colophons and by medieval commentators makes clear that an old version of the Susrutasaṃhita consisted of sections 1 5 with the sixth part having been added by a later author However the oldest manuscripts we have of the work already include the sixth section called the Uttara tantra Manuscript colophons routinely call the whole work The Susrutasaṃhita together with the Uttara tantra reinforcing the idea that this was perceived as a five one composition Selected views on chronology edit As mentioned above scores of scholars have proposed hypotheses on the formation and dating of the Susrutasaṃhita 12 The following are some of these views that broadly follow Hoernle s old 1907 publication 13 Rao in 1985 suggested that the original layer to the Sushruta Samhita was composed in 1st millennium BCE by elder Sushruta consisting of five books and 120 chapters which was redacted and expanded with Uttara tantra as the last layer of text in 1st millennium CE bringing the text size to six books and 184 chapters 14 Walton et al in 1994 traced the origins of the text to 1st millennium BCE 15 Tipton in a 2008 historical perspectives review states that uncertainty remains on dating the text how many authors contributed to it and when Estimates range from 1000 BCE 800 600 BCE 600 BCE 600 200 BCE 200 BCE 1 100 CE and 500 CE 16 Partial resolution of these uncertainties states Tipton has come from a comparison of the Sushruta Samhita text with several Vedic hymns particularly the Atharvaveda such as the hymn on the creation of man in its 10th book 17 the chapters of Atreya Samhita which describe the human skeleton 18 better dating of ancient texts that mention Sushruta s name and critical studies on the ancient Bower Manuscript by Hoernle 16 The first Sushruta Samhita was likely composed by the mid 1st millennium BCE 16 Authorship edit nbsp A statue of Sushruta 600 BCE at Royal Australasian College of Surgeons RACS in Melbourne Australia Sushruta or Susruta Sanskrit स श र त IAST Susruta lit well heard 19 an adjective meaning renowned 20 is named in the text as the author who is presented in later manuscripts and printed editions a narrating the teaching of his guru Divodasa 21 22 A person of this name is said in early texts such as the Buddhist Jatakas to have been a physician who taught in a school in Kashi Varanasi and lived in Varanasi too 23 24 25 sometime between 1200 BCE and 600 BCE 26 The earliest known mentions of the name Sushruta firmly associated with the tradition of the Susrutasaṃhita is in the Bower Manuscript 4th or 5th century CE where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas 27 Rao in 1985 suggested that the author of the original layer was elder Sushruta Vrddha Sushruta although this name appears nowhere in the early Sanskrit literature The text states Rao was redacted centuries later by another Sushruta then by Nagarjuna and thereafter Uttara tantra was added as a supplement 14 It is generally accepted by scholars that there were several ancient authors called Susruta who contributed to this text 28 Affiliation edit The text has been called a Hindu text by many scholars 29 30 31 The text discusses surgery with the same terminology found in more ancient Hindu texts 32 33 mentions Hindu gods such as Narayana Hari Brahma Rudra Indra and others in its chapters 34 35 refers to the scriptures of Hinduism namely the Vedas 36 37 and in some cases recommends exercise walking and constant study of the Vedas as part of the patient s treatment and recovery process 38 The text also uses terminology of Samkhya and other schools of Hindu philosophy 39 40 41 The Sushruta Samhita and Caraka Samhita have religious ideas throughout states Steven Engler who then concludes Vedic elements are too central to be discounted as marginal 41 These ideas include the use of terms and same metaphors that are pervasive in the Hindu scriptures the Vedas and the inclusion of theory of Karma self Atman and Brahman metaphysical reality along the lines of those found in ancient Hindu texts 41 However adds Engler the text also includes another layer of ideas where empirical rational ideas flourish in competition or cooperation with religious ideas 41 Following Engler s study contemporary scholars have abandoned the distinction religious vs empirico rational as no longer being a useful analytical distinction The text may have Buddhist influences since a redactor named Nagarjuna has raised many historical questions whether he was the same person of Mahayana Buddhism fame 28 Zysk states that the ancient Buddhist medical texts are significantly different from both Sushruta and Caraka Samhita For example both Caraka and Sushruta recommend Dhupana fumigation in some cases the use of cauterization with fire and alkali in a class of treatments and the letting out of blood as the first step in treatment of wounds Nowhere in the Buddhist Pali texts states Zysk are these types of medical procedures mentioned 42 Similarly medicinal resins Laksha lists vary between Sushruta and the Pali texts with some sets not mentioned at all 43 While Sushruta and Caraka are close many afflictions and their treatments found in these texts are not found in Pali texts 44 In general states Zysk Buddhist medical texts are closer to Sushruta than to Caraka 42 and in his study suggests that the Sushruta Samhita probably underwent a Hinduization process around the end of 1st millennium BCE and the early centuries of the common era after the Hindu orthodox identity had formed 45 Clifford states that the influence was probably mutual with Buddhist medical practice in its ancient tradition prohibited outside of the Buddhist monastic order by a precedent set by Buddha and Buddhist text praise Buddha instead of Hindu gods in their prelude 46 The mutual influence between the medical traditions between the various Indian religions the history of the layers of the Susruta saṃhita remains unclear a large and difficult research problem 28 Sushruta is reverentially held in Hindu tradition to be a descendant of Dhanvantari the mythical god of medicine 47 or as one who received the knowledge from a discourse from Dhanvantari in Varanasi 21 Manuscripts and transmission edit nbsp A page from the ancient medical text Susruta Samhita One of the oldest palm leaf manuscripts of Sushruta Samhita has been discovered in Nepal It is preserved at the Kaiser Library Nepal as manuscript KL 699 with its digital copy archived by Nepal German Manuscript Preservation Project NGMCP C 80 7 7 The partially damaged manuscript consists of 152 folios written on both sides with 6 to 8 lines in transitional Gupta script The manuscript has been verifiably dated to have been completed by the scribe on Sunday April 13 878 CE Manadeva Samvat 301 7 The first book to publish an edition and translation of part of this manuscript appeared in 2023 5 Much of the scholarship on the Susruta saṃhita is based on editions of the text that were published during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries This includes the important edition by Vaidya Yadavasarman Trivikramatmaja Acarya that also includes the commentary of the scholar Dalhaṇa 48 The printed editions are based on the small subset of surviving manuscripts that was available in the major publishing centers of Bombay Calcutta and elsewhere when the editions were being prepared sometimes as few as three or four manuscripts But these do not adequately represent the large number of manuscript versions of the Susruta saṃhita that have survived into the modern era Taken together all printed versions of the Susrutasaṃhita are based on no more than ten percent of the more than 230 manuscripts of the work that exist today 49 These manuscripts exist in the libraries in India and abroad today More than two hundred manuscripts of the work exist and a critical edition of the Susruta saṃhita is yet to be prepared 50 Contents editAnatomy and empirical studies The different parts or members of the body as mentioned before including the skin cannot be correctly described by one who is not well versed in anatomy Hence any one desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully observe by dissecting it and examine its different parts Sushruta Samhita Book 3 Chapter VTranslators Loukas et al 51 The Sushruta Samhita is among the most important ancient medical treatises 1 52 It is one of the foundational texts of the medical tradition in India alongside the Caraka Saṃhita the Bheḷa Saṃhita and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript 1 2 52 Scope edit The Sushruta Samhita was composed after Charaka Samhita and except for some topics and their emphasis both discuss many similar subjects such as General Principles Pathology Diagnosis Anatomy Sensorial Prognosis Therapeutics Pharmaceutics and Toxicology 53 54 1 The Sushruta and Charaka texts differ in one major aspect with Sushruta Samhita providing the foundation of surgery while Charaka Samhita being primarily a foundation of medicine 53 Chapters edit The Sushruta Samhita in its extant form is divided into 186 chapters and contains descriptions of 1 120 illnesses 700 medicinal plants 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources 55 The Susruta Saṃhita is divided into two parts the first five books Skt Sthanas are considered to be the oldest part of the text and the Later Section Skt Uttaratantra that was added by the author Nagarjuna 56 The content of these chapters is diverse some topics are covered in multiple chapters in different books and a summary according to the Bhishagratna s translation is as follows 57 58 59 Sushruta Samhita Book Chapter Topics incomplete note 1 TranslationComments1 Sutra sthana1 I Origin of the Ayurveda eight divisions history definition of Purusha patient what is a disease stages of a disease classifications 62 1 II Medical education qualifications of a student oath of care promise of the student to the teacher ethical prohibitions 63 1 III Classification of Original Samhita Table of contents synopsis of the text skilful and unskilful physicians how to study for medical practice need for constant practice to attain perfection 64 1 IV Preface and explanations Need for clear exposition defects resulting from unclear statements duties of a student 65 1 V Preliminary surgical measures Types of surgical operations collecting equipment and accessories prophylactics modes of incision post surgical steps dressing wounds instructions to the patient after surgery measures to remove pain 66 1 VI Seasons and their influence on health and medicine effect of weather change in weather causes of epidemics prophylactic measures natural and unnatural seasons 67 1 VII Surgical appliances their use and construction names dimensions use and functions excellence of each appliance defect of each appliance accessories 68 1 VIII Surgical instruments their use and construction handling instruments sharpening edging tempering maintenance when should each be used and not used 69 1 IX Training for surgery use of dummies and fruits to learn and pre practice surgery 70 1 X Qualifications and certification of a physician effect of weather change in weather causes of epidemics prophylactic measures natural and unnatural seasons 71 1 XI Preparing Alkalis their uses how to prepare the solutions external and internal uses cauterization potencies defects dangers reaction preventing abuse 72 1 XII Cauterization preparation and process for various injuries and diseases various types of cauterization 73 1 XIII Leeching suitable and unsuitable patients mode of vitiating dhatu blood finding collecting and keeping leeches good leeches and bad leeches post treatment measures 74 1 XIV Lymph chyle menstrual blood and its nature swellings venesection causes of excessive bleeding causes of scanty bleeding measures to be adopted in either 75 1 XV Excretory disorders nature locations theory of why they increase or decrease 76 1 XVI Ear piercing and bandages proper piercing accidents treatments 77 1 XVII Swellings types suppurating and non suppurating causes symptoms treatments dangers of misdiagnosis anaesthesia lancing surgery 78 1 XVIII Ulcers classification preparing medicinal plasters dressing evils of not bandaging benefits of bandaging when not to bandage lubricating bandage for faster healing 79 1 XIX Nursing and management bed chamber prohibited articles prophylaxis and mantras against monsters and demons diet conduct care 80 1 XX Food and regimen for patient s recovery Food and drinks their role in patient s recovery salutary regiment non salutary regimen 81 1 XXI Vayu Pittam and Shleshma the role and impact of diseases on Vayu Pittam and Shleshma body aeration body fluids 82 1 XXII Boils and ulcers secretions shapes types secretion role of Vayu pains and their kinds associated with different types of ulcers colors of ulcers 83 1 XXIII Prognosis of ulcers symptoms identification of curable and incurable types palliation factors which reopen healed ulcer 84 1 XXIV Classification of diseases deciding if medicine or surgery is needed types of diseases congenital mental physical providential causes of fever 85 1 XXV Eight forms of surgery description suitability in different cases avoiding injuries to blood vessels and ligaments action if accidentally injured 86 1 XXVI Injuries from splinters Shalyam accidental injuries arrow injuries necessity for removing arrow shafts 87 1 XXVII Injuries extraction of splinters fifteen methods of extraction dangers of not extracting splinters completely from a wound 88 1 XXVIII Progress in treating ulcer signs of improvement signs of worsening fatal symptoms 89 1 XXIX Disease prognosis use of omens augury Dreams and their analysis for diagnosis 90 1 XXX Prognosis from sense organs Testing sensory functions of a patient for symptoms and disease prognosis 91 1 XXXI 1 XLVI Various topics 92 2 Nidana sthana2 I Nervous system diseases causes pathology symptoms prognosis Epilepsy Hemiplegia Torticellis Facial paralysis Indistinct speech etc 93 2 II Haemorhoids classification causes pathology symptoms prognosis 94 2 III Urinary calculli Aetiology symptoms indications theory on how bladder stones are formed 95 2 IV Fistula classification pathology symptoms prognosis 96 2 V Skin diseases classification aetiology symptoms treatment contagious nature avoiding its spread prognosis 97 2 VI Urinary diseases pathology symptoms prognosis 98 2 VII Dropsy classification causes pathology symptoms prognosis 99 2 VIII Birth Difficult labor causes classification symptoms abortion miscarriage prognosis 100 2 IX Abscess Vidradhi classification curability treatment 101 2 X Mammary glands diseases women classification symptoms healthy breast milk and its character abnormal traits baby care 102 2 XI Tumors and goitres classification symptoms causes prognosis 103 2 XII Andrology and gynecology genital organ diseases classification symptoms causes prognosis 104 2 XIII Kshudra roga minor diseases classification symptoms causes prognosis 105 2 XIV Shuka dosha classification symptoms prognosis 106 2 XV Fracture and dislocation causes features symptoms classification curable and incurable types treatment management 107 2 XVI Mouth tongue larynx and lip diseases classification causes symptoms classification prognosis 108 3 Sarira sthana3 I Theory of Being Tattvas Purusha and Prakriti Samkhya theories and its use in medical practice human mind 109 3 II Reproductive health classification of semen and menstrual fluid disorders treatment sexual activity for conception difficulty in conception causes description of fetus 110 3 III Pregnancy Theory of Sarira body matter Atman soul theory on gender formation signs of pregnancy care of pregnant woman fetal development cravings twin time of delivery care during labor 111 3 IV Womb baby development theory on placenta limbs organ development during pregnancy 112 3 V Human anatomy Enumeration of limbs body organs their numbers vessels bones joints Sandhis ligaments muscles differences between organs of men and women reproductive organs 113 3 VI Marmas vital organs classification numbering and location of organs different theories on which organs are vital symptoms associated with specific organs when injured 114 3 VII Vascular system classification numbering and location of Siras vascular system 115 3 VIII Venesection classification and definition determining who is fit and who unfit for venesection 116 3 IX Arteries Nerves and Ducts classification locations theory on their roles symptoms in cases of disorder 117 3 X Nursing care of pregnant women needs from conception to parturition regimen during gestation diet natal rites lactation infantile diseases miscarriage and its treatment management of pregnancy 118 4 Cikitsa sthana4 I Ulcers causes symptoms traumatic and idiopathic ulcers dosha originated ulcers therapeutics sixty treatments of different types of ulcers 119 4 II 4 XXIII Various topics Treatment of ulcers wounds sores fractures nervous disorders urinary infections skin infections tumors swellings hernia hydrocele genital sores urethra infections mouth infections other minor ailments 120 4 XXIII 4 XL Various topics on Hygiene tooth brushing dental care face care hands and feet washing bathing exercise healthy meal rules on drinking water benefits of Dahi yoghurt good sleep effect of not taking care of body improving strength elixirs rejuvenators remedial agents Soma tonics Sneha Sveda Emetics Purgatives effects of abusing or overdosing medicine and solutions use of Dhuma fumes and Kavala gargling for relief from some symptoms 121 5 Kalpa sthana5 I Preserving food and drink theory on why food or drink poisons how to detect poisoned food or drink treatment of food poisoning 122 5 II 5 VIII Various topics on Poisons Classification description and treatment of animal poisons snake bite rat poisoning scorpions spiders other insect bites 123 6 Uttara tantra6 I 6 XIX Eye disorders injuries and infections eye diseases appendages causes of eye diseases symptoms eyelid infections and their treatment classification of eye lens problems and prognosis need and protocols for eye surgery eye injuries and their treatment 124 6 XX 6 XXI Ear disorders injuries and infections ear diseases causes and their treatment 125 6 XXII 6 XXIII Nose disorders injuries and infections classification of nose diseases symptoms and their treatment 126 6 XXV 6 XXVI Head diseases classification of head diseases symptoms and their treatment 127 6 XXVII 6 XXXVII Malignant grahas attack by grahas superhuman influences symptoms procedures for sprinkling fumigation and mantra recitals 128 6 XXXIX 6 LIII Fever diarrhea phthisis gulma heart disease jaundice hemorrhage alcoholism vomiting asthma cough classification symptoms causes prognosis changes in diet as cure use of drinks milk and meat as medicine 129 6 LIV 6 LIX Worms problem urinating other diseases classification symptoms causes prognosis 130 6 LXII Insanity type symptoms and treatment 131 6 LXIV Rules of health indications and importance of health knowledge of foods varying food intake with seasons effective ways to administer medicines proper time for taking food and medicines 132 6 LXV 6 LXVI Glossary and short list technical terms in the text their definitions list of diseases and drugs various lists and their numbers 133 Prevention versus cure edit Sushruta states Tipton asserts that a physician should invest the effort to prevent diseases as much as curative remedial procedures 134 An important means for prevention states Sushruta is physical exercise and hygienic practices 134 The text adds that excessive strenuous exercise can be injurious and make one more susceptible to diseases cautioning against such excess 16 Regular moderate exercise suggests Sushruta improves resistance to disease and physical decay 134 Sushruta has written Shlokas on the prevention of diseases Human skeleton edit The Sushruta Samhita states per Hoernle s translation that the professors of Ayurveda speak of three hundred and sixty bones but books on Shalya Shastra surgical science know of only three hundred 135 The text then lists the total of 300 as follows 120 in the extremities e g hands legs 117 in the pelvic area sides back abdomen and breast and 63 in the neck and upwards 135 The text then explains how these subtotals were empirically verified 136 The discussion shows that the Indian tradition nurtured diversity of thought with Sushruta school reaching its own conclusions and differing from the Atreya Caraka tradition 136 The osteological system of Sushruta states Hoernle follows the principle of homology where the body and organs are viewed as self mirroring and corresponding across various axes of symmetry 137 The differences in the count of bones in the two schools is partly because Charaka Samhita includes thirty two teeth sockets in its count and their difference of opinions on how and when to count a cartilage as bone both count cartilages as bones unlike current medical practice 138 139 Surgery edit Training future surgeons Students are to practice surgical techniques on gourds and dead animals Sushruta Samhita Book 1 Chapter IXTranslator Engler 41 The Sushruta Samhita is best known in non specialist sources on medical history for its approach and discussions of surgery 53 It is amongst the first medical treatises in history to suggest that a student of surgery should learn about human body and its organs by systematically examining a dead body 140 A student should practice states the text on objects resembling the diseased or body part 141 Incision studies for example are recommended on Pushpaphala squash Cucurbita maxima Alabu bottle gourd Lagenaria vulgaris Trapusha cucumber Cucumis pubescens leather bags filled with fluids and bladders of dead animals 142 The ancient text state Menon and Haberman describes haemorrhoidectomy amputations plastic rhinoplastic ophthalmic lithotomic and obstetrical procedures 53 The Sushruta Samhita mentions various methods including sliding graft rotation graft and pedicle graft 143 Reconstruction of a nose rhinoplasty which has been cut off using a flap of skin from the cheek is also described 144 Labioplasty too has received attention in the samahita 145 Medicinal herbs edit The Sushruta Samhita along with the Sanskrit medicine related classics Atharvaveda and Charak Samhita together describe more than 700 medicinal herbs 146 The description states Padma includes their taste appearance and digestive effects to safety efficacy dosage and benefits 146 Rhinoplasty editRhinoplasty surgery to repair the flesh of the nose is performed to achieve two results nbsp Some shastras tools and kartarika scissors and forceps mentioned in Sushruta SamhitaTo improve the breathing function of the nose To improve the cosmetic appearance of the noseSushruta s treatise provides the first written record of a cheek flap rhinoplasty a technique still used today to reconstruct a nose 5 The text mentions more than 15 methods to repair it These include using a flap of skin from the cheek which is akin to the most modern technique today 147 148 The nose in Indian society has remained a symbol of dignity and respect throughout antiquity Rhinoplasty was an especially important development in India because of the long standing tradition of rhinotomy amputation of the nose as a form of punishment Convicted criminals would often have their noses amputated to mark them as untrustworthy but amputation was also frequently practiced on women accused of adultery even if they were not proven guilty Once branded in this fashion an individual had to live with the stigma for the rest of his or her life Reconstructive surgery therefore offered a hope of redemption and normalcy Reception editSee also Sushruta Legacy Transmission outside South Asia edit The text was translated to Arabic as Kitab Shah Shun al Hindi in Arabic also known as Kitab i Susurud in Baghdad during the early 8th century at the instructions of a member of the Barmakid family of Baghdad 149 14 Yahya ibn Barmak facilitated a major effort at collecting and translating Sanskrit texts such as Vagbhata s Astangahrdaya Samhita Ravigupta s Siddhasara and Sushruta Samhita 150 The Arabic translation reached Europe by the end of the medieval period 151 152 There is disputed evidence that in Renaissance Italy the Branca family of Sicily 151 and Gasparo Tagliacozzi Bologna were familiar with the rhinoplastic techniques mentioned in the Sushruta Samhita 153 154 152 The text was known to the Khmer king Yasovarman I fl 889 900 of Cambodia Susruta was also known as a medical authority in Tibetan literature 149 Commentaries edit The earliest surviving commentary on the whole text known as Nibandha samgraha was written by Dalhana in ca 1200 CE Earlier commentaries existed but have only been transmitted to modern times in fragmentary form These include lost or partially lost commentaries by Jejjaṭa ca 700 CE 155 Gayadasa ca 1000 CE 156 and Cakrapaṇidatta ca 1025 CE 157 Commentaries continued to be written on the work into the nineteenth century e g the Susrutarthasandipani by Haranachandra written in 19th century AD Modern reception edit A number of Sushruta s contributions have been discussed in modern literature Some of these include Hritshoola heart pain circulation of vital body fluids such as blood rakta dhatu and lymph rasa dhatu Diabetes Madhumeha obesity and hypertension 55 Kearns amp Nash 2008 state that the first mention of leprosy is described in Sushruta Samhita 158 159 The text discusses kidney stones and its surgical removal 160 Editions and translations editThe first printed edition of the text was prepared by Madhusudan Gupta 2 vols Calcutta 1835 1836 A partial English translation by U C Datta appeared in 1883 The first complete English translation of the Sushruta Samhita was by Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna who published it in three volumes between 1907 and 1916 reprinted 1963 2006 161 note 1 An English translation of both the Sushruta Samhita and Dalhana s commentary was published in three volumes by P V Sharma in 1999 162 Scholars of Ayurveda generally consider this to be the most accurate and scholarly translation of the complete work to date citation needed See also editHindu texts Indian religious literature On Ancient Medicine Greek medical text written c 450 400 B C Notes edit a b Bhishagratna translation includes parts of Dalhana commentary and used modern medical terminology and Western words such as egg for sonita menstrual blood an approach that has led scholars to question parts of his translation 60 61 References edit a b c d e f Meulenbeld 1999 pp 203 389 Volume IA a b c Ray 1980 E Schultheisz 1981 History of Physiology Pergamon Press ISBN 978 0080273426 page 60 61 Quote the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine Wendy Doniger 2014 On Hinduism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199360079 page 79 Sarah Boslaugh 2007 Encyclopedia of Epidemiology Volume 1 SAGE Publications ISBN 978 1412928168 page 547 Quote The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries a b c Wujastyk Dominik Birch Jason Klebanov Andrey Parameswaran Madhu K Rimal Madhusudan Chakraborty Deepro Bhatt Harshal Lele Vandana Mehta Paras 2023 On the Plastic Surgery of the Ears and Nose Heidelberg Asian Studies Publishing doi 10 11588 hasp 1203 Valiathan 2007 a b c Kengo Harimoto 2011 In search of the Oldest Nepalese Manuscript Rivista degli Studi Orientali 84 85 88 Bhishagratna 1907 p 307 Ray Priyadaranjan Gupta Hirendra Nath Roy Mira 1980 Susruta saṃhita a scientific synopsis New Delhi Indian National Science Academy p 4 OCLC 985517620 India National Institute of Sciences of 1952 Proceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India National Institute of Sciences of India a b Hoernle 1907 p 8 a b Meulenbeld G J 2000 A history of Indian medical literature Vol IA Groningen pp 342 344 ISBN 90 6980 124 8 OCLC 872371654 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Hoernle 1907 a b c Ramachandra S K Rao Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicine historical perspective Volume 1 2005 Reprint Original 1985 pp 94 98 Popular Prakashan Walton 1994 p 586 a b c d Tipton 2008 pp 1553 1556 Hoernle 1907 pp 109 111 Banerjee 2011 pp 320 323 Monier Williams Monier 1899 A Sanskrit English Dictionary Oxford Clarendon Press p 1237 Monier Williams A Sanskrit Dictionary 1899 a b Bhishagratna Kunjalal 1907 An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita based on Original Sanskrit Text Calcutta p 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link The Susruta Project The textual and cultural history of medicine in South Asia based on newly discovered manuscript evidence Retrieved 21 June 2021 Hoernle 1907 pp 7 8 Amaresh Datta various The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature Volume One A To Devo Sahitya academy p 311 Know all about Sushruta the first ever plastic surgeon who was Indian India Today Retrieved 1 January 2024 David O Kennedy Plants and the Human Brain Oxford p 265 Kutumbian 2005 pp XXXII XXXIII a b c Meulenbeld 1999 pp 347 350 Volume IA Boslaugh 2007 p 547 Quote The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita 600 AD is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries Schultheisz 1981 pp 60 61 Quote the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine Loukas 2010 p 646 Quote Susruta s Samhita emphasized surgical matters including the use of specific instruments and types of operations It is in his work that one finds significant anatomical considerations of the ancient Hindu Hoernle 1907 pp 8 109 111 Raveenthiran Venkatachalam 2011 Knowledge of ancient Hindu surgeons on Hirschsprung disease evidence from Sushruta Samhita of circa 1200 600 bc Journal of Pediatric Surgery 46 11 2204 2208 doi 10 1016 j jpedsurg 2011 07 007 PMID 22075360 Bhishagratna 1911 p 156 etc Bhishagratna 1907 pp 6 7 395 etc Bhishagratna 1911 pp 157 527 531 536 etc Bhishagratna 1907 pp 181 304 305 366 lxiv lxv etc Bhishagratna 1911 p 377 etc Bhishagratna 1911 pp 113 121 etc Bhishagratna 1916 pp 285 381 407 409 415 etc a b c d e Engler 2003 pp 416 463 a b Zysk 2000 p 100 Zysk 2000 p 81 83 Zysk 2000 pp 74 76 115 116 123 Zysk 2000 p 4 6 25 26 Terry Clifford 2003 Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry The Diamond Healing Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120817845 pages 35 39 Monier Williams A Sanskrit Dictionary s v susruta Acarya Yadavasarman Trivikrama 1938 Susrutasaṃhita Susrutena viracita Vaidyavarasriḍalhaṇacaryaviracitaya Nibandhasaṃgrahakhyavyakhyaya samullasita Acaryopahvena Trivikramatmajena Yadavasarmaṇa saṃsodhita Mumbayyaṃ Nirnaya Sagara Press Kumarapuram Kunjunni Raja 1973 New catalogus catalogorum an alphabet register of Sanskrit and allied works and authors OCLC 157800144 Wujastyk Dominik 2013 New Manuscript Evidence for the Textual and Cultural History of Early Classical Indian Medicine In Wujastyk Dominik Cerulli Anthony Preisendanz Karin eds Medical Texts and Manuscripts in Indian Cultural History New Delhi Manohar pp 141 57 Loukas 2010 pp 646 650 a b Wujastyk Dominik 2003 The Roots of Ayurveda London etc Penguin pp 149 160 ISBN 978 0140448245 a b c d Menon IA Haberman HF 1969 Dermatological writings of ancient India Med Hist 13 4 387 392 doi 10 1017 s0025727300014824 PMC 1033984 PMID 4899819 Ray Priyadaranjan Gupta Hirendra Nath Roy Mira 1980 Susruta Saṃhita a Scientific Synopsis New Delhi INSA a b Dwivedi amp Dwivedi 2007 page needed Prof P V Sharma Ayurveda Ka Vaijnannika Itihas 7th ed Ch 2 Pg 87 Chaukhambha orientalia Varanasi 2003 Bhishagratna 1907 Bhishagratna 1911 Bhishagratna 1916 Martha Ann Selby 2005 Asian Medicine and Globalization Editor Joseph S Alter University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0812238662 page 124 RP Das 1991 Medical Literature from India Sri Lanka and Tibet Editors Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld I Julia Leslie BRILL Academic ISBN 978 9004095229 pages 25 26 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 1 15 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 16 20 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 21 32 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 33 35 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 36 44 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 45 55 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 56 63 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 64 70 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 71 73 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 74 77 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 78 87 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 88 97 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 98 105 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 106 119 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 120 140 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 141 154 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 155 161 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 162 175 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 176 182 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 183 193 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 194 211 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 212 219 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 220 227 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 228 237 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 238 246 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 247 255 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 256 265 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 266 269 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 270 283 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 284 287 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 288 571 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 1 17 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 18 24 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 25 30 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 31 34 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 35 42 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 43 49 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 50 54 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 55 60 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 61 66 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 67 71 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 72 78 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 79 84 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 85 93 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 94 96 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 97 100 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 101 111 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 113 121 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 122 133 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 134 143 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 144 158 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 158 172 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 173 190 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 191 197 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 198 208 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 209 215 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 216 238 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 259 264 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 265 477 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 478 671 Bhishagratna 1911 pp 673 684 Bhishagratna 1907 pp 685 736 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 1 105 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 106 117 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 117 123 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 131 140 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 141 163 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 169 337 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 338 372 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 387 391 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 396 405 Bhishagratna 1916 pp 406 416 a b c Tipton 2008 p 1554 a b Hoernle 1907 p 70 a b Hoernle 1907 pp 70 72 Hoernle 1907 p 72 Hoernle 1907 pp 73 74 Bhishagratna 1907 p xxiv xxv Zysk Kenneth G 1986 The Evolution of Anatomical Knowledge in Ancient India with Special Reference to Cross Cultural Influences Journal of the American Oriental Society 106 4 687 705 doi 10 2307 603532 JSTOR 603532 PMID 11617255 Majno Guido February 1976 The Healing Hand Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 57 2 230 doi 10 1097 00006534 197602000 00022 ISSN 0032 1052 S2CID 10270499 Bhishagratna 1907 p xxi Lana Thompson Plastic Surgery ABC CLIO p 8 Melvin A Shiffman Alberto Di Gi Advanced Aesthetic Rhinoplasty Art Science and New Clinical Techniques Springer Science amp Business Media p 132 Sharma Kumar History BA Programme Semester II Questions and Answers University of Delhi Pearson Education India p 147 a b Padma T V 2005 Ayurveda Nature 436 7050 486 Bibcode 2005Natur 436 486P doi 10 1038 436486a PMID 16049472 An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit Text Edited and Published by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna With a Full Notes Comperative Views Index Glossary An Book www worldhistory org Retrieved 15 May 2021 Sushruta Samhita The Ancient Treatise on Surgery Live History India 27 November 2017 Retrieved 15 May 2021 a b Meulenbeld 1999 p 352 Volume IA Charles Burnett 2015 The Cambridge World History Volume 5 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521190749 page 346 a b Scuderi Nicolo Toth Bryant A 2016 International Textbook of Aesthetic Surgery Springer ISBN 9783662465998 a b Menick Frederick J 11 October 2017 Paramedian Forehead Flap Nasal Reconstruction History of the Procedure Problem Presentation Retrieved 30 July 2018 Lock etc page 607 New Scientist Jul 26 1984 p 43 Jejjaṭa s commentary on the Susrutasaṃhita Work Pandit www panditproject org Retrieved 23 August 2023 Nyayacandrika Work Pandit www panditproject org Retrieved 23 August 2023 Bhanumati Work Pandit www panditproject org Retrieved 23 August 2023 Kearns amp Nash 2008 Aufderheide A C Rodriguez Martin C amp Langsjoen O page 148 Lock etc page 836 Kenneth Zysk 2010 Medicine in the Veda Religious Healing in the Veda Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814004 page 272 with footnote 36 Sharma Priya Vrata 2001 Susruta Saṃhita with English Translation of Text and Ḍalhaṇa s Commentary Along with Critical Notes Haridas Ayurveda Series 9 Vol 3 vols Varanasi Chowkhambha Visvabharati OCLC 42717448 Bibliography editBoslaugh Sarah 2007 Encyclopedia of Epidemiology Vol 1 SAGE Publications ISBN 978 1412928168 Balodhi J P 1987 Constituting the outlines of a philosophy of Ayurveda mainly on mental health import Indian Journal of Psychiatry 29 2 127 31 PMC 3172459 PMID 21927226 Banerjee Anirban D et al 2011 Susruta and Ancient Indian Neurosurgery World Neurosurgery 75 2 320 323 doi 10 1016 j wneu 2010 09 007 PMID 21492737 Bhishagratna Kaviraj KL 1907 An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita in Three Volumes Volume 1 Archived by University of Toronto Calcutta Archived from the original on 4 November 2008 Alt URL Bhishagratna Kaviraj KL 1911 An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita in Three Volumes Volume 2 Archived by University of Toronto Calcutta Archived from the original on 31 August 2008 Alt URL Bhishagratna Kaviraj KL 1916 An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita in Three Volumes Volume 3 Archived by University of Toronto Calcutta Archived from the original on 4 February 2010 Alt URL Dwivedi Girish Dwivedi Shridhar 2007 History of Medicine Sushruta the Clinician Teacher par Excellence PDF Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences 49 4 Engler Steven 2003 Science vs Religion in Classical Ayurveda Numen 50 4 416 463 doi 10 1163 156852703322446679 hdl 11205 105 Hoernle A F Rudolf 1907 Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body Oxford UK Clarendon Press Kutumbian P 2005 Ancient Indian Medicine Orient Longman ISBN 978 812501521 5 Loukas M et al 2010 Anatomy in ancient India A focus on the Susruta Samhita Journal of Anatomy 217 6 646 650 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7580 2010 01294 x PMC 3039177 PMID 20887391 Rana R E Arora B S 2002 History of plastic surgery in India Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 48 1 76 8 PMID 12082339 Ray Priyadaranjan et al 1980 Susruta saṃhita a scientific synopsis Indian National Science Academy OCLC 7952879 Meulenbeld Gerrit Jan 1999 A History of Indian Medical Literature Groningen Brill all volumes 1999 2002 ISBN 978 9069801247 Sharma P V 1992 History of medicine in India from antiquity to 1000 A D New Delhi Indian National Science Academy OCLC 26881970 Schultheisz E 1981 History of Physiology Pergamon Press ISBN 978 0080273426 Raveenthiran Venkatachalam 2011 Knowledge of ancient Hindu surgeons on Hirschsprung disease evidence from Sushruta Samhita of circa 1200 600 bc Journal of Pediatric Surgery 46 11 2204 2208 doi 10 1016 j jpedsurg 2011 07 007 PMID 22075360 Tipton Charles 2008 Susruta of India an unrecognized contributor to the history of exercise physiology Journal of Applied Physiology 104 6 1553 1556 doi 10 1152 japplphysiol 00925 2007 PMID 18356481 S2CID 22761582 Valiathan M S 2007 The legacy of Susruta Orient Longman ISBN 9788125031505 OCLC 137222991 Walton John 1994 The Oxford medical companion Oxford New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 262355 3 Zysk Kenneth 2000 Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120815285 Chari PS Sushruta and our heritage Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery External links editSushruta Samhita Translated by Rudolf Hoernle Sushruta Samhita Volume 1 in English Translated by KK Lal Bhisaghratna Sushruta Samhita Volume 2 in English Translated by KK Lal Bhisaghratna Sushruta Samhita Volume 3 in English Translated by KK Lal Bhisaghratna Sutrasthana Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna Nidanasthana Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna Sharirasthana Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna Cikitsasthana Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna Kalpasthana Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna Uttaratantra Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna The Sushruta Project The textual and cultural history of medicine in South Asia based on newly discovered manuscript evidence An academic research project at the University of Alberta 2020 2024 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sushruta Samhita amp oldid 1211809125, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.