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Industrial and organizational psychology

January 11, 2023

Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O psychology), an applied discipline within psychology, is the science of human behavior in the workplace. Depending on the country or region of the world, I-O psychology is also known as occupational psychology in the United Kingdom, organisational psychology in Australia and New Zealand, and work and organizational (WO) psychology throughout Europe and Brazil. Industrial, work, and organizational (IWO) psychology is the broader, more global term for the science and profession.[1][2][3]

I-O psychologists are trained in the scientist–practitioner model. As an applied field, the discipline involves both research and practice and I-O psychologists apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and the individuals within them.[4] They contribute to an organization's success by improving the job performance, wellbeing, motivation, job satisfaction and the health and safety of employees.[5][6][7]

An I-O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviors and attitudes, and how these can be improved through recruitment processes, training programs, feedback, and management systems.[8] I-O psychology research and practice also includes the work–nonwork interface such as selecting and transitioning into a new career, retirement, and work-family conflict and balance.[9]

I-O psychology is one of the 17 recognized professional specialties by the American Psychological Association (APA).[10] In the United States the profession is represented by Division 14 of the APA and is formally known as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). Similar I-O psychology societies can be found in many countries. In 2009 The Alliance for Organizational psychology was formed and is a federation of Work, Industrial, & Organizational Psychology societies and "network partners" from around the world. The Declaration of Identify for the Alliance "aims to create a foundation of who Industrial, Work, and Organizational Psychologists (IWOPS) are, who their stakeholders and clients are, and what they can contribute to organizations to ensure high performing and healthy workers."[11]

International

I-O psychology is an international science and profession and depending on the region of the world is referred to by different names. In North America and Canada the term "I-O" psychology is used; in the United Kingdom, the field is known as occupational psychology. Occupational psychology in the UK is one of nine "protected titles" within the "practitioner psychologist" professions. The profession is regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council.[12] In the UK, graduate programs in psychology, including occupational psychology, are accredited by the British Psychological Society.

In Australia, the title "organisational psychologist" is protected by law and regulated by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA). Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia.[13]

In Europe, someone with a specialist EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organisational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and a specialist in the work psychology field.[14][better source needed] Industrial and organizational psychologists reaching the EuroPsy standard are recorded in the Register of European Psychologists. I-O psychology is one of the three main psychology specializations in Europe.

In South Africa, industrial psychology is a registration category for the profession of psychologist as regulated by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA).[15]

In 2009 The Alliance for Organizational psychology was formed and is a federation of Work, Industrial, & Organizational Psychology societies and "network partners" from around the world.[16] In 2021 The British Psychological Society (BPS) Division of Occupational Psychology (DOP) and the Australian Psychological Society's (APS) College of Organizational Psychology joined the Alliance. The Alliance currently has member organizations representing Industrial, Work and Organisational psychology and psychologists from Australia, Britain, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Europe, Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa and the United States.[17]

Historical overview

The historical development of I-O psychology was paralleled in the US, the UK,[18] Australia, Germany, the Netherlands,[19] and Eastern European countries such as Romania.[20] The roots of I-O psychology trace back to almost the beginning of psychology as a science, when Wilhelm Wundt founded one of the first psychological laboratories in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. In the mid–1880s, Wundt trained two psychologists, Hugo Münsterberg and James McKeen Cattell, who went on to have a major influence on the emergence of I-O psychology.[21] World War I was an impetus for the development of the field simultaneously in the UK and US.[22]

Instead of viewing performance differences as human "errors," Cattell was one of the first to recognize the importance of differences among individuals as a way of better understanding work behavior. Walter Dill Scott, who was a contemporary of Cattell and was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I-O psychologist of his time. Scott, along with Walter Van Dyke Bingham, worked at what was then Carnegie Institute of Technology, developing methods for selecting and training sales personnel.[23]

The "industrial" side of I-O psychology originated in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of work performance. Industrial psychology crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty. Scott and Bingham volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million U.S. Army recruits. In 1917, together with other prominent psychologists, they adapted a well-known intelligence test the Stanford–Binet, which was designed for testing one individual at a time, to make it suitable for group testing. The new test was called the Army Alpha.[24] After the War, the growing industrial base in the U.S. was a source of momentum for what was then called "industrial psychology."[citation needed] Private industry set out to emulate the successful testing of Army personnel.[citation needed] Mental ability testing soon became commonplace in the work setting.

The "organizational" side of the field was focused on employee behavior, feelings, and well-being. During World War I, with the U.K. government's interest in worker productivity in munitions factories, Charles Myers studied worker fatigue and well-being.[25] Following the war, Elton Mayo found that rest periods improved morale and reduced turnover in a Philadelphia textile factory.[26][27] He later joined the ongoing Hawthorne studies, where he became interested in how workers' emotions and informal relationships affected productivity. The results of these studies ushered in the human relations movement.[28]

World War II brought renewed interest in ability testing. The U.S. military needed to accurately place recruits in new technologically advanced jobs. There was also concern with morale and fatigue in war-industry workers.[citation needed] In the 1960s Arthur Kornhauser examined the impact on productivity of hiring mentally unstable workers.[29] Kornhauser also examined the link between industrial working conditions and worker mental health as well as the spillover into a worker's personal life of having an unsatisfying job.[30][31][32] Zickar noted that most of Kornhauser's I-O contemporaries favored management and Kornhauser was largely alone in his interest in protecting workers.[29] Vinchur and Koppes (2010) observed that I-O psychologists' interest in job stress is a relatively recent development (p. 22).[33]

The industrial psychology division of the former American Association of Applied Psychology became a division within APA, becoming Division 14 of APA. It was initially called the Industrial and Business Psychology Division.[34] In 1962, the name was changed to the Industrial Psychology Division. In 1973, it was renamed again, this time to the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. In 1982, the unit become more independent of APA, and its name was changed again, this time to the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.[34]

The name change of the division from "industrial psychology" to "industrial and organizational psychology" reflected the shift in the work of industrial psychologists who had originally addressed work behavior from the individual perspective, examining performance and attitudes of individual workers. Their work became broader. Group behavior in the workplace became a worthy subject of study.[34] The emphasis on the "organizational" underlined the fact that when an individual joins an organization (e.g., the organization that hired him or her), he or she will be exposed to a common goal and a common set of operating procedures.[citation needed] In the 1970s in the UK, references to occupational psychology became more common than references to I-O psychology.[35]

According to Bryan and Vinchur, "while organizational psychology increased in popularity through [the 1960s and 1970s], research and practice in the traditional areas of industrial psychology continued, primarily driven by employment legislation and case law".[36]p. 53 There was a focus on fairness and validity in selection efforts as well as in the job analyses that undergirded selection instruments. For example, I-O psychology showed increased interest in behaviorally anchored rating scales.[36] What critics there were of I-O psychology accused the discipline of being responsive only to the concerns of management.[36]

From the 1980s to 2010s, other changes in I-O psychology took place. Researchers increasingly adopted a multi-level approach, attempting to understand behavioral phenomena from both the level of the organization and the level of the individual worker.[36] There was also an increased interest in the needs and expectations of employees as individuals. For example, an emphasis on organizational justice and the psychological contract took root, as well as the more traditional concerns of selection and training.[36] Methodological innovations (e.g., meta-analyses, structural equation modeling) were adopted. With the passage of the American with Disabilities Act in 1990 and parallel legislation elsewhere in the world, I-O psychology saw an increased emphasis on "fairness in personnel decisions."[36] Training research relied increasingly on advances in educational psychology and cognitive science.[36]

Research methods

As described above, I-O psychologists are trained in the scientist–practitioner model. I-O psychologists rely on a variety of methods to conduct organizational research. Study designs employed by I-O psychologists include surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments, and observational studies. I-O psychologists rely on diverse data sources, including human judgments, historical databases, objective measures of work performance (e.g., sales volume), and questionnaires and surveys. Reliable measures with strong evidence for construct validity have been developed to assess a wide variety of job-relevant constructs.[37]

I-O researchers employ quantitative statistical methods. Quantitative methods used in I-O psychology include correlation, multiple regression, and analysis of variance. More advanced statistical methods employed in I-O research include logistic regression, structural equation modeling,[38] and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM; also known as multilevel modeling).[39] I-O researchers have also employed meta-analysis.[40][41][42] I-O psychologists also employ psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test theory,[43] generalizability theory, and item response theory (IRT).[44]

I-O psychologists have also employed qualitative methods, which largely involve focus groups, interviews, and case studies. I-O psychologists conducting research on organizational culture have employed ethnographic techniques and participant observation. A qualitative technique associated with I-O psychology is Flanagan's critical incident technique.[45] I-O psychologists have also coordinated the use of quantitative and qualitative methods in the same study,[46]

Topics

Job analysis

Main article: Job analysis

Job analysis encompasses a number of different methods including, but not limited to, interviews, questionnaires, task analysis, and observation.[47][48][49] A job analysis primarily involves the systematic collection of information about a job. A task-oriented job analysis involves an assessment of the duties, tasks, and/or competencies a job requires. By contrast, a worker-oriented job analysis involves an examination of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform the work. Information obtained from job analyses are used for many purposes, including the creation job-relevant selection procedures, the development of criteria for performance appraisals, the conducting of performance appraisals, and the development and implementation of training programs.

Personnel recruitment and selection

Main article: Personnel selection

I-O psychologists design (a) recruitment processes and (b) personnel selection systems.[citation needed] Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying qualified candidates in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organization. Personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements, placing ads, defining key qualifications for applicants, and screening out unqualified applicants.

Personnel selection is the systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel. Personnel selection systems employ evidence-based practices to determine the most qualified candidates. Personnel selection involves both the newly hired and individuals who can be promoted from within the organization. Common selection tools include ability tests (e.g., cognitive, physical, or psycho-motor), knowledge tests, personality tests, structured interviews, the systematic collection of biographical data, and work samples. I-O psychologists must evaluate evidence regarding the extent to which selection tools predict job performance.

Personnel selection procedures are usually validated, i.e., shown to be job relevant to personnel selection, using one or more of the following types of validity: content validity, construct validity, and/or criterion-related validity. I-O psychologists must adhere to professional standards in personnel selection efforts. SIOP (e.g., Principles for validation and use of personnel selection procedures[50]) and APA together with the National Council on Measurement in Education (e.g., Standards for educational and psychological testing[51] are sources of those standards. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's Uniform guidelines are also influential in guiding personnel selection decisions.[52]

A meta-analysis of selection methods found that general mental ability (g factor) was the best overall predictor of job performance and attainment in training.[53]

Performance appraisal/management

Main articles: Performance appraisal and Performance management

Performance appraisal or performance evaluation is the process in which an individual's or a group's work behaviors and outcomes are assessed against managers' and others' expectations for the job.[54] Performance appraisal is frequently used in promotion and compensation decisions, to help design and validate personnel selection procedures, and for performance management. Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations and information relevant to helping a worker improve his or her performance (e.g., coaching, mentoring). Performance management may also include documenting and tracking performance information for organizational evaluation purposes.

An I-O psychologist would typically use information from the job analysis to determine a job's performance dimensions and then construct a rating scale to describe each level of performance for the job.[citation needed] Often, the I-O psychologist would be responsible for training organizational personnel how to use the performance appraisal instrument, including ways to minimize bias when using the rating scale and how to provide effective performance feedback.[citation needed]

Individual assessment and psychometrics

Main articles: Individual assessment and Psychometrics

Individual assessment involves the measurement of individual differences. I-O psychologists perform individual assessments in order to evaluate differences among candidates for employment as well as differences among employees.[55] The constructs measured pertain to job performance. With candidates for employment, individual assessment is often part of the personnel selection process. These assessments can include written tests, aptitude tests, physical tests, psycho-motor tests, personality tests, integrity and reliability tests, work samples, simulations, and assessment centres.[55]

Occupational health and well-being

Main article: Occupational health psychology

A more recent focus of I-O field is the health, safety, and well-being of employees.[3] Topics include occupational stress and workplace mistreatment.

Occupational stress

Main article: Occupational stress

There are many features of work that can be stressful to employees. Research has identified a number of job stressors (environmental conditions at work) that contribute to strains (adverse behavioral, emotional, physical, and psychological reactions).[56] Occupational stress can have implications for organizational performance because of the emotions job stress evokes. For example, a job stressor such as conflict with a supervisor can precipitate anger that in turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors.[57] A number of prominent models of job stress have been developed to explain the job stress process, including the person-environment (P-E) fit model,[58] which was developed by University of Michigan social psychologists, and the demand-control(-support)[59] and effort-reward imbalance models,[60] which were developed by sociologists.

Research has also examined occupational stress in specific occupations, including police,[61] general practitioners,[62] and dentists.[63] Another concern has been the relation of occupational stress to family life.[64][65] Other I-O researchers have examined gender differences in leadership style and job stress and strain in the context of male- and female-dominated industries,[66] and unemployment-related distress.[67][68][69] Occupational stress has also been linked to lack of fit between people and their jobs.[70]

Occupational safety

Main article: Occupational health and safety

Accidents and safety in the workplace are important because of the serious injuries and fatalities that are all too common.[71] Research has linked accidents to psychosocial factors in the workplace including overwork that leads to fatigue, workplace violence, and working night shifts.[72] "Stress audits" can help organizations remain compliant with various occupational safety regulations.[73] Psychosocial hazards can affect musculoskeletal disorders.[71][74] A psychosocial factor related to accident risk is safety climate, which refers to employees' perceptions of the extent to which their work organization prioritizes safety.[75] By contrast, psychosocial safety climate refers to management's "policies, practices, and procedures" aimed at protecting workers' psychological health.[76][77] Research on safety leadership is also relevant to understanding employee safety performance. Research suggests that safety-oriented transformational leadership is associated with a positive safety climate and safe worker practices.[78]

Workplace bullying, aggression and violence

Main articles: Workplace bullying, Workplace aggression, and Workplace violence

I-O psychologists are concerned with the related topics of workplace bullying, aggression, and violence.[79] For example, I-O research found that exposure to workplace violence elicited ruminative thinking. Ruminative thinking is associated with poor well-being.[80] Research has found that interpersonal aggressive behaviour is associated with worse team performance.[81]

Relation of I-O psychology to occupational health psychology

A new discipline, occupational health psychology (OHP), emerged from both health psychology and I-O psychology as well as occupational medicine.[82][83][84] OHP concerns itself with such topic areas as the impact of occupational stressors on mental and physical health, the health impact of involuntary unemployment, violence and bullying in the workplace, psychosocial factors that influence accident risk and safety, work-family balance, and interventions designed to improve/protect worker health.[83][85] Spector observed that one of the problems facing I-O psychologists in the late 20th century who were interested in the health of working people was resistance within the field to publishing papers on worker health.[84] In the 21st century, more I-O psychologists joined with their OHP colleagues from other disciplines in researching work and health.

Work design

Main article: Work design

Work design concerns the "content and organisation of one's work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities."[86] Research has demonstrated that work design has important implications for individual employees (e.g., level of engagement, job strain, chance of injury), teams (e.g., how effectively teams co-ordinate their activities), organisations (e.g., productivity, safety, efficiency targets), and society (e.g., whether a nation utilises the skills of its population or promotes effective aging).[87]

I-O psychologists review job tasks, relationships, and an individual's way of thinking about their work to ensure that their roles are meaningful and motivating, thus creating greater productivity and job satisfaction.[88] Deliberate interventions aimed at altering work design are sometimes referred to as work redesign. Such interventions can be initiated by the management of an organization (e.g., job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment) or by individual workers (e.g., job crafting, role innovation, idiosyncratic ideals).[89]

Remuneration and compensation

Main article: Remuneration

Compensation includes wages or salary, bonuses, pension/retirement contributions, and employee benefits that can be converted to cash or replace living expenses. I-O psychologists may be asked to conduct a job evaluation for the purpose of determining compensation levels and ranges. I-O psychologists may also serve as expert witnesses in pay discrimination cases, when disparities in pay for similar work are alleged by employees.

Training and training evaluation

Main article: Training

Training involves the systematic teaching of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment.[90] Because many people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks the job requires, training may be needed to help the individual perform the job effectively. Evidence indicates that training is often effective, and that it succeeds in terms of higher net sales and gross profitability per employee.[91]

Similar to performance management (see above), an I-O psychologist would employ a job analysis in concert with the application of the principles of instructional design to create an effective training program.[citation needed] A training program is likely to include a summative evaluation at its conclusion in order to ensure that trainees have met the training objectives and can perform the target work tasks at an acceptable level. Kirkpatrick[92] describes four levels of criteria by which to evaluate training:

  • Reactions are the extent to which trainees enjoyed the training and found it worthwhile.
  • Learning is the knowledge and skill trainees acquired from the training.
  • Behavior is the change in behavior trainees exhibit on the job after training,for example, did they perform trained tasks more quickly?
  • Results are the effect of the change in knowledge or behavior on the job, for example, was overall productivity increased or costs decreased?

Training programs often include formative evaluations to assess the effect of the training as the training proceeds. Formative evaluations can be used to locate problems in training procedures and help I-O psychologists make corrective adjustments while training is ongoing.[citation needed]

The foundation for training programs is learning. Learning outcomes can be organized into three broad categories: cognitive, skill-based, and affective outcomes.[93] Cognitive training is aimed at instilling declarative knowledge or the knowledge of rules, facts, and principles (e.g., police officer training covers laws and court procedures). Skill-based training aims to impart procedural knowledge (e.g., skills needed to use a special tool) or technical skills (e.g., understanding the workings of software program). Affective training concerns teaching individuals to develop specific attitudes or beliefs that predispose trainees to behave a certain way (e.g., show commitment to the organization, appreciate diversity).[94]

A needs assessment, an analysis of corporate and individual goals, is often undertaken prior to the development of a training program.[95]: 164  In addition, a careful training needs analysis is required in order to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed, what should be taught, and who will be trained.[90] A training needs analysis typically involves a three-step process that includes organizational analysis, task analysis, and person analysis.[96]

An organizational analysis is an examination of organizational goals and resources as well as the organizational environment.[97] The results of an organizational analysis help to determine where training should be directed. The analysis identifies the training needs of different departments or subunits.[98] It systematically assesses manager, peer, and technological support for transfer of training. An organizational analysis also takes into account the climate of the organization and its subunits. For example, if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout the organization or in subunits of the organization (e.g., production), then training needs will likely reflect an emphasis on safety.[99] A task analysis uses the results of a job analysis to determine what is needed for successful job performance, contributing to training content. With organizations increasingly trying to identify "core competencies" that are required for all jobs, task analysis can also include an assessment of competencies.[100] A person analysis identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what kind of instruction they need. Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that identify weaknesses that training can address.

Motivation in the workplace

Main article: Work motivation

Work motivation reflects the energy an individual applies "to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration"[101] Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to I-O psychology. Motivation is generally thought of as a theoretical construct that fuels behavior. An incentive is an anticipated reward that is thought to incline a person to behave a certain way.[102] Motivation varies among individuals. Studying its influence on behavior, it must be examined together with ability and environmental influences. Because of motivation's role in influencing workplace behavior and performance, many organizations structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage unproductive behaviors.[103][104]

Motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity.[105] Arousal is what initiates action. It is often fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from his or her life, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes involve four factors. First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. Second, it serves to stimulate effort. Third, motivation influences persistence. Finally, motivation influences the choice and application of task-related strategies.[104]

Organizational climate

Main article: Organizational climate

Organizational climate is the perceptions of employees about what is important in an organization, that is, what behaviors are encouraged versus discouraged.[106] It can be assessed in individual employees (climate perceptions) or averaged across groups of employees within a department or organization (organizational climate). Climates are usually focused on specific employee outcomes, or what is called “climate for something”.[107] There are more than a dozen types of climates that have been assessed and studied.[108] Some of the more popular include:

  • Customer service climate: The emphasis placed on providing good service. It has been shown to relate to employee service performance.[109]
  • Diversity climate: The extent to which organizations value differences among employees and expect employees to treat everyone with respect. It has been linked to job satisfaction.[110]
  • Psychosocial safety climate: Such climates make employees emphasize psychological safety meaning people feel free to be themselves and express views without fear of being criticized or ridiculed.[111]
  • Safety climate: Such organizations emphasize safety and have fewer accidents and injuries.[112]

Climate concerns organizational policies and practices that encourage or discourage specific behaviors by employees. Shared perceptions of what the organization emphasizes (organizational climate) is part of organizational culture, but culture concerns far more than shared perceptions, as discussed in the next section.

Organizational culture

Main article: Organizational culture

While there is no universal definition for organizational culture, a collective understanding shares the following assumptions:[113]: 2 

... that they are related to history and tradition, have some depth, are difficult to grasp and account for, and must be interpreted; that they are collective and shared by members of groups and primarily ideational in character, having to do with values, understandings, beliefs, knowledge, and other intangibles; and that they are holistic and subjective rather than strictly rational and analytical.

Organizational culture has been shown to affect important organizational outcomes such as performance, attraction, recruitment, retention, employee satisfaction, and employee well-being.[citation needed] There are three levels of organizational culture: artifacts, shared values, and basic beliefs and assumptions.[114] Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Shared values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g., loyalty, customer service). Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture.

In addition to an overall culture, organizations also have subcultures.[115] Subcultures can be departmental (e.g. different work units) or defined by geographical distinction.[115] While there is no single "type" of organizational culture, some researchers have developed models to describe different organizational cultures.

Group behavior

Main article: Group behavior

Group behavior involves the interactions among individuals in a collective. Most I-O group research is about teams which is a group in which people work together to achieve the same task goals.[116] The individuals' opinions, attitudes, and adaptations affect group behavior, with group behavior in turn affecting those opinions, etc.[117] The interactions are thought to fulfill some need satisfaction in an individual who is part of the collective.[103]

Team effectiveness

Main article: Team effectiveness

Organizations often organize teams because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than an individual can accomplish.[103] I-O research has examined the harm workplace aggression does to team performance.[118]

Team composition

Team composition, or the configuration of team member knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics, fundamentally influences teamwork.[119] Team composition can be considered in the selection and management of teams to increase the likelihood of team success.[120] To achieve high-quality results, teams built with members having higher skill levels are more likely to be effective than teams built around members having lesser skills; teams that include a members with a diversity of skills are also likely to show improved team performance.[121][122] Team members should also be compatible in terms of personality traits, values, and work styles.[122][123] There is substantial evidence that personality traits and values can shape the nature of teamwork, and influence team performance.[124][125]

Team task design

A fundamental question in team task design is whether or not a task is even appropriate for a team. Those tasks that require predominantly independent work are best left to individuals, and team tasks should include those tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work.[103] When a given task is appropriate for a team, task design can play a key role in team effectiveness.[126]

Job characteristic theory identifies core job dimensions that affect motivation, satisfaction, performance, etc. These dimensions include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.[127] The dimensions map well to the team environment. Individual contributors who perform team tasks that are challenging, interesting, and engaging are more likely to be motivated to exert greater effort and perform better than team members who are working on tasks that lack those characteristics.[103]

Organizational resources

Organizational support systems affect the team effectiveness[128] and provide resources for teams operating in the multi-team environment. During the chartering of new teams, organizational enabling resources are first identified. Examples of enabling resources include facilities, equipment, information, training, and leadership.[103] Team-specific resources (e.g., budgetary resources, human resources) are typically made available. Team-specific human resources represent the individual contributors who are selected to be team members. Intra-team processes (e.g., task design, task assignment) involve these team-specific resources.[citation needed]

Teams also function in dynamic multi-team environments. Teams often must respond to shifting organizational contingencies.[129] Contingencies affecting teams include constraints arising from conditions in which organizational resources are not exclusively earmarked for certain teams. When resources are scarce, they must be shared by multiple teams.

Team rewards

Organizational reward systems drive the strengthening and enhancing of individual team member efforts; such efforts contribute towards reaching team goals.[130] In other words, rewards that are given to individual team members should be contingent upon the performance of the entire team.[128]

Several design elements are needed to enable organizational reward systems to operate successfully. First, for a collective assessment to be appropriate for individual team members, the group's tasks must be highly interdependent. If this is not the case, individual assessment is more appropriate than team assessment.[131] Second, individual-level reward systems and team-level reward systems must be compatible.[132] For example, it would be unfair to reward the entire team for a job well done if only one team member did most of the work. That team member would most likely view teams and teamwork negatively, and would not want to work on a team in the future. Third, an organizational culture must be created such that it supports and rewards employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive attitude towards team-based rewards.[133]

Team goals

Goals potentially motivate team members when goals contain three elements: difficulty, acceptance, and specificity.[134] Under difficult goal conditions, teams with more committed members tend to outperform teams with less committed members.[135] When team members commit to team goals, team effectiveness is a function of how supportive members are with each other.[136] The goals of individual team members and team goals interact. Team and individual goals must be coordinated. Individual goals must be consistent with team goals in order for a team to be effective.[137]

Job satisfaction and commitment

Main article: Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is often thought to reflect the extent to which a worker likes his or her job, or individual aspects or facets of jobs.[138] It is one of the most heavily researched topics in I-O psychology. Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical utility for the field. It has been linked to important job outcomes including attitudinal variables (e.g., job involvement, organizational commitment), absenteeism, turnover intentions, actual turnover, job performance, and tension.[139] A meta-analyses found job satisfaction to be related to life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and the absence of negative affect.[140]

Productive behavior

Productive behavior is defined as employee behavior that contributes positively to the goals and objectives of an organization.[103] When an employee begins a new job, there is a transition period during which he or she may not contribute significantly. To assist with this transition an employee typically requires job-related training. In financial terms, productive behavior represents the point at which an organization begins to achieve some return on the investment it has made in a new employee.[103] IO psychologists are ordinarily more focused on productive behavior than job or task performance, including in-role and extra-role performance. In-role performance tells managers how well an employee performs the required aspects of the job; extra-role performance includes behaviors not necessarily required by job but nonetheless contribute to organizational effectiveness. By taking both in-role and extra-role performance into account, an I-O psychologist is able to assess employees' effectiveness (how well they do what they were hired to do), efficiency (outputs to relative inputs), and productivity (how much they help the organization reach its goals). Three forms of productive behavior that IO psychologists often evaluate include job performance, organizational citizenship behavior (see below), and innovation.[103]

Job performance

Main article: Job performance

Job performance represents behaviors employees engage in while at work which contribute to organizational goals.[141] These behaviors are formally evaluated by an organization as part of an employee's responsibilities.[141] In order to understand and ultimately predict job performance, it is important to be precise when defining the term. Job performance is about behaviors that are within the control of the employee and not about results (effectiveness), the costs involved in achieving results (productivity), the results that can be achieved in a period of time (efficiency), or the value an organization places on a given level of performance, effectiveness, productivity or efficiency (utility).[103]

To model job performance, researchers have attempted to define a set of dimensions that are common to all jobs. Using a common set of dimensions provides a consistent basis for assessing performance and enables the comparison of performance across jobs. Performance is commonly broken into two major categories: in-role (technical aspects of a job) and extra-role (non-technical abilities such as communication skills and being a good team member). While this distinction in behavior has been challenged[142] it is commonly made by both employees and management.[143] A model of performance by Campbell breaks performance into in-role and extra-role categories.[141][144] Campbell labeled job-specific task proficiency and non-job-specific task proficiency as in-role dimensions, while written and oral communication, demonstrating effort, maintaining personal discipline, facilitating peer and team performance, supervision and leadership and management and administration are labeled as extra-role dimensions.[103] Murphy's model of job performance also broke job performance into in-role and extra-role categories.[145] However, task-orientated behaviors composed the in-role category and the extra-role category included interpersonally-oriented behaviors, down-time behaviors and destructive and hazardous behaviors.[103] However, it has been challenged as to whether the measurement of job performance is usually done through pencil/paper tests, job skills tests, on-site hands-on tests, off-site hands-on tests, high-fidelity simulations, symbolic simulations, task ratings and global ratings.[146] These various tools are often used to evaluate performance on specific tasks and overall job performance.[103] Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement model in which overall job performance was evaluated using Campbell's in-role and extra-role categories.[143] Here, in-role performance was reflected through how well "employees met their performance expectations and performed well at the tasks that made up the employees' job."[147] Dimensions regarding how well the employee assists others with their work for the benefit of the group, if the employee voices new ideas for projects or changes to procedure and whether the employee attends functions that help the group composed the extra-role category.

To assess job performance, reliable and valid measures must be established. While there are many sources of error with performance ratings, error can be reduced through rater training[148] and through the use of behaviorally-anchored rating scales. Such scales can be used to clearly define the behaviors that constitute poor, average, and superior performance.[141] Additional factors that complicate the measurement of job performance include the instability of job performance over time due to forces such as changing performance criteria, the structure of the job itself[145] and the restriction of variation in individual performance by organizational forces. These factors include errors in job measurement techniques, acceptance and the justification of poor performance, and lack of importance of individual performance.

The determinants of job performance consist of factors having to do with the individual worker as well as environmental factors in the workplace. According to Campbell's Model of The Determinants of Job Performance,[141][144] job performance is a result of the interaction between declarative knowledge (knowledge of facts or things), procedural knowledge (knowledge of what needs to be done and how to do it), and motivation (reflective of an employee's choices regarding whether to expend effort, the level of effort to expend, and whether to persist with the level of effort chosen).[103] The interplay between these factors show that an employee may, for example, have a low level of declarative knowledge, but may still have a high level of performance if the employee has high levels of procedural knowledge and motivation.

Regardless of the job, three determinants stand out as predictors of performance: (1) general mental ability (especially for jobs higher in complexity); (2) job experience (although there is a law of diminishing returns); and (3) the personality trait of conscientiousness (people who are dependable and achievement-oriented, who plan well).[103] These determinants appear to influence performance largely through the acquisition and usage of job knowledge and the motivation to do well. Further, an expanding area of research in job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence.[149][150]

Organizational citizenship behavior

Main article: Organizational citizenship behavior

Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are another form of workplace behavior that IO psychologists are involved with. OCBs tend to be beneficial to both the organization and other workers. Dennis Organ (1988) defines OCBs as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization."[151] Behaviors that qualify as OCBs can fall into one of the following five categories: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue.[151][152][153] OCBs have also been categorized in other ways too, for example, by their intended targets individuals, supervisors, and the organization as a whole.[154] Other alternative ways of categorizing OCBs include "compulsory OCBs", which are engaged in owing to coercive persuasion or peer pressure rather than out of good will.[155] The extent to which OCBs are voluntary has been the subject of some debate.[155]

Other research suggests that some employees perform OCBs to influence how they are viewed within the organization. While these behaviors are not formally part of the job description, performing them can influence performance appraisals.[103] Researchers have advanced the view that employees engage in OCBs as a form of "impression management," a term coined by Erving Goffman.[156] Goffman defined impression management as "the way in which the individual ... presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kinds of things he may and may not do while sustaining his performance before them. Some researchers have hypothesized that OCBs are not performed out of good will, positive affect, etc., but instead as a way of being noticed by others, including supervisors.[157]

Innovation

Main article: Innovation

Four qualities are generally linked to creative and innovative behaviour by individuals:[103]

  • Task-relevant skills (general mental ability and job specific knowledge). Task specific and subject specific knowledge is most often gained through higher education; however, it may also be gained by mentoring and experience in a given field.[103]
  • Creativity-relevant skills (ability to concentrate on a problem for long periods of time, to abandon unproductive searches, and to temporarily put aside stubborn problems). The ability to put aside stubborn problems is referred to by Jex and Britt as productive forgetting.[103] Creativity-relevant skills also require the individual contributor to evaluate a problem from multiple vantage points. One must be able to take on the perspective of various users. For example, an Operation Manager analyzing a reporting issue and developing an innovative solution would consider the perspective of a sales person, assistant, finance, compensation, and compliance officer.
  • Task motivation (internal desire to perform task and level of enjoyment).[103]

At the organizational level, a study by Damanpour identified four specific characteristics that may predict innovation:[158][103]

  1. A population with high levels of technical knowledge
  2. The organization's level of specialization
  3. The level an organization communicates externally
  4. Functional differentiation.

Counterproductive work behavior

Main article: Counterproductive work behavior

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) can be defined as employee behavior that goes against the goals of an organization. These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional and result from a wide range of underlying causes and motivations. Some CWBs have instrumental motivations (e.g., theft).[57] It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors.[57] For instance, an employee who sabotages another employee's work may do so because of lax supervision (environment) and underlying psychopathology (person) that work in concert to result in the counterproductive behavior. There is evidence that an emotional response (e.g., anger) to job stress (e.g., unfair treatment) can motivate CWBs.[57]

The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective job performance, absenteeism, job turnover, and accidents. Less common but potentially more detrimental forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including violence and sexual harassment.

Leadership

Main article: Leadership

Leadership can be defined as a process of influencing others to agree on a shared purpose, and to work towards shared objectives.[159] A distinction should be made between leadership and management. Managers process administrative tasks and organize work environments. Although leaders may be required to undertake managerial duties as well, leaders typically focus on inspiring followers and creating a shared organizational culture and values. Managers deal with complexity, while leaders deal with initiating and adapting to change. Managers undertake the tasks of planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem solving. In contrast, leaders undertake the tasks of setting a direction or vision, aligning people to shared goals, communicating, and motivating.[160]

Approaches to studying leadership can be broadly classified into three categories: Leader-focused approaches, contingency-focused approaches, and follower-focused approaches.[161]

Leader-focused approaches

Leader-focused approaches look to organizational leaders to determine the characteristics of effective leadership. According to the trait approach, more effective leaders possess certain traits that less effective leaders lack. More recently, this approach is being used to predict leader emergence. The following traits have been identified as those that predict leader emergence when there is no formal leader: high intelligence, high needs for dominance, high self-motivation, and socially perceptive.[162] Another leader-focused approached is the behavioral approach, which focuses on the behaviors that distinguish effective from ineffective leaders. There are two categories of leadership behaviors: consideration and initiating structure. Behaviors associated with the category of consideration include showing subordinates they are valued and that the leader cares about them. An example of a consideration behavior is showing compassion when problems arise in or out of the office. Behaviors associated with the category of initiating structure include facilitating the task performance of groups. One example of an initiating structure behavior is meeting one-on-one with subordinates to explain expectations and goals. The final leader-focused approach is power and influence. To be most effective, a leader should be able to influence others to behave in ways that are in line with the organization's mission and goals. How influential a leader can be depends on their social power – their potential to influence their subordinates. There are six bases of power: French and Raven's classic five bases of coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent power, plus informational power. A leader can use several different tactics to influence others within an organization. These include: rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, consultation, ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal, coalition, legitimating, and pressure.[163]

Contingency-focused approaches

Of the 3 approaches to leadership, contingency-focused approaches have been the most prevalent over the past 30 years. Contingency-focused theories base a leader's effectiveness on their ability to assess a situation and adapt their behavior accordingly.[163] These theories assume that an effective leader can accurately "read" a situation and skillfully employ a leadership style that meets the needs of the individuals involved and the task at hand. A brief introduction to the most prominent contingency-focused theories will follow.

The Fiedler contingency model holds that a leader's effectiveness depends on the interaction between their characteristics and the characteristics of the situation. Path–goal theory asserts that the role of the leader is to help his or her subordinates achieve their goals. To effectively do this, leaders must skillfully select from four different leadership styles to meet the situational factors. The situational factors are a product of the characteristics of subordinates and the characteristics of the environment. The leader–member exchange theory (LMX) focuses on how leader–subordinate relationships develop. Generally speaking, when a subordinate performs well or when there are positive exchanges between a leader and a subordinate, their relationship is strengthened, performance and job satisfaction are enhanced, and the subordinate will feel more commitment to the leader and the organization as a whole.[164] Vroom-Yetton-Jago model focuses on decision-making with respect to a feasibility set[163] which is composed of the situational attributes.

In addition to the contingency-focused approaches mentioned, there has been a high degree of interest paid to three novel approaches that have recently emerged. The first is transformational leadership, which posits that there are certain leadership traits that inspire subordinates to perform beyond their capabilities. The second is transactional leadership, which is most concerned with keeping subordinates in-line with deadlines and organizational policy. This type of leader fills more of a managerial role and lacks qualities necessary to inspire subordinates and induce meaningful change. And the third is authentic leadership which is centered around empathy and a leader's values or character. If the leader understands their followers, they can inspire subordinates by cultivating a personal connection and leading them to share in the vision and goals of the team. Although there has been a limited amount of research conducted on these theories, they are sure to receive continued attention as the field of IO psychology matures.

Follower-focused approaches

Follower-focused approaches look at the processes by which leaders motivate followers, and lead teams to achieve shared goals. Understandably, the area of leadership motivation draws heavily from the abundant research literature in the domain of motivation in IO psychology. Because leaders are held responsible for their followers' ability to achieve the organization's goals, their ability to motivate their followers is a critical factor of leadership effectiveness. Similarly, the area of team leadership draws heavily from the research on teams and team effectiveness in IO psychology. Because organizational employees are frequently structured in the form of teams, leaders need to be aware of the potential benefits and pitfalls of working in teams, how teams develop, how to satisfy team members' needs, and ultimately how to bring about team effectiveness and performance.

An emerging area of IO research in the area of team leadership is in leading virtual teams, where people in the team are geographically distributed across various distances and sometimes even countries. While technological advances have enabled the leadership process to take place in such virtual contexts, they present new challenges for leaders as well, such as the need to use technology to build relationships with followers, and influencing followers when faced with limited (or no) face-to-face interaction.

Organizational development

Main article: Organization development

IO psychologists are also concerned with organizational change. This effort, called organizational development (OD). Tools used to advance organization development include the survey feedback technique. The technique involves the periodic assessment (with surveys) of employee attitudes and feelings. The results are conveyed to organizational stakeholders, who may want to take the organization in a particular direction. Another tool is the team building technique. Because many if not most tasks within the organization are completed by small groups and/or teams, team building is important to organizational success. In order to enhance a team's morale and problem-solving skills, IO psychologists help the groups to build their self-confidence, group cohesiveness, and working effectiveness.[165]

Relation to organizational behavior and human resource management

I-O psychology and organizational behavior researchers have sometimes investigated similar topics.[166] The overlap has led to some confusion regarding how the two disciplines differ.[167] Sometimes there has been confusion within organizations regarding the practical duties of I-O psychologists and human resource management specialists.[168][169]

Training

The minimum requirement for working as an IO psychologist is a master's degree. Normally, this degree requires about two to three years of postgraduate work to complete. Of all the degrees granted in IO psychology each year, approximately two-thirds are at the master's level.[165]: 18 

A comprehensive list of US and Canadian master's and doctoral programs can be found at the web site of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP).[170] Admission into IO psychology PhD programs is highly competitive; many programs accept only a small number of applicants each year.

There are graduate degree programs in IO psychology outside of the US and Canada. The SIOP web site lists some of them.[170]

In Australia, organisational psychologists must be accredited by the Australian Psychological Society (APS). To become an organisational psychologist, one must meet the criteria for a general psychologist's licence: three years studying bachelor's degree in psychology, 4th-year honours degree or postgraduate diploma in psychology, and two-year full-time supervised practice plus 80 hours of professional development. There are other avenues available, such as a two-year supervised training program after honours (i.e. 4+2 pathway), or one year of postgraduate coursework and practical placements followed by a one-year supervised training program (i.e. 5+1 pathway).[171][172] After this, psychologists can elect to specialise as Organisational Psychologists in Australia.

Competencies

There are many different sets of competencies for different specializations within IO psychology and IO psychologists are versatile behavioral scientists. For example, an IO psychologist specializing in selection and recruiting should have expertise in finding the best talent for the organization and getting everyone on board while he or she might not need to know much about executive coaching. Some IO psychologists specialize in specific areas of consulting whereas others tend to generalize their areas of expertise. There are basic skills and knowledge an individual needs in order to be an effective IO psychologist, which include being an independent learner, interpersonal skills (e.g., listening skills), and general consultation skills (e.g., skills and knowledge in the problem area).[173]

Job outlook

U.S. News & World Report lists I-O Psychology as the third best science job, with a strong job market in the U.S.[174] In the 2020 SIOP salary survey,[175] the median annual salary for a PhD in IO psychology was $125,000; for a master's level IO psychologist was $88,900. The highest paid PhD IO psychologists were self-employed consultants who had a median annual income of $167,000. The highest paid in private industry worked in IT ($153,000), retail ($151,000) and healthcare ($147,000). The lowest earners were found in state and local government positions, averaging approximately $100,000, and in academic positions in colleges and universities that do not award doctoral degrees, with median salaries between $80,000 and $94,000.

Ethics

An IO psychologist, whether an academic, consultant or an employee of an organization, is expected to maintain high ethical standards.[176] The APA's ethical principles apply to IO psychologists. For example, ethically, the IO psychologist should only accept projects for which he or she is qualified. With more organizations becoming global, it is important that when an IO psychologist works outside her or his home country, the psychologist is aware of rules, regulations, and cultures of the organizations and countries in which the psychologist works, while also adhering to the ethical standards set at home.[177]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Anderson, N.; Ones, D. S.; Sinangil, H. K.; Viswesvaran, C. (eds.). (2002). Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology, Volume 1: Personnel Psychology. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications
  • Anderson, N.; Ones, D. S.; Sinangil, H. K.; Viswesvaran, C. (eds.). (2002). Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology, Volume 2: Organizational Psychology. SAGE Publications
  • Borman, W. C.; Ilgen, D. R.; Klimoski, R. J. (eds.). (2003). Handbook of psychology: Vol 12 Industrial and organizational psychology. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Borman, W. C.; Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). "Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance". In: Schmitt, N.; Borman, W. C. (eds.). Personnel Selection. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (pp. 71–98).
  • Bryan, L. L. K.; Vinchur, A. J. (2012). "A history of industrial and organizational psychology". Kozlowski, S. W. J. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology (pp. 22–75). New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Campbell, J. P.; Gasser, M. B.; Oswald, F. L. (1996). "The substantive nature of job performance variability". In Murphy, K. R. (ed.). Individual Differences and Behavior in Organizations (pp. 258–299). Jossey-Bass.
  • Copley, F. B. (1923). Frederick W. Taylor: Father of Scientific Management, Vols. I and II. New York: Taylor Society.
  • Dunnette, M. D. (ed.). (1976). Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.
  • Dunnette, M. D.; Hough, L. M. (eds.). (1991). Handbook of Industrial/Organizational Psychology (4 Volumes). Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
  • Eunson, Baden: Behaving – Managing Yourself and Others. McGraw-Hill, Sidney 1987.
  • Guion, R.M. (1998). Assessment, Measurement and Prediction for Personnel Decisions. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Hunter, J. E.; Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods of Meta-analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings. Newbury Park, California: SAGE Publications.
  • Jones, Ishmael (2008). The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture. New York: Encounter Books.
  • Koppes, L. L. (ed.). (2007). Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Lant, T. K. "Organizational Cognition and Interpretation". In Baum (ed)., The Blackwell Companion to Organizations. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
  • Lowman, R. L. (ed.). (2002). The California School of Organizational Studies Handbook of Organizational Consulting Psychology: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory, Skills and Techniques. Jossey-Bass.
  • Rogelberg, S. G. (ed.). (2002). Handbook of Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
  • Sackett, P. R.; Wilk, S. L. (1994). "Within group norming and other forms of score adjustment in pre-employment testing". American Psychologist, 49, 929–954.
  • Schmidt, F. L.; Hunter, J. E. (1998). "The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings". Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262–274.

External links

  • British Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology's (DOP) website
  • Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa
  • European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology
  • European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology
  • Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
  • Alliance for Organizational Psychology
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Industrial and organizational psychology.

January 11, 2023
industrial, organizational, psychology, psychology, applied, discipline, within, psychology, science, human, behavior, workplace, depending, country, region, world, psychology, also, known, occupational, psychology, united, kingdom, organisational, psychology,. Industrial and organizational psychology I O psychology an applied discipline within psychology is the science of human behavior in the workplace Depending on the country or region of the world I O psychology is also known as occupational psychology in the United Kingdom organisational psychology in Australia and New Zealand and work and organizational WO psychology throughout Europe and Brazil Industrial work and organizational IWO psychology is the broader more global term for the science and profession 1 2 3 I O psychologists are trained in the scientist practitioner model As an applied field the discipline involves both research and practice and I O psychologists apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and the individuals within them 4 They contribute to an organization s success by improving the job performance wellbeing motivation job satisfaction and the health and safety of employees 5 6 7 An I O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviors and attitudes and how these can be improved through recruitment processes training programs feedback and management systems 8 I O psychology research and practice also includes the work nonwork interface such as selecting and transitioning into a new career retirement and work family conflict and balance 9 I O psychology is one of the 17 recognized professional specialties by the American Psychological Association APA 10 In the United States the profession is represented by Division 14 of the APA and is formally known as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology SIOP Similar I O psychology societies can be found in many countries In 2009 The Alliance for Organizational psychology was formed and is a federation of Work Industrial amp Organizational Psychology societies and network partners from around the world The Declaration of Identify for the Alliance aims to create a foundation of who Industrial Work and Organizational Psychologists IWOPS are who their stakeholders and clients are and what they can contribute to organizations to ensure high performing and healthy workers 11 Contents 1 International 2 Historical overview 3 Research methods 4 Topics 4 1 Job analysis 4 2 Personnel recruitment and selection 4 3 Performance appraisal management 4 4 Individual assessment and psychometrics 4 5 Occupational health and well being 4 5 1 Occupational stress 4 5 2 Occupational safety 4 5 3 Workplace bullying aggression and violence 4 5 4 Relation of I O psychology to occupational health psychology 4 6 Work design 4 7 Remuneration and compensation 4 8 Training and training evaluation 4 9 Motivation in the workplace 4 10 Organizational climate 4 11 Organizational culture 4 12 Group behavior 4 12 1 Team effectiveness 4 12 2 Team composition 4 12 3 Team task design 4 12 4 Organizational resources 4 12 5 Team rewards 4 12 6 Team goals 4 13 Job satisfaction and commitment 4 14 Productive behavior 4 14 1 Job performance 4 14 2 Organizational citizenship behavior 4 14 3 Innovation 4 15 Counterproductive work behavior 4 16 Leadership 4 16 1 Leader focused approaches 4 16 2 Contingency focused approaches 4 16 3 Follower focused approaches 4 16 4 Organizational development 4 17 Relation to organizational behavior and human resource management 5 Training 5 1 Competencies 5 2 Job outlook 6 Ethics 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksInternational EditI O psychology is an international science and profession and depending on the region of the world is referred to by different names In North America and Canada the term I O psychology is used in the United Kingdom the field is known as occupational psychology Occupational psychology in the UK is one of nine protected titles within the practitioner psychologist professions The profession is regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council 12 In the UK graduate programs in psychology including occupational psychology are accredited by the British Psychological Society In Australia the title organisational psychologist is protected by law and regulated by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency AHPRA Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia 13 In Europe someone with a specialist EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organisational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and a specialist in the work psychology field 14 better source needed Industrial and organizational psychologists reaching the EuroPsy standard are recorded in the Register of European Psychologists I O psychology is one of the three main psychology specializations in Europe In South Africa industrial psychology is a registration category for the profession of psychologist as regulated by the Health Professions Council of South Africa HPCSA 15 In 2009 The Alliance for Organizational psychology was formed and is a federation of Work Industrial amp Organizational Psychology societies and network partners from around the world 16 In 2021 The British Psychological Society BPS Division of Occupational Psychology DOP and the Australian Psychological Society s APS College of Organizational Psychology joined the Alliance The Alliance currently has member organizations representing Industrial Work and Organisational psychology and psychologists from Australia Britain Brazil Canada Chile Europe Germany Hong Kong Japan Netherlands New Zealand Singapore South Africa and the United States 17 Historical overview EditThe historical development of I O psychology was paralleled in the US the UK 18 Australia Germany the Netherlands 19 and Eastern European countries such as Romania 20 The roots of I O psychology trace back to almost the beginning of psychology as a science when Wilhelm Wundt founded one of the first psychological laboratories in 1879 in Leipzig Germany In the mid 1880s Wundt trained two psychologists Hugo Munsterberg and James McKeen Cattell who went on to have a major influence on the emergence of I O psychology 21 World War I was an impetus for the development of the field simultaneously in the UK and US 22 Instead of viewing performance differences as human errors Cattell was one of the first to recognize the importance of differences among individuals as a way of better understanding work behavior Walter Dill Scott who was a contemporary of Cattell and was elected President of the American Psychological Association APA in 1919 was arguably the most prominent I O psychologist of his time Scott along with Walter Van Dyke Bingham worked at what was then Carnegie Institute of Technology developing methods for selecting and training sales personnel 23 The industrial side of I O psychology originated in research on individual differences assessment and the prediction of work performance Industrial psychology crystallized during World War I in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty Scott and Bingham volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million U S Army recruits In 1917 together with other prominent psychologists they adapted a well known intelligence test the Stanford Binet which was designed for testing one individual at a time to make it suitable for group testing The new test was called the Army Alpha 24 After the War the growing industrial base in the U S was a source of momentum for what was then called industrial psychology citation needed Private industry set out to emulate the successful testing of Army personnel citation needed Mental ability testing soon became commonplace in the work setting The organizational side of the field was focused on employee behavior feelings and well being During World War I with the U K government s interest in worker productivity in munitions factories Charles Myers studied worker fatigue and well being 25 Following the war Elton Mayo found that rest periods improved morale and reduced turnover in a Philadelphia textile factory 26 27 He later joined the ongoing Hawthorne studies where he became interested in how workers emotions and informal relationships affected productivity The results of these studies ushered in the human relations movement 28 World War II brought renewed interest in ability testing The U S military needed to accurately place recruits in new technologically advanced jobs There was also concern with morale and fatigue in war industry workers citation needed In the 1960s Arthur Kornhauser examined the impact on productivity of hiring mentally unstable workers 29 Kornhauser also examined the link between industrial working conditions and worker mental health as well as the spillover into a worker s personal life of having an unsatisfying job 30 31 32 Zickar noted that most of Kornhauser s I O contemporaries favored management and Kornhauser was largely alone in his interest in protecting workers 29 Vinchur and Koppes 2010 observed that I O psychologists interest in job stress is a relatively recent development p 22 33 The industrial psychology division of the former American Association of Applied Psychology became a division within APA becoming Division 14 of APA It was initially called the Industrial and Business Psychology Division 34 In 1962 the name was changed to the Industrial Psychology Division In 1973 it was renamed again this time to the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology In 1982 the unit become more independent of APA and its name was changed again this time to the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology 34 The name change of the division from industrial psychology to industrial and organizational psychology reflected the shift in the work of industrial psychologists who had originally addressed work behavior from the individual perspective examining performance and attitudes of individual workers Their work became broader Group behavior in the workplace became a worthy subject of study 34 The emphasis on the organizational underlined the fact that when an individual joins an organization e g the organization that hired him or her he or she will be exposed to a common goal and a common set of operating procedures citation needed In the 1970s in the UK references to occupational psychology became more common than references to I O psychology 35 According to Bryan and Vinchur while organizational psychology increased in popularity through the 1960s and 1970s research and practice in the traditional areas of industrial psychology continued primarily driven by employment legislation and case law 36 p 53 There was a focus on fairness and validity in selection efforts as well as in the job analyses that undergirded selection instruments For example I O psychology showed increased interest in behaviorally anchored rating scales 36 What critics there were of I O psychology accused the discipline of being responsive only to the concerns of management 36 From the 1980s to 2010s other changes in I O psychology took place Researchers increasingly adopted a multi level approach attempting to understand behavioral phenomena from both the level of the organization and the level of the individual worker 36 There was also an increased interest in the needs and expectations of employees as individuals For example an emphasis on organizational justice and the psychological contract took root as well as the more traditional concerns of selection and training 36 Methodological innovations e g meta analyses structural equation modeling were adopted With the passage of the American with Disabilities Act in 1990 and parallel legislation elsewhere in the world I O psychology saw an increased emphasis on fairness in personnel decisions 36 Training research relied increasingly on advances in educational psychology and cognitive science 36 Research methods EditAs described above I O psychologists are trained in the scientist practitioner model I O psychologists rely on a variety of methods to conduct organizational research Study designs employed by I O psychologists include surveys experiments quasi experiments and observational studies I O psychologists rely on diverse data sources including human judgments historical databases objective measures of work performance e g sales volume and questionnaires and surveys Reliable measures with strong evidence for construct validity have been developed to assess a wide variety of job relevant constructs 37 I O researchers employ quantitative statistical methods Quantitative methods used in I O psychology include correlation multiple regression and analysis of variance More advanced statistical methods employed in I O research include logistic regression structural equation modeling 38 and hierarchical linear modeling HLM also known as multilevel modeling 39 I O researchers have also employed meta analysis 40 41 42 I O psychologists also employ psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test theory 43 generalizability theory and item response theory IRT 44 I O psychologists have also employed qualitative methods which largely involve focus groups interviews and case studies I O psychologists conducting research on organizational culture have employed ethnographic techniques and participant observation A qualitative technique associated with I O psychology is Flanagan s critical incident technique 45 I O psychologists have also coordinated the use of quantitative and qualitative methods in the same study 46 Topics EditJob analysis Edit Main article Job analysis Job analysis encompasses a number of different methods including but not limited to interviews questionnaires task analysis and observation 47 48 49 A job analysis primarily involves the systematic collection of information about a job A task oriented job analysis involves an assessment of the duties tasks and or competencies a job requires By contrast a worker oriented job analysis involves an examination of the knowledge skills abilities and other characteristics KSAOs required to successfully perform the work Information obtained from job analyses are used for many purposes including the creation job relevant selection procedures the development of criteria for performance appraisals the conducting of performance appraisals and the development and implementation of training programs Personnel recruitment and selection Edit Main article Personnel selection I O psychologists design a recruitment processes and b personnel selection systems citation needed Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying qualified candidates in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organization Personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements placing ads defining key qualifications for applicants and screening out unqualified applicants Personnel selection is the systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel Personnel selection systems employ evidence based practices to determine the most qualified candidates Personnel selection involves both the newly hired and individuals who can be promoted from within the organization Common selection tools include ability tests e g cognitive physical or psycho motor knowledge tests personality tests structured interviews the systematic collection of biographical data and work samples I O psychologists must evaluate evidence regarding the extent to which selection tools predict job performance Personnel selection procedures are usually validated i e shown to be job relevant to personnel selection using one or more of the following types of validity content validity construct validity and or criterion related validity I O psychologists must adhere to professional standards in personnel selection efforts SIOP e g Principles for validation and use of personnel selection procedures 50 and APA together with the National Council on Measurement in Education e g Standards for educational and psychological testing 51 are sources of those standards The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission s Uniform guidelines are also influential in guiding personnel selection decisions 52 A meta analysis of selection methods found that general mental ability g factor was the best overall predictor of job performance and attainment in training 53 Performance appraisal management Edit Main articles Performance appraisal and Performance management Performance appraisal or performance evaluation is the process in which an individual s or a group s work behaviors and outcomes are assessed against managers and others expectations for the job 54 Performance appraisal is frequently used in promotion and compensation decisions to help design and validate personnel selection procedures and for performance management Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations and information relevant to helping a worker improve his or her performance e g coaching mentoring Performance management may also include documenting and tracking performance information for organizational evaluation purposes An I O psychologist would typically use information from the job analysis to determine a job s performance dimensions and then construct a rating scale to describe each level of performance for the job citation needed Often the I O psychologist would be responsible for training organizational personnel how to use the performance appraisal instrument including ways to minimize bias when using the rating scale and how to provide effective performance feedback citation needed Individual assessment and psychometrics Edit Main articles Individual assessment and Psychometrics Individual assessment involves the measurement of individual differences I O psychologists perform individual assessments in order to evaluate differences among candidates for employment as well as differences among employees 55 The constructs measured pertain to job performance With candidates for employment individual assessment is often part of the personnel selection process These assessments can include written tests aptitude tests physical tests psycho motor tests personality tests integrity and reliability tests work samples simulations and assessment centres 55 Occupational health and well being Edit Main article Occupational health psychology A more recent focus of I O field is the health safety and well being of employees 3 Topics include occupational stress and workplace mistreatment Occupational stress Edit Main article Occupational stress There are many features of work that can be stressful to employees Research has identified a number of job stressors environmental conditions at work that contribute to strains adverse behavioral emotional physical and psychological reactions 56 Occupational stress can have implications for organizational performance because of the emotions job stress evokes For example a job stressor such as conflict with a supervisor can precipitate anger that in turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors 57 A number of prominent models of job stress have been developed to explain the job stress process including the person environment P E fit model 58 which was developed by University of Michigan social psychologists and the demand control support 59 and effort reward imbalance models 60 which were developed by sociologists Research has also examined occupational stress in specific occupations including police 61 general practitioners 62 and dentists 63 Another concern has been the relation of occupational stress to family life 64 65 Other I O researchers have examined gender differences in leadership style and job stress and strain in the context of male and female dominated industries 66 and unemployment related distress 67 68 69 Occupational stress has also been linked to lack of fit between people and their jobs 70 Occupational safety Edit Main article Occupational health and safety Accidents and safety in the workplace are important because of the serious injuries and fatalities that are all too common 71 Research has linked accidents to psychosocial factors in the workplace including overwork that leads to fatigue workplace violence and working night shifts 72 Stress audits can help organizations remain compliant with various occupational safety regulations 73 Psychosocial hazards can affect musculoskeletal disorders 71 74 A psychosocial factor related to accident risk is safety climate which refers to employees perceptions of the extent to which their work organization prioritizes safety 75 By contrast psychosocial safety climate refers to management s policies practices and procedures aimed at protecting workers psychological health 76 77 Research on safety leadership is also relevant to understanding employee safety performance Research suggests that safety oriented transformational leadership is associated with a positive safety climate and safe worker practices 78 Workplace bullying aggression and violence Edit Main articles Workplace bullying Workplace aggression and Workplace violence I O psychologists are concerned with the related topics of workplace bullying aggression and violence 79 For example I O research found that exposure to workplace violence elicited ruminative thinking Ruminative thinking is associated with poor well being 80 Research has found that interpersonal aggressive behaviour is associated with worse team performance 81 Relation of I O psychology to occupational health psychology Edit A new discipline occupational health psychology OHP emerged from both health psychology and I O psychology as well as occupational medicine 82 83 84 OHP concerns itself with such topic areas as the impact of occupational stressors on mental and physical health the health impact of involuntary unemployment violence and bullying in the workplace psychosocial factors that influence accident risk and safety work family balance and interventions designed to improve protect worker health 83 85 Spector observed that one of the problems facing I O psychologists in the late 20th century who were interested in the health of working people was resistance within the field to publishing papers on worker health 84 In the 21st century more I O psychologists joined with their OHP colleagues from other disciplines in researching work and health Work design Edit Main article Work design Work design concerns the content and organisation of one s work tasks activities relationships and responsibilities 86 Research has demonstrated that work design has important implications for individual employees e g level of engagement job strain chance of injury teams e g how effectively teams co ordinate their activities organisations e g productivity safety efficiency targets and society e g whether a nation utilises the skills of its population or promotes effective aging 87 I O psychologists review job tasks relationships and an individual s way of thinking about their work to ensure that their roles are meaningful and motivating thus creating greater productivity and job satisfaction 88 Deliberate interventions aimed at altering work design are sometimes referred to as work redesign Such interventions can be initiated by the management of an organization e g job rotation job enlargement job enrichment or by individual workers e g job crafting role innovation idiosyncratic ideals 89 Remuneration and compensation Edit Main article Remuneration Compensation includes wages or salary bonuses pension retirement contributions and employee benefits that can be converted to cash or replace living expenses I O psychologists may be asked to conduct a job evaluation for the purpose of determining compensation levels and ranges I O psychologists may also serve as expert witnesses in pay discrimination cases when disparities in pay for similar work are alleged by employees Training and training evaluation Edit Main article Training Training involves the systematic teaching of skills concepts or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment 90 Because many people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks the job requires training may be needed to help the individual perform the job effectively Evidence indicates that training is often effective and that it succeeds in terms of higher net sales and gross profitability per employee 91 Similar to performance management see above an I O psychologist would employ a job analysis in concert with the application of the principles of instructional design to create an effective training program citation needed A training program is likely to include a summative evaluation at its conclusion in order to ensure that trainees have met the training objectives and can perform the target work tasks at an acceptable level Kirkpatrick 92 describes four levels of criteria by which to evaluate training Reactions are the extent to which trainees enjoyed the training and found it worthwhile Learning is the knowledge and skill trainees acquired from the training Behavior is the change in behavior trainees exhibit on the job after training for example did they perform trained tasks more quickly Results are the effect of the change in knowledge or behavior on the job for example was overall productivity increased or costs decreased Training programs often include formative evaluations to assess the effect of the training as the training proceeds Formative evaluations can be used to locate problems in training procedures and help I O psychologists make corrective adjustments while training is ongoing citation needed The foundation for training programs is learning Learning outcomes can be organized into three broad categories cognitive skill based and affective outcomes 93 Cognitive training is aimed at instilling declarative knowledge or the knowledge of rules facts and principles e g police officer training covers laws and court procedures Skill based training aims to impart procedural knowledge e g skills needed to use a special tool or technical skills e g understanding the workings of software program Affective training concerns teaching individuals to develop specific attitudes or beliefs that predispose trainees to behave a certain way e g show commitment to the organization appreciate diversity 94 A needs assessment an analysis of corporate and individual goals is often undertaken prior to the development of a training program 95 164 In addition a careful training needs analysis is required in order to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed what should be taught and who will be trained 90 A training needs analysis typically involves a three step process that includes organizational analysis task analysis and person analysis 96 An organizational analysis is an examination of organizational goals and resources as well as the organizational environment 97 The results of an organizational analysis help to determine where training should be directed The analysis identifies the training needs of different departments or subunits 98 It systematically assesses manager peer and technological support for transfer of training An organizational analysis also takes into account the climate of the organization and its subunits For example if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout the organization or in subunits of the organization e g production then training needs will likely reflect an emphasis on safety 99 A task analysis uses the results of a job analysis to determine what is needed for successful job performance contributing to training content With organizations increasingly trying to identify core competencies that are required for all jobs task analysis can also include an assessment of competencies 100 A person analysis identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what kind of instruction they need Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that identify weaknesses that training can address Motivation in the workplace Edit Main article Work motivation Work motivation reflects the energy an individual applies to initiate work related behavior and to determine its form direction intensity and duration 101 Understanding what motivates an organization s employees is central to I O psychology Motivation is generally thought of as a theoretical construct that fuels behavior An incentive is an anticipated reward that is thought to incline a person to behave a certain way 102 Motivation varies among individuals Studying its influence on behavior it must be examined together with ability and environmental influences Because of motivation s role in influencing workplace behavior and performance many organizations structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage unproductive behaviors 103 104 Motivation involves three psychological processes arousal direction and intensity 105 Arousal is what initiates action It is often fueled by a person s need or desire for something that is missing from his or her life either totally or partially Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into goal directed work performance The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal These psychological processes involve four factors First motivation serves to direct attention focusing on particular issues people tasks etc Second it serves to stimulate effort Third motivation influences persistence Finally motivation influences the choice and application of task related strategies 104 Organizational climate Edit Main article Organizational climate Organizational climate is the perceptions of employees about what is important in an organization that is what behaviors are encouraged versus discouraged 106 It can be assessed in individual employees climate perceptions or averaged across groups of employees within a department or organization organizational climate Climates are usually focused on specific employee outcomes or what is called climate for something 107 There are more than a dozen types of climates that have been assessed and studied 108 Some of the more popular include Customer service climate The emphasis placed on providing good service It has been shown to relate to employee service performance 109 Diversity climate The extent to which organizations value differences among employees and expect employees to treat everyone with respect It has been linked to job satisfaction 110 Psychosocial safety climate Such climates make employees emphasize psychological safety meaning people feel free to be themselves and express views without fear of being criticized or ridiculed 111 Safety climate Such organizations emphasize safety and have fewer accidents and injuries 112 Climate concerns organizational policies and practices that encourage or discourage specific behaviors by employees Shared perceptions of what the organization emphasizes organizational climate is part of organizational culture but culture concerns far more than shared perceptions as discussed in the next section Organizational culture Edit Main article Organizational culture While there is no universal definition for organizational culture a collective understanding shares the following assumptions 113 2 that they are related to history and tradition have some depth are difficult to grasp and account for and must be interpreted that they are collective and shared by members of groups and primarily ideational in character having to do with values understandings beliefs knowledge and other intangibles and that they are holistic and subjective rather than strictly rational and analytical Organizational culture has been shown to affect important organizational outcomes such as performance attraction recruitment retention employee satisfaction and employee well being citation needed There are three levels of organizational culture artifacts shared values and basic beliefs and assumptions 114 Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning Shared values are individuals preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization s culture e g loyalty customer service Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization and are often deeply ingrained within the organization s culture In addition to an overall culture organizations also have subcultures 115 Subcultures can be departmental e g different work units or defined by geographical distinction 115 While there is no single type of organizational culture some researchers have developed models to describe different organizational cultures Group behavior Edit Main article Group behavior Group behavior involves the interactions among individuals in a collective Most I O group research is about teams which is a group in which people work together to achieve the same task goals 116 The individuals opinions attitudes and adaptations affect group behavior with group behavior in turn affecting those opinions etc 117 The interactions are thought to fulfill some need satisfaction in an individual who is part of the collective 103 Team effectiveness Edit Main article Team effectiveness Organizations often organize teams because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than an individual can accomplish 103 I O research has examined the harm workplace aggression does to team performance 118 Team composition Edit Team composition or the configuration of team member knowledge skills abilities and other characteristics fundamentally influences teamwork 119 Team composition can be considered in the selection and management of teams to increase the likelihood of team success 120 To achieve high quality results teams built with members having higher skill levels are more likely to be effective than teams built around members having lesser skills teams that include a members with a diversity of skills are also likely to show improved team performance 121 122 Team members should also be compatible in terms of personality traits values and work styles 122 123 There is substantial evidence that personality traits and values can shape the nature of teamwork and influence team performance 124 125 Team task design Edit A fundamental question in team task design is whether or not a task is even appropriate for a team Those tasks that require predominantly independent work are best left to individuals and team tasks should include those tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work 103 When a given task is appropriate for a team task design can play a key role in team effectiveness 126 Job characteristic theory identifies core job dimensions that affect motivation satisfaction performance etc These dimensions include skill variety task identity task significance autonomy and feedback 127 The dimensions map well to the team environment Individual contributors who perform team tasks that are challenging interesting and engaging are more likely to be motivated to exert greater effort and perform better than team members who are working on tasks that lack those characteristics 103 Organizational resources Edit Organizational support systems affect the team effectiveness 128 and provide resources for teams operating in the multi team environment During the chartering of new teams organizational enabling resources are first identified Examples of enabling resources include facilities equipment information training and leadership 103 Team specific resources e g budgetary resources human resources are typically made available Team specific human resources represent the individual contributors who are selected to be team members Intra team processes e g task design task assignment involve these team specific resources citation needed Teams also function in dynamic multi team environments Teams often must respond to shifting organizational contingencies 129 Contingencies affecting teams include constraints arising from conditions in which organizational resources are not exclusively earmarked for certain teams When resources are scarce they must be shared by multiple teams Team rewards Edit Organizational reward systems drive the strengthening and enhancing of individual team member efforts such efforts contribute towards reaching team goals 130 In other words rewards that are given to individual team members should be contingent upon the performance of the entire team 128 Several design elements are needed to enable organizational reward systems to operate successfully First for a collective assessment to be appropriate for individual team members the group s tasks must be highly interdependent If this is not the case individual assessment is more appropriate than team assessment 131 Second individual level reward systems and team level reward systems must be compatible 132 For example it would be unfair to reward the entire team for a job well done if only one team member did most of the work That team member would most likely view teams and teamwork negatively and would not want to work on a team in the future Third an organizational culture must be created such that it supports and rewards employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive attitude towards team based rewards 133 Team goals Edit Goals potentially motivate team members when goals contain three elements difficulty acceptance and specificity 134 Under difficult goal conditions teams with more committed members tend to outperform teams with less committed members 135 When team members commit to team goals team effectiveness is a function of how supportive members are with each other 136 The goals of individual team members and team goals interact Team and individual goals must be coordinated Individual goals must be consistent with team goals in order for a team to be effective 137 Job satisfaction and commitment Edit Main article Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is often thought to reflect the extent to which a worker likes his or her job or individual aspects or facets of jobs 138 It is one of the most heavily researched topics in I O psychology Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical utility for the field It has been linked to important job outcomes including attitudinal variables e g job involvement organizational commitment absenteeism turnover intentions actual turnover job performance and tension 139 A meta analyses found job satisfaction to be related to life satisfaction happiness positive affect and the absence of negative affect 140 Productive behavior Edit Productive behavior is defined as employee behavior that contributes positively to the goals and objectives of an organization 103 When an employee begins a new job there is a transition period during which he or she may not contribute significantly To assist with this transition an employee typically requires job related training In financial terms productive behavior represents the point at which an organization begins to achieve some return on the investment it has made in a new employee 103 IO psychologists are ordinarily more focused on productive behavior than job or task performance including in role and extra role performance In role performance tells managers how well an employee performs the required aspects of the job extra role performance includes behaviors not necessarily required by job but nonetheless contribute to organizational effectiveness By taking both in role and extra role performance into account an I O psychologist is able to assess employees effectiveness how well they do what they were hired to do efficiency outputs to relative inputs and productivity how much they help the organization reach its goals Three forms of productive behavior that IO psychologists often evaluate include job performance organizational citizenship behavior see below and innovation 103 Job performance Edit Main article Job performance Job performance represents behaviors employees engage in while at work which contribute to organizational goals 141 These behaviors are formally evaluated by an organization as part of an employee s responsibilities 141 In order to understand and ultimately predict job performance it is important to be precise when defining the term Job performance is about behaviors that are within the control of the employee and not about results effectiveness the costs involved in achieving results productivity the results that can be achieved in a period of time efficiency or the value an organization places on a given level of performance effectiveness productivity or efficiency utility 103 To model job performance researchers have attempted to define a set of dimensions that are common to all jobs Using a common set of dimensions provides a consistent basis for assessing performance and enables the comparison of performance across jobs Performance is commonly broken into two major categories in role technical aspects of a job and extra role non technical abilities such as communication skills and being a good team member While this distinction in behavior has been challenged 142 it is commonly made by both employees and management 143 A model of performance by Campbell breaks performance into in role and extra role categories 141 144 Campbell labeled job specific task proficiency and non job specific task proficiency as in role dimensions while written and oral communication demonstrating effort maintaining personal discipline facilitating peer and team performance supervision and leadership and management and administration are labeled as extra role dimensions 103 Murphy s model of job performance also broke job performance into in role and extra role categories 145 However task orientated behaviors composed the in role category and the extra role category included interpersonally oriented behaviors down time behaviors and destructive and hazardous behaviors 103 However it has been challenged as to whether the measurement of job performance is usually done through pencil paper tests job skills tests on site hands on tests off site hands on tests high fidelity simulations symbolic simulations task ratings and global ratings 146 These various tools are often used to evaluate performance on specific tasks and overall job performance 103 Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement model in which overall job performance was evaluated using Campbell s in role and extra role categories 143 Here in role performance was reflected through how well employees met their performance expectations and performed well at the tasks that made up the employees job 147 Dimensions regarding how well the employee assists others with their work for the benefit of the group if the employee voices new ideas for projects or changes to procedure and whether the employee attends functions that help the group composed the extra role category To assess job performance reliable and valid measures must be established While there are many sources of error with performance ratings error can be reduced through rater training 148 and through the use of behaviorally anchored rating scales Such scales can be used to clearly define the behaviors that constitute poor average and superior performance 141 Additional factors that complicate the measurement of job performance include the instability of job performance over time due to forces such as changing performance criteria the structure of the job itself 145 and the restriction of variation in individual performance by organizational forces These factors include errors in job measurement techniques acceptance and the justification of poor performance and lack of importance of individual performance The determinants of job performance consist of factors having to do with the individual worker as well as environmental factors in the workplace According to Campbell s Model of The Determinants of Job Performance 141 144 job performance is a result of the interaction between declarative knowledge knowledge of facts or things procedural knowledge knowledge of what needs to be done and how to do it and motivation reflective of an employee s choices regarding whether to expend effort the level of effort to expend and whether to persist with the level of effort chosen 103 The interplay between these factors show that an employee may for example have a low level of declarative knowledge but may still have a high level of performance if the employee has high levels of procedural knowledge and motivation Regardless of the job three determinants stand out as predictors of performance 1 general mental ability especially for jobs higher in complexity 2 job experience although there is a law of diminishing returns and 3 the personality trait of conscientiousness people who are dependable and achievement oriented who plan well 103 These determinants appear to influence performance largely through the acquisition and usage of job knowledge and the motivation to do well Further an expanding area of research in job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence 149 150 Organizational citizenship behavior Edit Main article Organizational citizenship behavior Organizational citizenship behaviors OCBs are another form of workplace behavior that IO psychologists are involved with OCBs tend to be beneficial to both the organization and other workers Dennis Organ 1988 defines OCBs as individual behavior that is discretionary not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization 151 Behaviors that qualify as OCBs can fall into one of the following five categories altruism courtesy sportsmanship conscientiousness and civic virtue 151 152 153 OCBs have also been categorized in other ways too for example by their intended targets individuals supervisors and the organization as a whole 154 Other alternative ways of categorizing OCBs include compulsory OCBs which are engaged in owing to coercive persuasion or peer pressure rather than out of good will 155 The extent to which OCBs are voluntary has been the subject of some debate 155 Other research suggests that some employees perform OCBs to influence how they are viewed within the organization While these behaviors are not formally part of the job description performing them can influence performance appraisals 103 Researchers have advanced the view that employees engage in OCBs as a form of impression management a term coined by Erving Goffman 156 Goffman defined impression management as the way in which the individual presents himself and his activity to others the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him and the kinds of things he may and may not do while sustaining his performance before them Some researchers have hypothesized that OCBs are not performed out of good will positive affect etc but instead as a way of being noticed by others including supervisors 157 Innovation Edit Main article Innovation Four qualities are generally linked to creative and innovative behaviour by individuals 103 Task relevant skills general mental ability and job specific knowledge Task specific and subject specific knowledge is most often gained through higher education however it may also be gained by mentoring and experience in a given field 103 Creativity relevant skills ability to concentrate on a problem for long periods of time to abandon unproductive searches and to temporarily put aside stubborn problems The ability to put aside stubborn problems is referred to by Jex and Britt as productive forgetting 103 Creativity relevant skills also require the individual contributor to evaluate a problem from multiple vantage points One must be able to take on the perspective of various users For example an Operation Manager analyzing a reporting issue and developing an innovative solution would consider the perspective of a sales person assistant finance compensation and compliance officer Task motivation internal desire to perform task and level of enjoyment 103 At the organizational level a study by Damanpour identified four specific characteristics that may predict innovation 158 103 A population with high levels of technical knowledge The organization s level of specialization The level an organization communicates externally Functional differentiation Counterproductive work behavior Edit Main article Counterproductive work behavior Counterproductive work behavior CWB can be defined as employee behavior that goes against the goals of an organization These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional and result from a wide range of underlying causes and motivations Some CWBs have instrumental motivations e g theft 57 It has been proposed that a person by environment interaction can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors 57 For instance an employee who sabotages another employee s work may do so because of lax supervision environment and underlying psychopathology person that work in concert to result in the counterproductive behavior There is evidence that an emotional response e g anger to job stress e g unfair treatment can motivate CWBs 57 The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective job performance absenteeism job turnover and accidents Less common but potentially more detrimental forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including violence and sexual harassment Leadership Edit Main article Leadership Leadership can be defined as a process of influencing others to agree on a shared purpose and to work towards shared objectives 159 A distinction should be made between leadership and management Managers process administrative tasks and organize work environments Although leaders may be required to undertake managerial duties as well leaders typically focus on inspiring followers and creating a shared organizational culture and values Managers deal with complexity while leaders deal with initiating and adapting to change Managers undertake the tasks of planning budgeting organizing staffing controlling and problem solving In contrast leaders undertake the tasks of setting a direction or vision aligning people to shared goals communicating and motivating 160 Approaches to studying leadership can be broadly classified into three categories Leader focused approaches contingency focused approaches and follower focused approaches 161 Leader focused approaches Edit Leader focused approaches look to organizational leaders to determine the characteristics of effective leadership According to the trait approach more effective leaders possess certain traits that less effective leaders lack More recently this approach is being used to predict leader emergence The following traits have been identified as those that predict leader emergence when there is no formal leader high intelligence high needs for dominance high self motivation and socially perceptive 162 Another leader focused approached is the behavioral approach which focuses on the behaviors that distinguish effective from ineffective leaders There are two categories of leadership behaviors consideration and initiating structure Behaviors associated with the category of consideration include showing subordinates they are valued and that the leader cares about them An example of a consideration behavior is showing compassion when problems arise in or out of the office Behaviors associated with the category of initiating structure include facilitating the task performance of groups One example of an initiating structure behavior is meeting one on one with subordinates to explain expectations and goals The final leader focused approach is power and influence To be most effective a leader should be able to influence others to behave in ways that are in line with the organization s mission and goals How influential a leader can be depends on their social power their potential to influence their subordinates There are six bases of power French and Raven s classic five bases of coercive reward legitimate expert and referent power plus informational power A leader can use several different tactics to influence others within an organization These include rational persuasion inspirational appeal consultation ingratiation exchange personal appeal coalition legitimating and pressure 163 Contingency focused approaches Edit Of the 3 approaches to leadership contingency focused approaches have been the most prevalent over the past 30 years Contingency focused theories base a leader s effectiveness on their ability to assess a situation and adapt their behavior accordingly 163 These theories assume that an effective leader can accurately read a situation and skillfully employ a leadership style that meets the needs of the individuals involved and the task at hand A brief introduction to the most prominent contingency focused theories will follow The Fiedler contingency model holds that a leader s effectiveness depends on the interaction between their characteristics and the characteristics of the situation Path goal theory asserts that the role of the leader is to help his or her subordinates achieve their goals To effectively do this leaders must skillfully select from four different leadership styles to meet the situational factors The situational factors are a product of the characteristics of subordinates and the characteristics of the environment The leader member exchange theory LMX focuses on how leader subordinate relationships develop Generally speaking when a subordinate performs well or when there are positive exchanges between a leader and a subordinate their relationship is strengthened performance and job satisfaction are enhanced and the subordinate will feel more commitment to the leader and the organization as a whole 164 Vroom Yetton Jago model focuses on decision making with respect to a feasibility set 163 which is composed of the situational attributes In addition to the contingency focused approaches mentioned there has been a high degree of interest paid to three novel approaches that have recently emerged The first is transformational leadership which posits that there are certain leadership traits that inspire subordinates to perform beyond their capabilities The second is transactional leadership which is most concerned with keeping subordinates in line with deadlines and organizational policy This type of leader fills more of a managerial role and lacks qualities necessary to inspire subordinates and induce meaningful change And the third is authentic leadership which is centered around empathy and a leader s values or character If the leader understands their followers they can inspire subordinates by cultivating a personal connection and leading them to share in the vision and goals of the team Although there has been a limited amount of research conducted on these theories they are sure to receive continued attention as the field of IO psychology matures Follower focused approaches Edit Follower focused approaches look at the processes by which leaders motivate followers and lead teams to achieve shared goals Understandably the area of leadership motivation draws heavily from the abundant research literature in the domain of motivation in IO psychology Because leaders are held responsible for their followers ability to achieve the organization s goals their ability to motivate their followers is a critical factor of leadership effectiveness Similarly the area of team leadership draws heavily from the research on teams and team effectiveness in IO psychology Because organizational employees are frequently structured in the form of teams leaders need to be aware of the potential benefits and pitfalls of working in teams how teams develop how to satisfy team members needs and ultimately how to bring about team effectiveness and performance An emerging area of IO research in the area of team leadership is in leading virtual teams where people in the team are geographically distributed across various distances and sometimes even countries While technological advances have enabled the leadership process to take place in such virtual contexts they present new challenges for leaders as well such as the need to use technology to build relationships with followers and influencing followers when faced with limited or no face to face interaction Organizational development Edit Main article Organization development IO psychologists are also concerned with organizational change This effort called organizational development OD Tools used to advance organization development include the survey feedback technique The technique involves the periodic assessment with surveys of employee attitudes and feelings The results are conveyed to organizational stakeholders who may want to take the organization in a particular direction Another tool is the team building technique Because many if not most tasks within the organization are completed by small groups and or teams team building is important to organizational success In order to enhance a team s morale and problem solving skills IO psychologists help the groups to build their self confidence group cohesiveness and working effectiveness 165 Relation to organizational behavior and human resource management Edit I O psychology and organizational behavior researchers have sometimes investigated similar topics 166 The overlap has led to some confusion regarding how the two disciplines differ 167 Sometimes there has been confusion within organizations regarding the practical duties of I O psychologists and human resource management specialists 168 169 Training EditThe minimum requirement for working as an IO psychologist is a master s degree Normally this degree requires about two to three years of postgraduate work to complete Of all the degrees granted in IO psychology each year approximately two thirds are at the master s level 165 18 A comprehensive list of US and Canadian master s and doctoral programs can be found at the web site of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology SIOP 170 Admission into IO psychology PhD programs is highly competitive many programs accept only a small number of applicants each year There are graduate degree programs in IO psychology outside of the US and Canada The SIOP web site lists some of them 170 In Australia organisational psychologists must be accredited by the Australian Psychological Society APS To become an organisational psychologist one must meet the criteria for a general psychologist s licence three years studying bachelor s degree in psychology 4th year honours degree or postgraduate diploma in psychology and two year full time supervised practice plus 80 hours of professional development There are other avenues available such as a two year supervised training program after honours i e 4 2 pathway or one year of postgraduate coursework and practical placements followed by a one year supervised training program i e 5 1 pathway 171 172 After this psychologists can elect to specialise as Organisational Psychologists in Australia Competencies Edit There are many different sets of competencies for different specializations within IO psychology and IO psychologists are versatile behavioral scientists For example an IO psychologist specializing in selection and recruiting should have expertise in finding the best talent for the organization and getting everyone on board while he or she might not need to know much about executive coaching Some IO psychologists specialize in specific areas of consulting whereas others tend to generalize their areas of expertise There are basic skills and knowledge an individual needs in order to be an effective IO psychologist which include being an independent learner interpersonal skills e g listening skills and general consultation skills e g skills and knowledge in the problem area 173 Job outlook Edit U S News amp World Report lists I O Psychology as the third best science job with a strong job market in the U S 174 In the 2020 SIOP salary survey 175 the median annual salary for a PhD in IO psychology was 125 000 for a master s level IO psychologist was 88 900 The highest paid PhD IO psychologists were self employed consultants who had a median annual income of 167 000 The highest paid in private industry worked in IT 153 000 retail 151 000 and healthcare 147 000 The lowest earners were found in state and local government positions averaging approximately 100 000 and in academic positions in colleges and universities that do not award doctoral degrees with median salaries between 80 000 and 94 000 Ethics EditAn IO psychologist whether an academic consultant or an employee of an organization is expected to maintain high ethical standards 176 The APA s ethical principles apply to IO psychologists For example ethically the IO psychologist should only accept projects for which he or she is qualified With more organizations becoming global it is important that when an IO psychologist works outside her or his home country the psychologist is aware of rules regulations and cultures of the organizations and countries in which the psychologist works while also adhering to the ethical standards set at home 177 See also EditApplied psychology Association of Business Psychologists Behavioral risk management Educational psychology Employment law European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology Human resources development Human resource management Individual psychological assessment Industrial Revolution Industrial sociology Kick the cat Kiss up kick down Machiavellianism in the workplace Mechanization Narcissism in the workplace Occupational Health Science Occupational stress Occupational safety and health Occupational health psychology Organizational behavior Organizational learning Organizational socialization Outline of psychology Personnel psychology Psychopathy in the workplace Quality of working life Society for Occupational Health Psychology Systems psychologyReferences EditFootnotes Ones D S Anderson N Viswesvaran C amp Sinangil H K 2018 The SAGE handbook of industrial work amp organizational psychology 3v Personal Psychology and Employee Performance Organizational Psychology Managerial Psychology and Organizational Approaches London SAGE Publications Lewis R amp Zibarras L 2013 Work and occupational psychology Integrating theory and practice Archived November 1 2022 at the Wayback Machine London SAGE a b Spector P E 2021 Industrial and Organizational Psychology Research and Practice 8th ed Hoboken NJ John Wiley Truxillo D M Bauer T N Erdogan B 2016 Psychology and Work Perspectives on Industrial and Organizational Psychology New York Psychology Press Taylor amp Francis I O Psychology Provides Workplace Solutions American Psychological Association 2013 Pursuing a Career in I O Psychology American Psychological Association 2013 Riggio R E amp Johnson S K 2022 Introduction to industrial organizational psychology Building Better Organizations brochure Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Retrieved from SIOP org Archived 2019 04 07 at the Wayback Machine Aamodt Michael G Industrial Organizational Psychology An Applied Approach PDF Wadsworth Cengage Learning Recognized Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology APA org American Psychological Association Retrieved December 2 2018 https alliancefororganizationalpsychology com the 22big tent 22 Protected titles HPC UK org Health Professions Council Archived 2018 11 07 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2013 09 01 Endorsement PsychologyBoard gov au Psychology Board of Australia July 1 2010 Retrieved September 1 2013 Europsy Home Page Europsy Regulations Defining the Scope of the Profession of Psychology PDF HPCSA co za Health Professions Council of South Africa Archived from the original PDF on June 15 2016 https alliancefororganizationalpsychology com declaration of identity https alliancefororganizationalpsychology com the 22big tent 22 Chimiel N 2000 History and context for work and organizational psychology In Chmiel N ed Introduction to work and organizational psychology A European perspective Malden Massachusetts Blackwell Shimmin S van Strien P J 1998 History of the psychology of work and organization In Drenth P J D Thierry H de Wolff C J eds Handbook of work and organizational psychology pp 71 99 Hove England Psychology Press Pitariu H D 1992 I O psychology in Romania Past Present and Intentions The Industrial Organizational Psychologist 29 4 29 33 Landy F J 1997 Early influences on the development of industrial and organizational psychology Journal of Applied Psychology 82 467 477 Spector P E 2021 Industrial and organizational psychology Research and practice 8th ed Hoboken NJ Wiley Feruson L 1965 The Heritage of Industrial Psychology Hartford CT Finlay Press Salas E DeRouin R E amp Gade P A 2007 The military s contribution to our science and practice People places and findings In L L Koppes Ed Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology pp 169 189 Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Myers C S 1926 Industrial Psychology in Great Britain London Jonathan Cape Mayo E 1924 Recovery and industrial fatigue Journal of Personnel Research 3 273 281 Griffin M A Landy F J Mayocchi L 2002 Australian influences on Elton Mayo The construct of revery in industrial society History of Psychology 5 4 356 375 Cullen David O Donald A new way of statecraft The career of Elton Mayo and the development of the social sciences in America 1920 1940 ProQuest Dissertations and Theses 1992 ProQuest Dissertations amp Theses Full Text a b Zickar Michael J 2003 Remembering Arthur Kornhauser Industrial psychology s advocate for worker well being Journal of Applied Psychology 88 2 363 369 doi 10 1037 0021 9010 88 2 363 PMID 12731721 Kornhauser A 1965 Mental health of the industrial worker New York Wiley Bowling K Eschleman J Wang Q 2010 A meta analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well being Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 83 4 915 934 Liljegren M Ekberg K 2009 Job mobility as predictor of health and burnout Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 82 2 317 329 Vinchur A J amp Koppes L L 2010 A historical survey of research and practice in industrial and organizational psychology In Zedeck S ed APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology Washington DC American Psychological Association a b c Kopes L L 2006 A brief history of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Accessed June 3 2013 1 Archived April 4 2019 at the Wayback Machine Powers Kris 2019 History of Industrial Organizational Psychology Retrieved April 11 2022 a b c d e f g Bryan L L K Vinchur A J 2012 A history of industrial and organizational psychology Kozlowski S W J ed The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology pp 22 75 New York Oxford University Press Assessments Hayduk L A 1987 Structural equations modeling with LISREL Baltimore Maryland Johns Hopkins University Press Raudenbush S W Bryk A S 2001 Hierarchical Linear Models Applications and Data Analysis Methods 2nd ed Newbury Park California SAGE Publications Hunter J E Schmidt F L 1990 Methods of Meta analysis Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings Thousand Oaks CA Hunter J E Schmidt F L 1994 Estimation of sampling error variance in the meta analysis of correlations Use of average correlation in the homogeneous case Journal of Applied Psychology 79 171 77 Rosenthal R DiMatteo M R 2002 Meta analysis In Pashler H Wixted J eds Stevens Handbook of Experimental Psychology Vol 4 Methodology in Experimental Psychology 3rd ed pp 391 428 Hoboken New Jersey Wiley Nunnally J Bernstein I 1994 Psychometric Theory 3rd ed New York McGraw Hill Du Toit Mathilda 2003 IRT from SSI Mooresville Scientific Software International Flanagan J C 1954 The Critical Incident Technique Psychological Bulletin 51 327 58 Rogelberg S G Brooks Laber M E 2002 Securing our collective future Challenges facing those designing and doing research in industrial and organization psychology In S G Rogelberg ed Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology Cambridge MA Blackwell pp 479 485 Performing Job Analysis Society for Human Resources Management Retrieved January 20 2019 Job Analysis Methods www managementstudyguide com Retrieved January 21 2019 Rogelberg Steven G October 11 2016 The Sage encyclopedia of industrial and organizational psychology Rogelberg Steven G Second ed Thousand Oaks California ISBN 9781483386881 OCLC 964360168 The SIOP principles PDF Archived from the original PDF on January 5 2015 Retrieved March 4 2009 The standards for educational and psychological testing http www apa org science programs testing standards aspx Archived December 30 2016 at the Wayback Machine Uniform Employee Selection Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures www uniformguidelines com Schmidt Frank L Hunter John E 1998 The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings Psychological Bulletin 124 2 262 274 doi 10 1037 0033 2909 124 2 262 S2CID 16429503 Miner J B 1992 Industrial organizational Psychology New York McGraw Hill a b Anastasi A Urbina S 1997 Psychological Testing 7th ed Upper Saddle River New Jersey Prentice Hall J Barling E K Kelloway M R Frone eds 2005 Handbook of work stress Thousand Oaks CA Sage a b c d Spector P E Fox S 2005 The stressor emotion model of counterproductive work behavior In Fox S 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Specific determinants of burnout among male and female general practitioners A cross lagged panel analysis Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 81 249 276 Demattio M Shuggars D Hays R 1993 Occupational stress life stress and mental health among dentists Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 66 153 162 Swanson V Power K Simpson R 1998 Occupational stress and family life A comparison of male and female doctors Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 71 237 260 Vinokur A D Pierce P F Buck C L 1999 Work family conflicts of women in the Air Force Their influence on mental health and functioning Journal of Organizational Behaviour 20 865 878 Gardiner M Tiggemann M 1999 Gender differences in leadership style job stress and mental health in male and female dominated industries Archived July 12 2022 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 72 3 301 315 Paul Karsten Ingmar Moser Klaus 2006 Incongruence as an 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forward The Journal of Applied Psychology American Psychological Association 102 3 403 420 doi 10 1037 apl0000106 hdl 20 500 11937 69907 OCLC 1060604883 PMID 28182465 S2CID 21566577 Areas of Expertise Society for Industrial amp Organisational Psychology Australia Society for Industrial amp Organisational Psychology Australia Retrieved June 1 2021 Knight Caroline Parker Sharon K October 1 2019 How work redesign interventions affect performance An evidence based model from a systematic review Human Relations 74 1 69 104 doi 10 1177 0018726719865604 hdl 20 500 11937 76392 ISSN 0018 7267 S2CID 210583587 a b Goldstein I L Ford J K 2002 Training in Organizations Needs Assessment Development and Evaluation 4th ed Belmont California Wadsworth Arthur W Bennett W Edens P S Bell S T 2003 Effectiveness of training in organizations A meta analysis of design and evaluation features Journal of Applied Psychology 88 234 245 Kirkpatrick D L 1977 Evaluating training programs Evidence versus proof 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leadership based intervention model Archived July 12 2022 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Applied Psychology 87 587 596 Shippmann J S et al 2000 The practice of competency modeling Personnel Psychology 53 703 740 Pinder C C 2008 Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior 2nd ed New York Psychology Press Deckers L 2010 Motivation Biological Psychological and Environmental 3rd ed pp 2 3 Boston Massachusetts Pearson a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jex S M Britt T W 2008 Organizational psychology Hoboken New Jersey Wiley a b Mitchell T R Daniels D 2003 Motivation In Borman W C Ilgen D R Klimoski R J Handbook of Psychology Vol 12 Industrial Organizational Psychology pp 225 254 New York Wiley Educational Psychology Interactive Motivation www edpsycinteractive org Retrieved April 11 2022 Zohar D 2010 Thirty years of safety climate research Reflections and future directions Accident Analysis and Prevention 42 5 1517 1522 http ovidsp ovid com ovidweb cgi T JS amp NEWS N amp PAGE fulltext amp D psyc amp AN 2010 02683 001 Archived November 1 2022 at the Wayback Machine Schneider B amp Reichers A E 1983 On the etiology of climates Personnel Psychology 36 19 39 Spector P E 2021 Organizational climate https paulspector com assessments assessment archive organizational climate Archived August 5 2021 at the Wayback Machine Way Sean A Sturman Michael C Raab Carola 2010 What Matters More Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 51 3 379 397 doi 10 1177 1938965510363783 S2CID 56241003 Madera Juan M Dawson Mary Neal Jack A 2013 Hotel managers perceived diversity climate and job satisfaction The mediating effects of role ambiguity and conflict International Journal of Hospitality Management 35 28 34 doi 10 1016 j ijhm 2013 05 001 Dollard Maureen F Dormann Christian Tuckey Michelle R Escartin Jordi 2017 Psychosocial safety climate PSC and enacted PSC for workplace bullying and psychological health problem reduction European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 26 6 844 857 doi 10 1080 1359432X 2017 1380626 S2CID 149363690 Beus Jeremy M Payne Stephanie C Bergman Mindy E Arthur Winfred 2010 Safety climate and injuries An examination of theoretical and empirical relationships Journal of Applied Psychology 95 4 713 727 doi 10 1037 a0019164 PMID 20604591 Hofstede G 1990 Measuring organizational cultures A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases Administrative Science Quarterly 35 2 286 316 doi 10 2307 2393392 JSTOR 2393392 Burkus David December 2 2014 How to Tell if Your Company Has a Creative Culture Harvard Business Review Retrieved April 11 2022 a b Khatib Taysir 1996 Organizational culture subcultures and organizational commitment Iowa State University Capstones Theses and Dissertations via Iowa State University Digital Repository Jex S M Britt T W 2014 Organizational psychology A scientist practitioner approach 3rd ed Hoboken NJ Wiley Goldstone R Roberts M Gureckis T 2008 Emergent processes of group behavior Group Behavior 17 1 15 Rousseau V Aube C 2011 Interpersonal aggression and team effectiveness The mediating role of team goal commitment Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 84 3 565 580 Bell S T Brown S G Colaneri A Outland N 2018 Team composition and the ABCs of teamwork American Psychologist 73 4 349 362 Bell S T Outland N 2017 Team Composition Over Time In Salas E Vessey W B Landon L B eds Team Dynamics Over Time Advances in Psychological Theory Methods and Practice Research on Managing Groups and Teams series Vol 18 pp 3 27 Bingley England Emerald Group Publishing Guzzo R A Shea G P 1992 Group performance and intergroup relations in organizations Archived July 12 2022 at the Wayback Machine Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Vol 3 pp 269 313 Palo Alto California Consulting Psychologists Press a b Barrick M R Stewart S L Neubert M J Mount M K 1998 Relating member ability and personality to work team processes and team effectiveness Journal of Applied Psychology 83 377 91 Van Vianen A E De Dreu C K 2001 Personality in teams Its relationship to social cohesion task cohesion and team performance European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 10 2 97 120 Bell S T 2007 Deep level composition variables as predictors of team performance A meta analysis Journal of Applied Psychology 92 3 595 615 Peeters M A Van Tuijl H F Rutte C G Reymen I M 2006 Personality and team performance A meta analysis European Journal of Personality 20 5 377 396 European Association of Personality Psychology Sundstrom Eric McIntyre Michael Halfhill Terry Richards Heather 2000 Work groups From the Hawthorne studies to work teams of the 1990s and beyond Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice 4 44 67 doi 10 1037 1089 2699 4 1 44 Hackman J R Oldham G R 1975 Development of job diagnostic survey Journal of Applied Psychology 60 159 170 a b Sundstrom E De Meuse K P Futrell D 1990 Work teams Applications and effectiveness American Psychologist 45 2 120 33 Salas E Stagl K Burke C 2004 25 years of team effectiveness in organizations Research themes and emerging needs In Cooper C Robertson I eds International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Vol 19 pp 47 91 Chichester UK Wiley Luthans F Kreitner R 1985 Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond An Operant and Social Learning Approach 2nd ed Glenview Illinois Scott Foresman Wageman R Baker G 1997 Incentives and cooperation The joint effects of task and reward interdependence on group performance Journal of Organizational Behavior 18 139 158 Dematteo J S Eby L T Sundstrom E 1998 Team based rewards Current empirical evidence and directions for future research Research in Organizational Behavior 20 141 183 Haines V Y Taggar S 2006 Antecedents of team reward attitude Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice 10 194 205 Lock E A Latham G P 1990 A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance Englewood Cliffs New Jersey Prentice Hall Whitney K 1994 Improving group task performance The role of group goals and group efficacy Human Performance 7 55 78 Aube C Rousseau V 2005 Team goal commitment and team effectiveness The role of task interdependence and supportive behaviors Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice 9 189 204 Mitchell T R Silver W R 1990 Individual and group goals when workers are interdependent Effects on task strategy and performance Journal of Applied Psychology 75 185 193 Spector P E 1997 Job Satisfaction Application Assessment Causes and Consequences Thousand Oaks California SAGE Publications Spector P E 1997 Job satisfaction Application assessment causes and consequences Thousand Oaks CA Sage Bowling K Eschleman J Wang Q 2010 A meta analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well being Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 83 4 915 934 a b c d e Campbell J P 1990 Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and organizational psychology In Dunnette M D Hough L M eds Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Vol 1 2nd ed pp 687 732 Palo Alto California Consulting Psychologists Press Morrison E W 1994 Role definitions and organizational citizenship behavior The importance of the employee s perspective Academy of Management Journal 37 1543 67 a b Van Dyne LePine 1998 Helping and Voice Extra role Behaviors Evidence of Construct and Predictive Validity The Academy of Management Journal Vol 41 No 1 February 1998 pp 108 119 a b Campbell J P 1994 Alternative models of job performance and their implications for selection and classification In Rumsey M G Walker C B Harris J H eds Personnel Selection and Classification pp 33 51 Hillsdale New Jersey Erlbaum a b Murphy K R 1994 Toward a broad conceptualization of jobs and job performance Impact of changes in the military environment on the structure assessment and prediction of job performance In Rumsey M G Walker C B Harris J H eds Personnel Selection and Classification pp 85 102 Hillsdale New Jersey Erlbaum Murphy K R 1989 Dimensions of job performance In Dillon R Pelligrino J W eds Testing Theoretical and Applied Perspectives pp 218 247 New York Praeger Jex S M Britt T W 2008 Organizational Psychology Hoboken New Jersey John Wiley amp Sons Pulakos E D 1984 A comparison of rater training programs Error training and accuracy training Journal of Applied Psychology 69 581 588 Baron R Handley R Fund S 2006 The impact of emotional intelligence on performance In Druskat V U Sala F Mount G eds Linking Emotional Intelligence and Performance at Work Current Research Evidence with Individuals and Groups pp 3 19 Mahwah New Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Goleman D 1998 Working with Emotional Intelligence New York Bantam Books a b Organ D W 1988 Organizational Citizenship Behavior The Good Soldier Syndrome Lexington Massachusetts Lexington Books D C Heath and Co Organ D W 1977 Inferences about trends in labor force satisfaction A causal correlational analysis Academy of Management Journal 20 4 510 19 doi 10 2307 255353 Organ D W 1994 Organizational citizenship behavior and the good soldier In Rumsey M G Walker C B Harris J eds Personnel Selection and Classification pp 53 67 Hillsdale New Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Williams L J Anderson S E 1994 Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in role behavior Journal of Management 17 601 617 a b Vigoda Gadot E 2006 Compulsory citizenship behavior Theorizing some dark sides of the Good Soldier Syndrome in organizations Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 36 77 93 doi 10 1111 j 1468 5914 2006 00297 Goffman E 1959 The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life New York Anchor Books Bolino M C 1999 Citizenship and impression management Good soldiers or good actors Academy of Management Review 24 1 82 98 doi 10 2307 259038 Damanpour F 1991 Organizational innovation A meta analysis of effects of determinants and moderators Academy of Management Journal 34 555 590 Yukl G 2010 Leadership in Organizations 7th ed New Jersey Pearson Daft R L 2011 Leadership 5th ed Australia Cengage Mulholland Ben October 31 2019 Leadership Theories How to Be the Perfect Leader for Your Team Process Street Checklist Workflow and SOP Software Retrieved April 25 2022 Hughes R L Ginnett R C Curphy G J 2009 Leadership Enhancing the Lessons of Experience 6th ed Boston McGraw Hill a b c Jex S M Britt T W 2008 Organizational Psychology A Scientist Practitioner Approach 2nd ed New Jersey John Wiley amp Sons Goleman Daniel 2002 Primal Leadership Harvard Business School Press ISBN 9781578514861 a b Schultz Duane P Ellen Sydney 2010 Psychology and Work Today An Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology 10th ed Upper Saddle River New Jersey Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 205 68358 1 Miner J 2006 Organizational Behavior 3 Historical Origins Theoretical Foundations and the Future Wiley Jex S M Britt T W 2008 Organizational Psychology A Scientist Practitioner Approach 2nd ed Hoboken New Jersey Wiley Human Resources vs Organisational Psychology Find My Pathway October 21 2018 Retrieved October 26 2018 Guest David E 1994 Organizational psychology and human resource management Towards a european approach European Work and Organizational Psychologist 4 3 251 270 doi 10 1080 13594329408410488 ISSN 0960 2003 a b GTP My SIOP org Psychology Internship Pathways Find My Pathway Retrieved October 25 2018 Provisional registration PsychologyBoard gov au Psychology Board of Australia Retrieved October 25 2018 Cummings T G Worley C G 2015 Organization Development and Change Boston Cengage U S News amp World Report 2021 Industrial Psychologist Overview https money usnews com careers best jobs industrial psychologist Archived August 8 2021 at the Wayback Machine Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology 2020 Income amp Employment Report 2020 Bowling Green Ohio Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Biech E ed 2007 The ethics of the business The Business of Consulting The Basics and Beyond pp 231 244 San Francisco California Pfeiffer Mobley W H 2008 Rules of thumb for international consultants In Hedge J W Borman W C eds The I O Consultant Advice and Insights for Building a Successful Career pp 309 314 Washington DC American Psychological Association Further reading EditAnderson N Ones D S Sinangil H K Viswesvaran C eds 2002 Handbook of Industrial Work and Organizational Psychology Volume 1 Personnel Psychology Thousand Oaks California SAGE Publications Anderson N Ones D S Sinangil H K Viswesvaran C eds 2002 Handbook of Industrial Work and Organizational Psychology Volume 2 Organizational Psychology SAGE Publications Borman W C Ilgen D R Klimoski R J eds 2003 Handbook of psychology Vol 12 Industrial and organizational psychology Hoboken New Jersey John Wiley amp Sons Borman W C Motowidlo S J 1993 Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance In Schmitt N Borman W C eds Personnel Selection San Francisco Jossey Bass pp 71 98 Bryan L L K Vinchur A J 2012 A history of industrial and organizational psychology Kozlowski S W J ed The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology pp 22 75 New York Oxford University Press Campbell J P Gasser M B Oswald F L 1996 The substantive nature of job performance variability In Murphy K R ed Individual Differences and Behavior in Organizations pp 258 299 Jossey Bass Copley F B 1923 Frederick W Taylor Father of Scientific Management Vols I and II New York Taylor Society Dunnette M D ed 1976 Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Chicago Rand McNally Dunnette M D Hough L M eds 1991 Handbook of Industrial Organizational Psychology 4 Volumes Palo Alto California Consulting Psychologists Press Eunson Baden Behaving Managing Yourself and Others McGraw Hill Sidney 1987 Guion R M 1998 Assessment Measurement and Prediction for Personnel Decisions Mahwah New Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hunter J E Schmidt F L 1990 Methods of Meta analysis Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings Newbury Park California SAGE Publications Jones Ishmael 2008 The Human Factor Inside the CIA s Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture New York Encounter Books Koppes L L ed 2007 Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Lant T K Organizational Cognition and Interpretation In Baum ed The Blackwell Companion to Organizations Oxford Blackwell Publishers Lowman R L ed 2002 The California School of Organizational Studies Handbook of Organizational Consulting Psychology A Comprehensive Guide to Theory Skills and Techniques Jossey Bass Rogelberg S G ed 2002 Handbook of Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology Malden Massachusetts Blackwell Sackett P R Wilk S L 1994 Within group norming and other forms of score adjustment in pre employment testing American Psychologist 49 929 954 Schmidt F L Hunter J E 1998 The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings Psychological Bulletin 124 262 274 External links EditCanadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology British Psychological Society s Division of Occupational Psychology s DOP website Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Alliance for Organizational Psychology Wikiquote has quotations related to Industrial and organizational psychology Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Industrial and organizational psychology amp oldid 1129880297, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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