Triassic–Jurassic extinction event

The Triassic–Jurassic (Tr-J) extinction event (TJME), often called the end-Triassic extinction, marks the boundary between the Triassic and Jurassic periods, 201.4 million years ago,^[1] and is one of the top five major extinction events of the Phanerozoic eon,^[2] profoundly affecting life on land and in the oceans. In the seas, the entire class of conodonts^[3][4] and 23–34% of marine genera disappeared.^[5][6] On land, all archosauromorphs other than crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs became extinct; some of the groups which died out were previously abundant, such as aetosaurs, phytosaurs, and rauisuchids. Some remaining non-mammalian therapsids and many of the large temnospondyl amphibians had become extinct prior to the Jurassic as well. However, there is still much uncertainty regarding a connection between the Tr-J boundary and terrestrial vertebrates, due to a lack of terrestrial fossils from the Rhaetian (latest) stage of the Triassic.^[7] What was left fairly untouched were plants, crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, pterosaurs and mammals;^[8][9][10] this allowed the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodylomorphs to become the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.^[11][9]

Marine extinction intensity during the Phanerozoic

%

Millions of years ago

(H)

K–Pg

Tr–J

P–Tr

Cap

Late D

O–S

The blue graph shows the apparent percentage (not the absolute number) of marine animal genera becoming extinct during any given time interval. It does not represent all marine species, just those that are readily fossilized. The labels of the traditional "Big Five" extinction events and the more recently recognised Capitanian mass extinction event are clickable links; see Extinction event for more details. (source and image info)

Statistical analysis of marine losses at this time suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a decrease in speciation than by an increase in extinctions.^[12] Nevertheless, a pronounced turnover in plant spores and a collapse of coral reef communities indicates that an ecological catastrophe did occur at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.^[13][14] Older hypotheses on extinction have proposed that gradual climate or sea level change may be the culprit,^[15] or perhaps one or more asteroid strikes.^[16][17][18] However, the most well-supported and widely-held theory for the cause of the Tr-J extinction places the blame on the start of volcanic eruptions in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP),^[19] which was responsible for outputting a high amount of carbon dioxide into Earth's atmosphere,^[20][21] inducing profound global warming,^[22] along with ocean acidification.^[23]

Effects

This event vacated terrestrial ecological niches, allowing the dinosaurs to assume the dominant roles in the Jurassic period. This event happened in less than 10,000 years and occurred just before Pangaea started to break apart. In the area of Tübingen (Germany), a Triassic–Jurassic bonebed can be found, which is characteristic for this boundary.^[24]

Marine invertebrates

The Triassic-Jurassic extinction completed the transition from the Palaeozoic evolutionary fauna to the Modern evolutionary fauna,^[25] a change that began in the aftermath of the end-Guadalupian extinction^[26] and continued following the end-Permian extinction.^[27] Ammonites were affected substantially by the Triassic-Jurassic extinction. Ceratitidans, the most prominent group of ammonites in the Triassic, became extinct at the end of the Rhaetian after having their diversity reduced significantly in the Norian. Other ammonite groups such as the Ammonitina, Lytoceratina, and Phylloceratina diversified from the Early Jurassic onward. Bivalves experienced high extinction rates at the early and middle Rhaetian.^[7] The Lilliput effect affected megalodontid bivalves,^[28] whereas file shell bivalves experienced the Brobdingnag effect, the reverse of the Lilliput effect, as a result of the mass extinction event.^[29] There is some evidence of a bivalve cosmopolitanism event during the mass extinction.^[30] Gastropod diversity was barely affected at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, although gastropods gradually suffered numerous losses over the late Norian and Rhaetian, during the leadup to the TJME.^[31] Plankton diversity was relatively mildly impacted at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, although extinction rates among radiolarians rose significantly.^[32] Brachiopods declined in diversity at the end of the Triassic before rediversifying in the Sinemurian and Pliensbachian.^[33] Conulariids seemingly completely died out at the end of the Triassic.^[7] Around 96% of coral genera died out, with integrated corals being especially devastated.^[34] Corals practically disappeared from the Tethys Ocean at the end of the Triassic except for its northernmost reaches,^[35] resulting in an early Hettangian "coral gap".^[36] There is good evidence for a collapse in the reef community, which was likely driven by ocean acidification resulting from CO₂ supplied to the atmosphere by the CAMP eruptions.^[37][38]

Most evidence points to a relatively fast recovery from the mass extinction. British Early Jurassic benthic marine environments display a relatively rapid recovery that began almost immediately after the end of the mass extinction despite numerous relapses into anoxic conditions during the earliest Jurassic.^[39] In the Neuquén Basin, recovery began in the late early Hettangian and lasted until a new biodiversity equilibrium in the late Hettangian.^[40] Also despite recurrent anoxic episodes, large bivalves began to reappear shortly after the extinction event.^[41] Siliceous sponges dominated the immediate aftermath interval thanks to the enormous influx of silica into the oceans from the weathering of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province.^[42] Some clades recovered more slowly than others, however, as exemplified by corals and their disappearance in the early Hettangian.^[36]

Marine vertebrates

 

Conodonts were a major vertebrate group which died out at the end of the Triassic

Fish did not suffer a mass extinction at the end of the Triassic. The late Triassic in general did experience a gradual drop in actinopterygiian diversity after an evolutionary explosion in the middle Triassic. Though this may have been due to falling sea levels or the Carnian pluvial event, it may instead be a result of sampling bias considering that middle Triassic fish have been more extensively studied than late Triassic fish.^[43] Despite the apparent drop in diversity, neopterygiians (which include most modern bony fish) suffered less than more "primitive" actinopterygiians, indicating a biological turnover where modern groups of fish started to supplant earlier groups.^[7] Conodonts, which were prominent index fossils throughout the Paleozoic and Triassic, finally became extinct at the T-J boundary following declining diversity.^[7]

Like fish, marine reptiles experienced a substantial drop in diversity between the middle Triassic and the Jurassic. However, their extinction rate at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary was not elevated. The highest extinction rates experienced by Mesozoic marine reptiles actually occurred at the end of the Ladinian stage, which corresponds to the end of the middle Triassic. The only marine reptile families which became extinct at or slightly before the Triassic–Jurassic boundary were the placochelyids (the last family of placodonts), and giant ichthyosaurs such as shastasaurids and shonisaurids.^[44] Nevertheless, some authors have argued that the end of the Triassic acted as a genetic "bottleneck" for ichthyosaurs, which never regained the level of anatomical diversity and disparity which they possessed during the Triassic.^[45]

Terrestrial vertebrates

 

Capitosaurs (such as this Mastodonsaurus) were among the major amphibian groups which became extinct at the T-J boundary, though many may have died out earlier.

One of the earliest pieces of evidence for a late Triassic extinction was a major turnover in terrestrial tetrapods such as amphibians, reptiles, and synapsids. Edwin H. Colbert drew parallels between the system of extinction and adaptation between the Triassic–Jurassic and Cretaceous-Paleogene boundaries. He recognized how dinosaurs, lepidosaurs (lizards and their relatives), and crocodyliforms (crocodilians and their relatives) filled the niches of more ancient groups of amphibians and reptiles which were extinct by the start of the Jurassic.^[15] Olsen (1987) estimated that 42% of all terrestrial tetrapods became extinct at the end of the Triassic, based on his studies of faunal changes in the Newark Supergroup of eastern North America.^[17] More modern studies have debated whether the turnover in Triassic tetrapods was abrupt at the end of the Triassic, or instead more gradual.^[7]

During the Triassic, amphibians were mainly represented by large, crocodile-like members of the order Temnospondyli. Although the earliest lissamphibians (modern amphibians like frogs and salamanders) did appear during the Triassic, they would become more common in the Jurassic while the temnospondyls diminished in diversity past the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.^[17] Although the decline of temnospondyls did send shockwaves through freshwater ecosystems, it was probably not as abrupt as some authors have suggested. Brachyopoids, for example, survived until the Cretaceous according to new discoveries in the 1990s. Several temnospondyl groups did become extinct near the end of the Triassic despite earlier abundance, but it is uncertain how close their extinctions were to the end of the Triassic. The last known metoposaurids ("Apachesaurus") were from the Redonda Formation, which may have been early Rhaetian or late Norian. Gerrothorax, the last known plagiosaurid, has been found in rocks which are probably (but not certainly) Rhaetian, while a capitosaur humerus was found in Rhaetian-age deposits in 2018. Therefore, plagiosaurids and capitosaurs were likely victims of an extinction at the very end of the Triassic, while most other temnospondyls were already extinct.^[46]

 

Reptile extinction at the end of the Triassic is poorly understood, but phytosaurs (such as this Redondasaurus) went from abundant to extinct by the end of the Rhaetian.

Terrestrial reptile faunas were dominated by archosauromorphs during the Triassic, particularly phytosaurs and members of Pseudosuchia (the reptile lineage which leads to modern crocodilians). In the early Jurassic and onwards, dinosaurs and pterosaurs became the most common land reptiles, while small reptiles were mostly represented by lepidosauromorphs (such as lizards and tuatara relatives). Among pseudosuchians, only small crocodylomorphs did not become extinct by the end of the Triassic, with both dominant herbivorous subgroups (such as aetosaurs) and carnivorous ones (rauisuchids) having died out.^[17] Phytosaurs, drepanosaurs, trilophosaurids, tanystropheids, and procolophonids, which were other common reptiles in the late Triassic, had also become extinct by the start of the Jurassic. However, pinpointing the extinction of these different land reptile groups is difficult, as the last stage of the Triassic (the Rhaetian) and the first stage of the Jurassic (the Hettangian) each have few records of large land animals. Some paleontologists have considered only phytosaurs and procolophonids to have become extinct at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, with other groups having become extinct earlier.^[7] However, it is likely that many other groups survived up until the boundary according to British fissure deposits from the Rhaetian. Aetosaurs, kuehneosaurids, drepanosaurs, thecodontosaurids, "saltoposuchids" (like Terrestrisuchus), trilophosaurids, and various non-crocodylomorph pseudosuchians^[47][48] are all examples of Rhaetian reptiles which may have become extinct at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.^[49]

Terrestrial plants

The extinction event marks a floral turnover as well, with estimates of the percentage of Rhaetian pre-extinction plants being lost ranging from 17% to 73%.^[50] Overall, plants suffered minor diversity losses on a global scale as a result of the extinction. Though spore turnovers are observed across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, the abruptness of this transition and the relative abundances of given spore types both before and after the boundary are highly variable from one region to another, pointing to a global ecological restructuring rather than a mass extinction of plants.^[8] Evidence from Central Europe suggests that rather than a sharp, very rapid decline followed by an adaptive radiation, a more gradual turnover in both fossil plants and spores with several intermediate stages is observed over the course of the extinction event.^[51] In the Sichuan Basin, relatively cool mixed forests in the late Rhaetian were replaced by hot, arid fernlands during the Triassic-Jurassic transition, which in turn later gave way to a cheirolepid-dominated flora in the Hettangian and Sinemurian.^[52] The abundance of ferns in China that were resistant to high levels of aridity increased significantly across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, whereas ferns better adapted for moist, humid environments declined, indicating that plants experienced major environmental stress, albeit not an outright mass extinction.^[53] In some regions, however, major floral extinctions did occur, with some researchers challenging the hypothesis of there being no significant floral mass extinction on this basis. In the Newark Supergroup of the United States East Coast, about 60% of the diverse monosaccate and bisaccate pollen assemblages disappear at the Tr–J boundary, indicating a major extinction of plant genera. Early Jurassic pollen assemblages are dominated by Corollina, a new genus that took advantage of the empty niches left by the extinction.^[54] Along the margins of the European Epicontinental Sea and the European shores of the Tethys, coastal and near-coastal mires fell victim to an abrupt sea level rise. These mires were replaced by a pioneering opportunistic flora after an abrupt sea level fall, although its heyday was short lived and it died out shortly after its rise.^[55] In the Eiberg Basin of the Northern Calcareous Alps, there was a very rapid palynomorph turnover.^[56] Polyploidy may have been an important factor that mitigated a conifer species' risk of going extinct.^[57]

Possible causes

Gradual climate change

Gradual climate change, sea-level fluctuations, or a pulse of oceanic acidification during the late Triassic may have reached a tipping point. However, the effect of such processes on Triassic animal and plant groups is not well understood.

The extinctions at the end of the Triassic were initially attributed to gradually changing environments. Within his 1958 study recognizing biological turnover between the Triassic and Jurassic, Edwin H. Colbert's 1958 proposal was that this extinction was a result of geological processes decreasing the diversity of land biomes. He considered the Triassic period to be an era of the world experiencing a variety of environments, from towering highlands to arid deserts to tropical marshes. In contrast, the Jurassic period was much more uniform both in climate and elevation due to excursions by shallow seas.^[15]

Later studies noted a clear trend towards increased aridification towards the end of the Triassic. Although high-latitude areas like Greenland and Australia actually became wetter, most of the world experienced more drastic changes in climate as indicated by geological evidence. This evidence includes an increase in carbonate and evaporite deposits (which are most abundant in dry climates) and a decrease in coal deposits (which primarily form in humid environments such as coal forests).^[7] In addition, the climate may have become much more seasonal, with long droughts interrupted by severe monsoons.^[58] The world gradually got warmer over this time as well; from the late Norian to the Rhaetian, mean annual temperatures rose by 7 to 9 °C.^[59]

Sea level fall

Geological formations in Europe seem to indicate a drop in sea levels in the late Triassic, and then a rise in the early Jurassic. Although falling sea levels have sometimes been considered a culprit for marine extinctions, evidence is inconclusive since many sea level drops in geological history are not correlated with increased extinctions. However, there is still some evidence that marine life was affected by secondary processes related to falling sea levels, such as decreased oxygenation (caused by sluggish circulation), or increased acidification. These processes do not seem to have been worldwide, with the sea level fall observed in European sediments believed to be not global but regional,^[60] but they may explain local extinctions in European marine fauna.^[7] A pronounced sea level in latest Triassic records from Lake Williston in northeastern British Columbia, which was then the northeastern margin of Panthalassa, resulted in an extinction event of infaunal bivalves, though not epifaunal ones.^[61]

Extraterrestrial impact

 

The Manicouagan reservoir in Quebec, a massive crater formed by a Late Triassic impact. Radiometric dating has determined that it is about 13 million years older than the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, and thus an unlikely candidate for a mass extinction.

Some have hypothesized that an impact from an asteroid or comet caused the Triassic–Jurassic extinction,^[54] similar to the extraterrestrial object which was the main factor in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction about 66 million years ago, as evidenced by the Chicxulub crater in Mexico. However, so far no impact crater of sufficient size has been dated to precisely coincide with the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.

Nevertheless, the late Triassic did experience several impacts, including the second-largest confirmed impact in the Mesozoic. The Manicouagan Reservoir in Quebec is one of the most visible large impact craters on Earth, and at 100 km (62 mi) in diameter it is tied with the Eocene Popigai impact structure in Siberia as the fourth-largest impact crater on Earth. Olsen et al. (1987) were the first scientists to link the Manicouagan crater to the Triassic–Jurassic extinction, citing its age which at the time was roughly considered to be late Triassic.^[17] More precise radiometric dating by Hodych & Dunning (1992) has shown that the Manicouagan impact occurred about 214 million years ago, about 13 million years before the Triassic–Jurassic boundary. Therefore, it could not have been responsible for an extinction precisely at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.^[16] Nevertheless, the Manicouagan impact did have a widespread effect on the planet; a 214-million-year-old ejecta blanket of shocked quartz has been found in rock layers as far away as England^[62] and Japan. There is still a possibility that the Manicouagan impact was responsible for a small extinction midway through the late Triassic at the Carnian–Norian boundary,^[16] although the disputed age of this boundary (and whether an extinction actually occurred in the first place) makes it difficult to correlate the impact with extinction.^[62] Onoue et al. (2016) alternatively proposed that the Manicouagan impact was responsible for a marine extinction in the middle of the Norian which affected radiolarians, sponges, conodonts, and Triassic ammonoids. Thus, the Manicouagan impact may have been partially responsible for the gradual decline in the latter two groups which culminated in their extinction at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.^[63] The boundary between the Adamanian and Revueltian land vertebrate faunal zones, which involved extinctions and faunal changes in tetrapods and plants, was possibly also caused by the Manicouagan impact, although discrepancies between magnetochronological and isotopic dating lead to some uncertainty.^[64]

Other Triassic craters are closer to the Triassic–Jurassic boundary but also much smaller than the Manicouagan reservoir. The eroded Rochechouart impact structure in France has most recently been dated to 201±2 million years ago,^[65] but at 25 km (16 mi) across (possibly up to 50 km (30 mi) across originally), it appears to be too small to have affected the ecosystem.^[66] The 40 km (25 mi) wide Saint Martin crater in Manitoba has been proposed as a candidate for a possible TJME-causing impact, but its has since been dated to be Carnian.^[67] Other putative or confirmed Triassic craters include the 80 km (50 mi) wide Puchezh-Katunki crater in Eastern Russia (though it may be Jurassic in age), the 15 km (9 mi) wide Obolon' crater in Ukraine, and the 9 km (6 mi) wide Red Wing Creek structure in North Dakota. Spray et al. (1998) noted an interesting phenomenon, that being how the Manicouagan, Rochechouart, and Saint Martin craters all seem to be at the same latitude, and that the Obolon' and Red Wing craters form parallel arcs with the Rochechouart and Saint Martin craters, respectively. Spray and his colleagues hypothesized that the Triassic experienced a "multiple impact event", a large fragmented asteroid or comet which broke up and impacted the earth in several places at the same time.^[18] Such an impact has been observed in the present day, when Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up and hit Jupiter in 1992. However, the "multiple impact event" hypothesis for Triassic impact craters has not been well-supported; Kent (1998) noted that the Manicouagan and Rochechouart craters were formed in eras of different magnetic polarity,^[68] and radiometric dating of the individual craters has shown that the impacts occurred millions of years apart.^[7]

Shocked quartz has been found in Rhaetian deposits from the Northern Apennines of Italy, providing possible evidence of an end-Triassic extraterrestrial impact.^[69] Certain trace metals indicative of a bolide impact have been found in the late Rhaetian, though not at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary itself; the discoverers of these trace metal anomalies purport that such a bolide impact could only have been an indirect cause of the TJME.^[70] The discovery of seismites two to four metres thick coeval with the carbon isotope fluctuations associated with the TJME has been interpreted as evidence of a possible bolide impact, although no definitive link between these seismites and any impact event has been found.^[71]

On the other hand, the dissimilarity between the isotopic perturbations characterising the TJME and those characterising the end-Cretaceous mass extinction makes an extraterrestrial impact highly unlikely to have been the cause of the TJME, according to many researchers.^[72] Various trace metal ratios, including palladium/iridium, platinum/iridium, and platinum/rhodium, in rocks deposited during the TJME have numerical values very different from what would be expected in an extraterrestrial impact scenario, providing further evidence against this hypothesis.^[73]

Volcanic eruptions

 

Maximum extent of CAMP volcanism at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary

The leading and best evidenced explanation for the TJME is massive volcanic eruptions, specifically from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP),^[74][75][76] the most aerially extensive known large igneous province and one of the most voluminous,^[77][78] with its flood basalts extending across parts of southwestern Europe,^[79][80] northwestern Africa,^[81] northeastern South America,^[82][83] and southeastern North America.^[84][85][86] The coincidence and synchrony of CAMP activity and the TJME is indicated by uranium-lead dating,^[87][88] argon-argon dating,^[84][80] and palaeomagnetism.^[89] The isotopic composition of fossil soils and marine sediments near the boundary between the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic has been tied to a large negative δ¹³C excursion.^[90][91][92] Carbon isotopes of hydrocarbons (n-alkanes) derived from leaf wax and lignin, and total organic carbon from two sections of lake sediments interbedded with the CAMP in eastern North America have shown carbon isotope excursions similar to those found in the mostly marine St. Audrie's Bay section, Somerset, England; the correlation suggests that the end-Triassic extinction event began at the same time in marine and terrestrial environments, slightly before the oldest basalts in eastern North America but simultaneous with the eruption of the oldest flows in Morocco (Also suggested by Deenen et al., 2010), with both a critical CO₂ greenhouse and a marine biocalcification crisis.^[19] Contemporaneous CAMP eruptions, mass extinction, and the carbon isotopic excursions are shown in the same places, making the case for a volcanic cause of a mass extinction.^[93][94] The observed negative carbon isotope excursion is lower in some sites that correspond to what was then eastern Panthalassa because of the extreme aridity of western Pangaea limiting weathering and erosion there.^[95] The negative CIE associated with CAMP volcanism lasted for approximately 20,000 to 40,000 years, or about one or two of Earth's axial precession cycles,^[96] although the carbon cycle was so disrupted that it did not stabilise until the Sinemurian.^[97] Mercury anomalies from deposits in various parts of the world have further bolstered the volcanic cause hypothesis,^[98][99] as have anomalies from various platinum-group elements.^[73] Nickel enrichments are also observed at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary coevally with light carbon enrichments, providing yet more evidence of massive volcanism.^[100]

Some scientists initially rejected the volcanic eruption theory, because the Newark Supergroup, a section of rock in eastern North America that records the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, contains no ash-fall horizons and its oldest basalt flows were estimated to lie around 10 m above the transition zone.^[101] However, updated dating protocol and wider sampling has confirmed that the CAMP eruptions started in Morocco only a few thousand years before the extinction,^[88] preceding their onset in Nova Scotia and New Jersey,^{[102][103][104]} and that they continued in several more pulses for the next 600,000 years.^[88] Volcanic global warming has also been criticised as an explanation because some estimates have found that the amount of carbon dioxide emitted was only around 250 ppm, not enough to generate a mass extinction.^[105] In addition, at some sites, changes in carbon isotope ratios have been attributed to diagenesis and not any primary environmental changes.^[106]

The flood basalts of the CAMP released gigantic quantities of carbon dioxide,^[107] a potent greenhouse gas causing intense global warming.^[20] Before the end-Triassic extinction, carbon dioxide levels were around 1,000 ppm as measured by the stomatal index of Lepidopteris ottonis, but this quantity jumped to 1,300 ppm at the onset of the extinction event.^[108] During the TJME, carbon dioxide concentrations increased fourfold.^[109] The record of CAMP degassing shows several distinct pulses of carbon dioxide immediately following each major pulse of magmatism, at least two of which amount to a doubling of atmospheric CO₂.^[110] The rate of carbon dioxide emissions was one of the most meteoric rises in carbon dioxide levels in Earth's entire history; the extreme severity of the mass extinction event can be attributed to the breakneck rate of CAMP carbon dioxide emissions as well as their humongous quantity.^[21] It is estimated that a single volcanic pulse from the large igneous province would have emitted an amount of carbon dioxide roughly equivalent to projected anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions for the 21st century.^[111] In addition, the flood basalts intruded through sediments that were rich in organic matter and combusted it,^[112][113] which led to the degassing of volatiles that further enhanced volcanic warming of the climate.^[114] Thermogenic carbon release through such contact metamorphism of carbon-rich deposits has been found to be a sensible hypothesis providing a coherent explanation for the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursions at the terminus of the Triassic.^[115] Global temperatures rose sharply by 3 to 4 °C.^[22]

The catastrophic dissociation of gas hydrates, which has been suggested as one possible cause of the largest mass extinction of all time, the so-called "Great Dying" at the end of the Permian period,^[116] may have exacerbated greenhouse conditions,^[117][118] although others suggest that methane hydrate release was temporally mismatched with the TJME and thus not a cause of it.^[119][120]

Besides the carbon dioxide-driven long-term global warming, CAMP volcanism had shorter term cooling effects resulting from the emission of sulphur dioxide aerosols.^{[121][122][88]} A 2022 study shows that high latitudes had colder climates with evidence of mild glaciation. The authors propose that cold periods ("ice ages") induced by volcanic ejecta clouding the atmosphere might have favoured endothermic animals, with dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and mammals being more capable at enduring these conditions than large pseudosuchians due to insulation.^[123]

CAMP volcanism released enormous amounts of toxic mercury. The appearance of high rates of mutaganesis of varying severity in fossil spores during the TJME coincides with mercury anomalies and is thus believed by researchers to have been caused by mercury poisoning.^[124]

The intense, rapid warming is believed to have resulted in increased storminess and lightning activity as a consequence of the more humid climate. The uptick in lightning activity is in turn implicated as a cause of an increase in wildfire activity.^[125] The combined presence of charcoal fragments and heightened levels of pyrolytic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Polish sedimentary facies straddling the Triassic-Jurassic boundary indicates wildfires were extremely commonplace during the earliest Jurassic, immediately after the Triassic-Jurassic transition.^[126] Frequent wildfires, combined with increased seismic activity from CAMP emplacement, led to apocalyptic soil degradation.^[127]

In addition to these climatic effects, oceanic uptake of volcanogenic carbon and sulphur dioxide would have led to a significant decrease of seawater pH known as ocean acidification, which is discussed as a relevant driver of marine extinction.^{[23][128][129]} Evidence for ocean acidification as an extinction mechanism comes from the preferential extinction of marine organisms with thick aragonitic skeletons and little biotic control of biocalcification (e.g., corals, hypercalcifying sponges),^[128] which resulted in a coral reef collapse^[37][38] and an early Hettangian "coral gap".^[36] Extensive fossil remains of malformed calcareous nannoplankton, a common sign of significant drops in pH, have also been extensively reported from the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.^[130] Global interruption of carbonate deposition at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary has been cited as additional evidence for catastrophic ocean acidification.^[131][23] Upwardly developing aragonite fans in the shallow subseafloor may also reflect decreased pH, these structures being speculated to have precipitated concomitantly with acidification.^[132]

Anoxia was another mechanism of extinction; the end-Triassic extinction was coeval with an uptick in black shale deposition and a pronounced negative δ²³⁸U excursion, indicating a major decrease in marine oxygen availability.^[133] Positive δ¹⁵N excursions have also been interpreted as evidence of anoxia.^[134] Isorenieratane concentration increase reveals that populations of green sulphur bacteria, which photosynthesise using hydrogen sulphide instead of water, grew significantly across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary; these findings indicate that euxinia, a form of anoxia defined by not just the absence of dissolved oxygen but high concentrations of hydrogen sulphide, also developed in the oceans.^[135][136] A meteoric shift towards positive sulphur isotope ratios in reduced sulphur species indicates a complete utilisation of sulphate by sulphate reducing bacteria.^[137] Evidence of anoxia has been discovered at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary across the world's oceans; the western Tethys, eastern Tethys, and Panthalassa were all affected by a precipitous drop in seawater oxygen,^[138] although at a few sites, the TJME was associated with fully oxygenated waters.^[139] In northeastern Panthalassa, episodes of anoxia and euxinia were already occurring before the TJME, making its marine ecosystems unstable even before the main crisis began.^[140] This early phase of environmental degradation in eastern Panthalassa may have been caused by an early phase of CAMP activity.^[141] During the TJME, the rapid warming and increase in continental weathering led to the stagnation of ocean circulation and deoxygenation of seawater in many ocean regions, causing catastrophic marine environmental effects in conjunction with ocean acidification,^[142] which was enhanced and exacerbated by widespread photic zone euxinia through organic matter respiration and carbon dioxide release.^[143] In what is now northwestern Europe, shallow seas became salinity stratified, enabling easy development of anoxia.^[130] The persistence of anoxia into the Hettangian age may have helped delay the recovery of marine life in the extinction's aftermath,^[133] and recurrent hydrogen sulphide poisoning likely had the same retarding effect on biotic rediversification.^[144][135]

Research on the role of ozone shield deterioration during the Permian-Triassic mass extinction has suggested that it may have been a factor in the TJME as well.^[145][146] A spike in the abundance of unseparated tetrads of Kraeuselisporites reissingerii has been interpreted as evidence of increased ultraviolet radiation flux resulting from ozone layer damage caused by volcanic aerosols.^[147]

Comparisons to present global warming

The extremely rapid, centuries-long timescale of carbon emissions and global warming caused by pulses of CAMP volcanism has drawn comparisons between the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction and anthropogenic global warming, currently causing the Holocene extinction.^[20] The current rate of carbon dioxide emissions is around 50 gigatonnes per year, hundreds of times faster than during the latest Triassic, although the lack of extremely detailed stratigraphic resolution and pulsed nature of CAMP volcanism means that individual pulses of greenhouse gas emissions likely occurred on comparable timescales to human release of warming gases since the Industrial Revolution.^[21] The degassing rate of the first pulse of CAMP volcanism is estimated to have been around half of the rate of modern anthropogenic emissions.^[20] Palaeontologists studying the TJME and its impacts warn that a major reduction in humanity's carbon dioxide emissions to slow down climate change is of critical importance to preventing a catastrophe similar to the TJME from befalling the modern biosphere.^[21]

References

1. Some sources (Whiteside et al 2010) give a date 181.8268 Ma.
2. Ward, P.D.; Haggart, J.W.; Carter, E.S.; Wilbur, D.; Tipper, H.W.; Evans, T. (11 May 2001). "Sudden Productivity Collapse Associated with the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary Mass Extinction". Science. 292 (5519): 1148–1151. Bibcode:2001Sci...292.1148W. doi:10.1126/science.1058574. PMID 11349146. S2CID 36667702. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
3. Hautmann, Michael (15 August 2012). "Extinction: End-Triassic Mass Extinction". eLS. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001655.pub3. ISBN 9780470016176. S2CID 130434497. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
4. "The extinction of conodonts — in terms of discrete elements — at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary" (PDF).
5. Graham Ryder; David E. Fastovsky; Stefan Gartner (1996). The Cretaceous-Tertiary Event and Other Catastrophes in Earth History. Geological Society of America. p. 19. ISBN 9780813723075.
6. Sepkoski, J. John (1984). "A kinetic model of Phanerozoic taxonomic diversity. III. Post-Paleozoic families and mass extinctions". Paleobiology. 10 (2): 246–267. Bibcode:1984Pbio...10..246S. doi:10.1017/s0094837300008186. ISSN 0094-8373. S2CID 85595559.
7. Tanner LH, Lucas SG, Chapman MG (2004). (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 65 (1–2): 103–139. Bibcode:2004ESRv...65..103T. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
8. Barbacka, Maria; Pacyna, Grzegorz; Kocsis, Ádam T.; Jarzynka, Agata; Ziaja, Jadwiga; Bodor, Emese (15 August 2017). "Changes in terrestrial floras at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary in Europe". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 480: 80–93. Bibcode:2017PPP...480...80B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.05.024. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
9. Toljagić, Olja; Butler, Richard J. (23 June 2013). "Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction as trigger for the Mesozoic radiation of crocodylomorphs". Biology Letters. 9 (3): 1–4. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0095. PMC 3645043. PMID 23536443.
10. Buffetaut, Eric (2006). "Continental Vertebrate Extinctions at the Triassic-Jurassic and Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundaries: a Comparison". In Cockell, Charles; Gilmour, Iain; Koeberl, Charles (eds.). Biological Processes Associated with Impact Events. Impact Studies. Berlin: Springer. pp. 245–256. doi:10.1007/3-540-25736-5_11. ISBN 978-3-540-25736-3.
11. Benton, Michael James (1991). "What really happened in the late Triassic?". Historical Biology. 5 (2–4): 263–278. doi:10.1080/10292389109380406. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
12. Bambach, R.K.; Knoll, A.H.; Wang, S.C. (December 2004). "Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity". Paleobiology. 30 (4): 522–542. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0522:OEAMDO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0094-8373. S2CID 17279135.
13. Bonis, Nina R.; Ruhl, Micha; Kürschner, Wolfram R. (1 September 2010). "Milankovitch-scale palynological turnover across the Triassic–Jurassic transition at St. Audrie's Bay, SW UK". Journal of the Geological Society. 167 (5): 877–888. Bibcode:2010JGSoc.167..877B. doi:10.1144/0016-76492009-141. S2CID 128896141. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
14. Pandolfi, John M.; Kiessling, Wolfgang (April 2014). "Gaining insights from past reefs to inform understanding of coral reef response to global climate change". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 7: 52–58. Bibcode:2014COES....7...52P. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.020. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
15. Colbert, Edwin H. (1958-09-15). "Tetrapod Extinctions at the End of the Triassic Period" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 44 (9): 973–977. Bibcode:1958PNAS...44..973C. doi:10.1073/pnas.44.9.973. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 528676. PMID 16590299.
16. Hodych, J. P.; Dunning, G. R. (1992-01-01). "Did the Manicouagan impact trigger end-of-Triassic mass extinction?". Geology. 20 (1): 51–54. Bibcode:1992Geo....20...51H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0051:dtmite>2.3.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
17. Olsen, P. E.; Shubin, N. H.; Anders, M. H. (1987-08-28). "New early Jurassic tetrapod assemblages constrain Triassic–Jurassic tetrapod extinction event" (PDF). Science. 237 (4818): 1025–1029. Bibcode:1987Sci...237.1025O. doi:10.1126/science.3616622. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 3616622.
18. Spray, John G.; Kelley, Simon P.; Rowley, David B. (12 March 1998). "Evidence for a late Triassic multiple impact event on Earth" (PDF). Nature. 392 (6672): 171–173. Bibcode:1998Natur.392..171S. doi:10.1038/32397. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4413688.
19. Whiteside, Jessica H.; Olsen, Paul E.; Eglington, Timothy; Brookfield, Michael E.; Sambrotto, Raymond N. (22 March 2010). "Compound-specific carbon isotopes from Earth's largest flood basalt eruptions directly linked to the end-Triassic mass extinction". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (15): 6721–6725. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.6721W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001706107. PMC 2872409. PMID 20308590.
20. Capriolo, Manfredo; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; Newton, Robert J.; Corso, Jacobo Dal; Dunhill, Alexander M.; Wignall, Paul B.; Marzoli, Andrea (February 2022). "Anthropogenic-scale CO2 degassing from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province as a driver of the end-Triassic mass extinction". Global and Planetary Change. 209: 103731. Bibcode:2022GPC...20903731C. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103731. S2CID 245530815.
21. Jiang, Qiang; Jourdan, Fred; Olierook, Hugo K. H.; Merle, Renaud E.; Bourdet, Julien; Fougerouse, Denis; Godel, Belinda; Walker, Alex T. (25 July 2022). "Volume and rate of volcanic CO2 emissions governed the severity of past environmental crises". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 119 (31): e2202039119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11902039J. doi:10.1073/pnas.2202039119. PMC 9351498. PMID 35878029. S2CID 251067948.
22. McElwain, J. C.; Beerling, D. J.; Woodward, F. I. (27 August 1999). "Fossil Plants and Global Warming at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary". Science. 285 (5432): 1386–1390. doi:10.1126/science.285.5432.1386. PMID 10464094. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
23. Hautmann, Michael (28 July 2004). "Effect of end-Triassic CO2 maximum on carbonate sedimentation and marine mass extinction". Facies. 50 (2). doi:10.1007/s10347-004-0020-y. S2CID 130658467.
24. Johannes Baier: Der Geologische Lehrpfad am Kirnberg (Keuper; SW-Deutschland) 2011-10-02 at the Wayback Machine. – Jber. Mitt. oberrhein. geol. Ver, N. F. 93, 9–26, 2011.
25. Schoepfer, Shane D.; Algeo, Thomas J.; Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Whiteside, Jessica H. (September 2022). "The Triassic–Jurassic transition – A review of environmental change at the dawn of modern life". Earth-Science Reviews. 232: 104099. Bibcode:2022ESRv..23204099S. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104099. S2CID 250256142. Retrieved 1 February 2023.
26. De la Horra, R.; Galán-Abellán, A. B.; López-Gómez, José; Sheldon, Nathan D.; Barrenechea, J. F.; Luque, F. J.; Arche, A.; Benito, M. I. (August–September 2012). "Paleoecological and paleoenvironmental changes during the continental Middle–Late Permian transition at the SE Iberian Ranges, Spain". Global and Planetary Change. 94–95: 46–61. Bibcode:2012GPC....94...46D. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.06.008. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
27. Brayard, Arnaud; Krumenacker, L. J.; Botting, Joseph P.; Jenks, James F.; Bylund, Kevin G.; Fara, Emmanuel; Vennin, Emmanuelle; Olivier, Nicolas; Goudemand, Nicolas; Saucède, Thomas; Charbonnier, Sylvain; Romano, Carlo; Doguzhaeva, Larisa; Thuy, Ben; Hautmann, Michael; Stephen, Daniel A.; Thomazo, Christophe; Escarguel, Gilles (15 February 2017). "Unexpected Early Triassic marine ecosystem and the rise of the Modern evolutionary fauna". Science Advances. 13 (2): e1602159. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E2159B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602159. PMC 5310825. PMID 28246643.
28. Todaro, Simona; Rigo, Manuel; Randazzo, Vincenzo; Di Stefano, Pietro (June 2018). "The end-Triassic mass extinction: A new correlation between extinction events and δ13C fluctuations from a Triassic-Jurassic peritidal succession in western Sicily". Sedimentary Geology. 368: 105–113. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2018.03.008. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
29. Atkinson, Jed W.; Wignall, Paul B.; Morton, Jacob D.; Aze, Tracy (9 January 2019). "Body size changes in bivalves of the family Limidae in the aftermath of the end-Triassic mass extinction: the Brobdingnag effect". Palaeontology. 62 (4): 561–582. Bibcode:2019Palgy..62..561A. doi:10.1111/pala.12415. S2CID 134070316. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
30. Yan, Jia; Song, Haijun; Dai, Xu (1 February 2023). "Increased bivalve cosmopolitanism during the mid-Phanerozoic mass extinctions". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 611: 111362. Bibcode:2023PPP...611k1362Y. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111362. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
31. Hallam, Anthony (2 January 2007). "How catastrophic was the end-Triassic mass extinction?". Lethaia. 35 (2): 147–157. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2002.tb00075.x. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
32. Kocsis, Ádám T.; Kiessling, Wolfgang; Pálfy, József (8 April 2016). "Radiolarian biodiversity dynamics through the Triassic and Jurassic: implications for proximate causes of the end-Triassic mass extinction". Paleobiology. 40 (4): 625–639. doi:10.1666/14007. S2CID 129600881. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
33. Baeza-Carratalá, José Francisco; Dulai, Alfréd; Sandoval, José (October 2018). "First evidence of brachiopod diversification after the end-Triassic extinction from the pre-Pliensbachian Internal Subbetic platform (South-Iberian Paleomargin)". Geobios. 51 (5): 367–384. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2018.08.010. hdl:10045/81989. S2CID 134589701. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
34. Stanley Jr., George D.; Shepherd, Hannah M. E.; Robinson, Autumn J. (14 August 2018). "Paleoecological Response of Corals to the End-Triassic Mass Extinction: An Integrational Analysis". Journal of Earth Science. 29 (4): 879–885. doi:10.1007/s12583-018-0793-5. S2CID 133705370. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
35. Lathuilière, Bernard; Marchal, Denis (12 January 2009). "Extinction, survival and recovery of corals from the Triassic to Middle Jurassic time". Terra Nova. 21 (1): 57–66. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2008.00856.x. S2CID 128758050. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
36. Martindale, Rowan C.; Berelson, William M.; Corsetti, Frank A.; Bottjer, David J.; West, A. Joshua (15 September 2012). "Constraining carbonate chemistry at a potential ocean acidification event (the Triassic–Jurassic boundary) using the presence of corals and coral reefs in the fossil record". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 350–352: 114–123. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.06.020. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
37. Hönisch, Bärbel; Ridgwell, Andy; Schmidt, Daniela N.; Thomas, Ellen; Gibbs, Samantha J.; Sluijs, Appy; Zeebe, Richard; Kump, Lee; Martindale, Rowan C.; Greene, Sarah E.; Kiessling, Wolfgang (2012-03-02). "The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification". Science. 335 (6072): 1058–1063. Bibcode:2012Sci...335.1058H. doi:10.1126/science.1208277. hdl:1874/385704. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22383840. S2CID 6361097. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
38. Greene, Sarah E.; Martindale, Rowan C.; Ritterbush, Kathleen A.; Bottjer, David J.; Corsetti, Frank A.; Berelson, William M. (2012-06-01). "Recognising ocean acidification in deep time: An evaluation of the evidence for acidification across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary". Earth-Science Reviews. 113 (1): 72–93. Bibcode:2012ESRv..113...72G. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.009. ISSN 0012-8252.
39. Atkinson, J. W.; Wignall, Paul B. (15 August 2019). "How quick was marine recovery after the end-Triassic mass extinction and what role did anoxia play?". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 528: 99–119. Bibcode:2019PPP...528...99A. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.05.011. S2CID 164911938. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
40. Damborenea, Susana E.; Echevarría, Javier; Ros-Franch, Sonia (1 December 2017). "Biotic recovery after the end-Triassic extinction event: Evidence from marine bivalves of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 487: 93–104. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.08.025. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
41. Opazo Mella, Luis-Felipe; Twitchett, Richard J. (10 November 2021). "Bivalve body size distribution through the Late Triassic mass extinction event". Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.5523402. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
42. Ritterbrush, Kathleen A.; Bottjer, David J.; Corseti, Frank A.; Rosas, Silvia (1 December 2014). "New evidence on the role of siliceous sponges in ecology and sedimentary facies development in Eastern Panthalassa following the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction". PALAIOS. 29 (12): 652–668. Bibcode:2014Palai..29..652R. doi:10.2110/palo.2013.121. S2CID 140546770. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
43. Romano, Carlo; Koot, Martha B.; Kogan, Ilja; Brayard, Arnaud; Minikh, Alla V.; Brinkmann, Winand; Bucher, Hugo; Kriwet, Jürgen (27 November 2014). "Permian–Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolution". Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 91 (1): 106–147. doi:10.1111/brv.12161. ISSN 1469-185X. PMID 25431138. S2CID 5332637.
44. Bardet, Nathalie (1994-07-01). "Extinction events among Mesozoic marine reptiles" (PDF). Historical Biology. 7 (4): 313–324. doi:10.1080/10292389409380462. ISSN 0891-2963.
45. Thorne, Philippa M.; Ruta, Marcello; Benton, Michael J. (17 May 2011). "Resetting the evolution of marine reptiles at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (20): 8339–8344. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.8339T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1018959108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3100925. PMID 21536898.
46. Konietzko-Meier, Dorota; Werner, Jennifer D.; Wintrich, Tanja; Martin Sander, P. (2018-10-31). "A large temnospondyl humerus from the Rhaetian (Late Triassic) of Bonenburg (Westphalia, Germany) and its implications for temnospondyl extinction". Journal of Iberian Geology. 45 (2): 287–300. doi:10.1007/s41513-018-0092-0. ISSN 1886-7995. S2CID 134049099.
47. Patrick, Erin L.; Whiteside, David I.; Benton, Michael J. (2019). (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 39 (3): e1645147. Bibcode:2019JVPal..39E5147P. doi:10.1080/02724634.2019.1645147. S2CID 202848499. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 August 2019.
48. Tolchard, Frederick; Nesbitt, Sterling J.; Desojo, Julia B.; Viglietti, Pia; Butler, Richard J.; Choiniere, Jonah N. (2019-12-01). "'Rauisuchian' material from the lower Elliot Formation of South Africa and Lesotho: Implications for Late Triassic biogeography and biostratigraphy" (PDF). Journal of African Earth Sciences. 160: 103610. Bibcode:2019JAfES.16003610T. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.103610. ISSN 1464-343X. S2CID 202902771.
49. Whiteside, D. I.; Marshall, J. E. A. (2008-01-01). "The age, fauna and palaeoenvironment of the Late Triassic fissure deposits of Tytherington, South Gloucestershire, UK". Geological Magazine. 145 (1): 105–147. Bibcode:2008GeoM..145..105W. doi:10.1017/S0016756807003925. ISSN 0016-7568. S2CID 129614690.
50. Lindström, Sofie (1 September 2015). "Palynofloral patterns of terrestrial ecosystem change during the end-Triassic event – a review". Geological Magazine. 153 (2): 223–251. doi:10.1017/S0016756815000552. S2CID 131410887. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
51. Gravendyck, Julia; Schobben, Martin; Bachelier, Julien B.; Kürschner, Wolfram Michael (November 2020). "Macroecological patterns of the terrestrial vegetation history during the end-Triassic biotic crisis in the central European Basin: A palynological study of the Bonenburg section (NW-Germany) and its supra-regional implications". Global and Planetary Change. 194: 103286. Bibcode:2020GPC...19403286G. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103286. S2CID 225521004. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
52. Li, Liqin; Wang, Yongdong; Kürschner, Wolfram M.; Ruhl, Micha; Vajda, Vivi (15 October 2020). "Palaeovegetation and palaeoclimate changes across the Triassic–Jurassic transition in the Sichuan Basin, China". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 556: 109891. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109891. S2CID 225600810. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
53. Zhou, Ning; Xu, Yuanyuan; Li, Liqin; Lu, Ning; An, Pengcheng; Popa, Mihai Emilian; Kürschner, Wolfram Michael; Zhang, Xingliang; Wang, Yongdong (October 2021). "Pattern of vegetation turnover during the end-Triassic mass extinction: Trends of fern communities from South China with global context". Global and Planetary Change. 205: 103585. Bibcode:2021GPC...20503585Z. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103585.
54. Fowell, S. J.; Cornet, B.; Olsen, P. E. (1994), "Geologically rapid Late Triassic extinctions: Palynological evidence from the Newark Supergroup", Geological Society of America Special Papers, Geological Society of America, pp. 197–206, doi:10.1130/spe288-p197, ISBN 978-0813722887
55. Lindström, Sofie (17 September 2021). "Two-phased Mass Rarity and Extinction in Land Plants During the End-Triassic Climate Crisis". Frontiers in Earth Science. 9: 1079. Bibcode:2021FrEaS...9.1079L. doi:10.3389/feart.2021.780343.
56. Bonis, N. R.; Kürschner, W. M.; Krystyn, L. (September 2009). "A detailed palynological study of the Triassic–Jurassic transition in key sections of the Eiberg Basin (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria)". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 156 (3–4): 376–400. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2009.04.003. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
57. Kürschner, Wolfram M.; Batenburg, Sietske J.; Mander, Luke (7 October 2013). "Aberrant Classopollis pollen reveals evidence for unreduced (2n) pollen in the conifer family Cheirolepidiaceae during the Triassic–Jurassic transition". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1768): 1–8. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1708. PMC 3757988. PMID 23926159.
58. T Parrish, Judith (1993). "Climate of the Supercontinent Pangea" (PDF). The Journal of Geology. 101 (2): 215–233. Bibcode:1993JG....101..215P. doi:10.1086/648217. JSTOR 30081148. S2CID 128757269.
59. Cleveland, David M.; Nordt, Lee C.; Dworkin, Steven I.; Atchley, Stacy C. (1 November 2008). "Pedogenic carbonate isotopes as evidence for extreme climatic events preceding the Triassic-Jurassic boundary: Implications for the biotic crisis?". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 120 (11–12): 1408–1415. doi:10.1130/B26332.1. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
60. Fox, Calum P.; Cui, Xingqian; Whiteside, Jessica H.; Olsen, Paul E.; Summons, Roger E.; Grice, Kliti (16 November 2020). "Molecular and isotopic evidence reveals the end-Triassic carbon isotope excursion is not from massive exogenous light carbon". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (48): 30171–30178. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11730171F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1917661117. PMC 7720136. PMID 33199627.
61. Wignall, Paul B.; Zonneveld, John-Paul; Newton, Robert J.; Amor, K.; Sephton, M. A.; Hartley, S. (27 September 2007). "The end Triassic mass extinction record of Williston Lake, British Columbia". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 253 (3–4): 385–406. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.06.020. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
62. Racki, Grzegorz (2010). "The Alvarez impact theory of mass extinction; limits to its applicability and the "great expectations syndrome"" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 57 (4): 681–702. doi:10.4202/app.2011.0058. S2CID 54021858.
63. Onoue, Tetsuji; Sato, Honami; Yamashita, Daisuke; Ikehara, Minoru; Yasukawa, Kazutaka; Fujinaga, Koichiro; Kato, Yasuhiro; Matsuoka, Atsushi (8 July 2016). "Bolide impact triggered the Late Triassic extinction event in equatorial Panthalassa". Scientific Reports. 6: 29609. Bibcode:2016NatSR...629609O. doi:10.1038/srep29609. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4937377. PMID 27387863.
64. Kent, Dennis V.; Olsen, Paul E.; Lepre, Christopher; Rasmussen, Cornelia; Mundil, Roland; Gehrels, George E.; Giesler, Dominique; Irmis, Randall B.; Geissman, John W.; Parker, William G. (16 October 2019). "Magnetochronology of the entire Chinle Formation (Norian age) in a scientific drill core from Petrified Forest National Park (Arizona, USA) and implications for regional and global correlations in the Late Triassic". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 20 (11): 4654–4664. Bibcode:2019GGG....20.4654K. doi:10.1029/2019GC008474. hdl:10150/636323. ISSN 1525-2027. S2CID 207980627.
65. Schmieder, M.; Buchner, E.; Schwarz, W. H.; Trieloff, M.; Lambert, P. (2010-10-05). "A Rhaetian ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age for the Rochechouart impact structure (France) and implications for the latest Triassic sedimentary record". Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 45 (8): 1225–1242. Bibcode:2010M&PS...45.1225S. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01070.x. S2CID 129154084.
66. Smith, Roff (2011-11-16). "Dark days of the Triassic: Lost world". Nature. 479 (7373): 287–289. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..287S. doi:10.1038/479287a. PMID 22094671.
67. Schmieder, Martin; Jourdan, Fred; Tohver, Eric; Cloutis, Edward A. (15 November 2014). "40Ar/39Ar age of the Lake Saint Martin impact structure (Canada) – Unchaining the Late Triassic terrestrial impact craters". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 406: 37–48. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.08.037. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
68. Kent, Dennis V. (10 September 1998). "Impacts on Earth in the Late Triassic" (PDF). Nature. 395 (6698): 126. Bibcode:1998Natur.395..126K. doi:10.1038/25874. S2CID 4303109.
69. Bice, D. M.; Newton, C. R.; McCauley, S.; Reinerts, P. W.; McRoberts, C. A. (24 January 1992). "Shocked Quartz at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary in Italy". Science. 255 (5043): 443–446. doi:10.1126/science.255.5043.443. PMID 17842896. S2CID 28314974. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
70. Hori, Rie S.; Fujiki, Toru; Inoue, Eriko; Kimura, Jun-Ichi (9 February 2007). "Platinum group element anomalies and bioevents in the Triassic–Jurassic deep-sea sediments of Panthalassa". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 244 (1–4): 391–406. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.038. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
71. Simms, Michael J. (1 June 2003). "Uniquely extensive seismite from the latest Triassic of the United Kingdom: Evidence for bolide impact?". Geology. 31 (6): 557–560. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0557:UESFTL>2.0.CO;2. from the original on 2018-06-02. Retrieved 31 May 2023.
72. Ward, Peter D.; Garrison, Geoffrey H.; Haggart, James W.; Kring, David A.; Beattie, Michael J. (15 August 2004). "Isotopic evidence bearing on Late Triassic extinction events, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, and implications for the duration and cause of the Triassic/Jurassic mass extinction". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 224 (3–4): 589–600. Bibcode:2004E&PSL.224..589W. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.034. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
73. Tegner, Christian; Marzoli, Andrea; McDonald, Iain; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Lindström, Sofie (26 February 2020). "Platinum-group elements link the end-Triassic mass extinction and the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 3482. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-60483-8. PMC 7044291. PMID 32103087.
74. Ernst, Richard E.; Youbi, Nasrrddine (15 July 2017). "How Large Igneous Provinces affect global climate, sometimes cause mass extinctions, and represent natural markers in the geological record". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 478: 30–52. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.03.014. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
75. Deenen, M. H. L.; Ruhl, M.; Bonis, N. R.; Krijgsman, W.; Kuerschner, W. M.; Reitsma, M.; Van Bergen, M. J. (1 March 2010). "A new chronology for the end-Triassic mass extinction". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 291 (1–4): 113–125. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.291..113D. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.003. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
76. Whalen, Lisa; Gazel, Esteban; Vidito, Christopher; Puffer, John; Bizinis, Michael; Henika, William; Caddick, Mark J. (3 September 2015). "Supercontinental inheritance and its influence on supercontinental breakup: The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province and the breakup of Pangea". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 16 (10): 3532–3554. Bibcode:2015GGG....16.3532W. doi:10.1002/2015GC005885. S2CID 129223849.
77. McHone, J. Gregory (1 January 2003). Hames, W.; Mchone, J. G.; Renne, P.; Ruppel, C. (eds.). The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: Insights from Fragments of Pangea, Volume 136. American Geophysical Union. p. 241. doi:10.1029/136GM013. ISBN 9781118668771.
78. Marzen, R. E.; Shillington, D. J.; Lizarralde, D.; Knapp, J. H.; Heffner, D. M.; Davis, J. K.; Harder, S. H. (7 July 2020). "Limited and localized magmatism in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 3397. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.3397M. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17193-6. PMC 7341742. PMID 32636386.
79. Youbi, Nasrrddine; Tavares Martins, Línia; Munhá, José Manuel; Ibouh, Hassan; Madeira, José; Aït Chayeb, El Houssaine; El Boukhari, Abdelmajid (1 January 2003). "The Late Triassic-Early Jurassic Volcanism of Morocco and Portugal in the Framework of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: An Overview". In Hames, W.; McHone, J. G.; Renne, Paul R.; Ruppel, C. (eds.). The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: Insights from Fragments of Pangea. American Geophysical Union. pp. 179–207. doi:10.1029/136GM010. ISBN 9781118668771.
80. Verati, Chrystèle; Rapaille, Cédric; Féraud, Gilbert; Marzoli, Andrea; Bertrand, Hervé; Youbi, Nasrrddine (9 February 2007). "40Ar/39Ar ages and duration of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province volcanism in Morocco and Portugal and its relation to the Triassic–Jurassic boundary". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 244 (1–4): 308–325. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.033. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
81. Marzoli, Andrea; Bertrand, Hervé; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Callegaro, Sara; Merle, Renaud; Reisberg, Laurie; Chiaradia, Massimo; Brownlee, Sarah I.; Jourdan, Fred; Zanetti, Alberto; Davies, Joshua H. F. L.; Cuppone, Tiberio; Mahmoudi, Abdelkader; Medina, Fida; Renne, Paul R.; Bellieni, Giuliano; Crivellari, Stefano; El Hachimi, Hind; Bensalah, Mohamed Khalil; Meyzen, Christine M.; Tegner, Christian (19 April 2019). "The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) in Morocco". Journal of Petrology. 50 (6): 945–996. doi:10.1093/petrology/egz021. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
82. Rezende, Gabriel L.; Martins, Cristiano Mendel; Nogueira, Afonso C. R.; Domingos, Fabio Garcia; Ribeiro-Filho, Nelson (June 2021). "Evidence for the Central Atlantic magmatic province (CAMP) in Precambrian and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins of the southern Amazonian Craton, Brazil". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 108: 103216. Bibcode:2021JSAES.10803216R. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2021.103216. S2CID 233565961. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
83. Marzoli, Andrea; Callegaro, Sara; Dal Corso, Jacopo; Davies, Joshua H. F. L.; Chiaradia, Massimo; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Bertrand, Hervé; Reisberg, Laurie; Merle, Renaud; Jourdan, Fred (16 November 2017). "The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP): A Review". In Tanner, Lawrence H. (ed.). The Late Triassic World: Earth in a Time of Transition. Springer Cham. pp. 91–125. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68009-5_4. ISBN 978-3-319-68009-5.
84. Hames, W. E.; Renne, Paul R.; Ruppel, C. (1 September 2000). "New evidence for geologically instantaneous emplacement of earliest Jurassic Central Atlantic magmatic province basalts on the North American margin". Geology. 28 (9): 859–862. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<859:NEFGIE>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
85. Marzen, R. E.; Shillington, D. J.; Lizarralde, D.; Knapp, J. H.; Heffner, D. M.; Davis, J. K.; Harder, S. H. (7 July 2020). "Limited and localized magmatism in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 3397. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.3397M. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17193-6. PMC 7341742. PMID 32636386.
86. Goldberg, David S.; Kent, Dennis V.; Olsen, Paul E. (4 January 2010). "Potential on-shore and off-shore reservoirs for CO2 sequestration in Central Atlantic magmatic province basalts". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (4): 1327–1332. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913721107. PMC 2824362. PMID 20080705.
87. Schaltegger, Urs; Guex, Jean; Bartolini, Annachiara; Schoene, Blair; Ovtcharova, Maria (1 March 2008). "Precise U–Pb age constraints for end-Triassic mass extinction, its correlation to volcanism and Hettangian post-extinction recovery". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 166 (1–2): 266–275. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.11.031. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
88. Blackburn, Terrence J.; Olsen, Paul E.; Bowring, Samuel A.; McLean, Noah M.; Kent, Dennis V; Puffer, John; McHone, Greg; Rasbury, Troy; Et-Touhami7, Mohammed (2013). "Zircon U-Pb Geochronology Links the End-Triassic Extinction with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province" (PDF). Science. 340 (6135): 941–945. Bibcode:2013Sci...340..941B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1019.4042. doi:10.1126/science.1234204. PMID 23519213. S2CID 15895416.
89. Knight, K. B.; Nomade, S.; Renne, Paul R.; Marzoli, Andrea; Bertrand, Hervé; Youbi, Nasrrddine (30 November 2004). "The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary: paleomagnetic and 40Ar/39Ar evidence from Morocco for brief, episodic volcanism". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 228 (1–2): 143–160. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.09.022. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
90. Hu, Fangzhi; Fu, Xiugen; Lin, Li; Song, Chunyan; Wang, Zhongwei; Tian, Kangzhi (January 2020). "Marine Late Triassic-Jurassic carbon-isotope excursion and biological extinction records: New evidence from the Qiangtang Basin, eastern Tethys". Global and Planetary Change. 185: 103093. Bibcode:2020GPC...18503093H. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.103093. S2CID 213355203. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
91. Pálfy, József; Demény, Attila; Haas, János; Hetényi, Magdolna; Orchard, Michael J.; Veto, István (1 November 2001). "Carbon isotope anomaly and other geochemical changes at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary from a marine section in Hungary". Geology. 29 (11): 1047–1050. Bibcode:2001Geo....29.1047P. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<1047:CIAAOG>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
92. Hesselbo, Stephen P.; Korte, Christophe; Ullmann, Clemens V.; Ebbesen, Anders L. (April 2020). "Carbon and oxygen isotope records from the southern Eurasian Seaway following the Triassic-Jurassic boundary: Parallel long-term enhanced carbon burial and seawater warming". Earth-Science Reviews. 203: 103131. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103131. hdl:10871/40906. S2CID 213462318. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
93. Hesselbo, Stephen P.; Robinson, Stuart A.; Surlyk, Finn; Piasecki, Stefan (1 March 2002). "Terrestrial and marine extinction at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary synchronized with major carbon-cycle perturbation: A link to initiation of massive volcanism?". Geology. 30 (3): 251–254. Bibcode:2002Geo....30..251H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0251:TAMEAT>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
94. Lindström, Sofie; Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Hansen, Katrine H.; Pedersen, Gunver Krarup; Alsen, Peter; Thibault, Nicolas; Dybkjær, Karen; Bjerrum, Christian J.; Nielsen, Lars Henrik (15 July 2017). "A new correlation of Triassic–Jurassic boundary successions in NW Europe, Nevada and Peru, and the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: A time-line for the end-Triassic mass extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 478: 80–102. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.12.025. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
95. Ruhl, Micha; Hesselbo, Stephen P.; Al-Suwaidi, A.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Damborenea, S. E.; Manceñido, M. O.; Storm, M.; Mather, Tamsin A.; Riccardi, A. C. (September 2020). "On the onset of Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) volcanism and environmental and carbon-cycle change at the Triassic–Jurassic transition (Neuquén Basin, Argentina)". Earth-Science Reviews. 208: 103229. Bibcode:2020ESRv..20803229R. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103229. hdl:10871/121712. S2CID 219913748. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
96. Ruhl, Micha; Deenen, M. H. L.; Abels, H. A.; Bonis, N. R.; Krijgsman, W.; Kürschner, W. M. (15 June 2010). "Astronomical constraints on the duration of the early Jurassic Hettangian stage and recovery rates following the end-Triassic mass extinction (St Audrie's Bay/East Quantoxhead, UK)". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 295 (1–2): 262–276. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.04.008. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
97. Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Payne, Jonathan L.; Tomasovych, A.; Pross, J.; Fiebig, J.; Benbrahim, M.; Föllmi, Karl B.; Quan, T. M. (17 April 2008). "Carbon cycle perturbation and stabilization in the wake of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary mass-extinction event". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 9 (4): 1–16. doi:10.1029/2007GC001914. S2CID 56000418. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
98. Percival, Lawrence M. E.; Ruhl, Micha; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Mather, Tamsin A.; Whiteside, Jessica H. (19 June 2017). "Mercury evidence for pulsed volcanism during the end-Triassic mass extinction". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (30): 7929–7934. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.7929P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1705378114. PMC 5544315. PMID 28630294.
99. Shen, Jun; Yin, Runsheng; Zhang, Shuang; Algeo, Thomas J.; Bottjer, David J.; Yu, Jianxin; Xu, Guozhen; Penman, Donald; Wang, Yongdong; Li, Liqin; Shi, Xiao; Planavsky, Noah J.; Feng, Qinglai; Xie, Shucheng (13 January 2022). "Intensified continental chemical weathering and carbon-cycle perturbations linked to volcanism during the Triassic–Jurassic transition". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 299. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13..299S. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-27965-x. PMC 8758789. PMID 35027546. S2CID 256689306.
100. Viðarsdóttir, Halla Margrét (2020). "6". Assessing the biodiversity crisis within the Triassic - Jurassic boundary interval using redox sensitive trace metals and stable carbon isotope geochemistry (MSc). Lund University. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
101. Fowell, S. J.; Olsen, P. E. (May 1995). "Time calibration of Triassic/Jurassic microfloral turnover, eastern North America—Reply". Tectonophysics. 245 (1–2): 96–99. Bibcode:1995Tectp.245...96F. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.383.7663. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(94)00256-9. ISSN 0040-1951.
102. Panfili, Giulia; Cirilli, Simonetta; Dal Corso, Jacopo; Bertrand, Hervé; Medina, Fida; Youbi, Nasrrdine; Marzoli, Andrea (January 2019). "New biostratigraphic constraints show rapid emplacement of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) during the end-Triassic mass extinction interval". Global and Planetary Change. 172: 60–68. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.09.009. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
103. Yager, Joyce A.; West, A. Joshua; Corsetti, Frank A.; Berelson, William M.; Rollins, Nick E.; Rosas, Silvia; Bottjer, David M. (1 September 2017). "Duration of and decoupling between carbon isotope excursions during the end-Triassic mass extinction and Central Atlantic Magmatic Province emplacement". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 473: 227–236. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.05.031. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
104. Cirilli, Simonetta; Marzoli, A.; Tanner, L.; Bertrand, Hervé; Buratti, N.; Jourdan, F.; Bellieni, G.; Kontak, D.; Renne, P. R. (15 September 2009). "Latest Triassic onset of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) volcanism in the Fundy Basin (Nova Scotia): New stratigraphic constraints". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 286 (3–4): 514–525. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.021. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
105. Tanner, L. H.; J. F. Hubert; et al. (7 June 2001). "Stability of atmospheric CO₂ levels across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary". Nature. 411 (6838): 675–677. doi:10.1038/35079548. PMID 11395765. S2CID 4418003.
106. Morante, R.; Hallam, Anthony (1 May 1996). "Organic carbon isotopic record across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary in Austria and its bearing on the cause of the mass extinction". Geology. 24 (5): 391–394. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0391:OCIRAT>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
107. Green, Theodore; Renne, Paul R.; Keller, C. Brenhin (12 September 2022). "Continental flood basalts drive Phanerozoic extinctions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 119 (38): 1–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.2120441119. PMC 9499591. PMID 36095185. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
108. Slodownik, Miriam; Vajda, Vivi; Steinthorsdottir, Margret (15 February 2021). "Fossil seed fern Lepidopteris ottonis from Sweden records increasing CO2 concentration during the end-Triassic extinction event". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 564: 110157. Bibcode:2021PPP...564k0157S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.110157. S2CID 230527791. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
109. Huynh, Tran T.; Poulsen, Christopher J. (25 February 2005). "Rising atmospheric CO2 as a possible trigger for the end-Triassic mass extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 217 (3–4): 223–242. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.12.004. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
110. Schaller, Morgan F.; Wright, James D.; Kent, Dennis V. (18 March 2011). "Atmospheric Pco2 Perturbations Associated with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province". Science. 331 (6023): 1404–1409. Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1404S. doi:10.1126/science.1199011. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 21330490. S2CID 206530492.
111. Capriolo, Manfredo; Marzoli, Andrea; Aradi, László E.; Callegaro, Sara; Corso, Jacopo Dal; Newton, Robert J.; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; Wignall, Paul B.; Bartoli, Omar; Baker, Don R.; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Remusat, Laurent; Spiess, Richard; Szabó, Csaba (7 April 2020). "Deep CO2 in the end-Triassic Central Atlantic Magmatic Province". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 1670. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.1670C. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15325-6. PMC 7138847. PMID 32265448. S2CID 215404768.
112. Shen, Jun; Yin, Runsheng; Algeo, Thomas J.; Svensen, Henrik Hovland; Schoepfer, Shane D. (9 March 2022). "Mercury evidence for combustion of organic-rich sediments during the end-Triassic crisis". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 1307. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.1307S. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-28891-8. PMC 8907283. PMID 35264554. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
113. Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Quan, T. M.; Lindström, S.; Püttmann, W.; Heunisch, C.; Pross, J.; Fiebig, J.; Petschik, R.; Röhling, H.-G.; Richoz, S.; Rosenthal, Y.; Falkowski, P. G. (13 July 2009). "Floral changes across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary linked to flood basalt volcanism". Nature Geoscience. 2 (8): 589–594. Bibcode:2009NatGe...2..589V. doi:10.1038/ngeo577. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
114. Davies, J. H. F. L.; Marzoli, Andrea; Bertrand, H.; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Ernesto, M.; Schaltegger, U. (31 May 2017). "End-Triassic mass extinction started by intrusive CAMP activity". Nature Communications. 8: 15596. Bibcode:2017NatCo...815596D. doi:10.1038/ncomms15596. PMC 5460029. PMID 28561025. S2CID 13323882.
115. Heimdal, Thea H.; Jones, Morgan T.; Svensen, Henrik H. (18 May 2022). "Thermogenic carbon release from the Central Atlantic magmatic province caused major end-Triassic carbon cycle perturbations". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (22): 11968–11974. doi:10.1073/pnas.2000095117. PMC 7275695. PMID 32424084.
116. Benton, Michael James; Twitchett, Richard J. (2003). "How to kill (almost) all life: The end-Permian extinction event". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 18 (7): 358–365. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00093-4. S2CID 42114053. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
117. Ruhl, Micha; Bonis, Nina R.; Reichart, Gert-Jan; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S.; Kürschner, Wolfram M. (22 July 2011). "Atmospheric Carbon Injection Linked to End-Triassic Mass Extinction". Science. 333 (6041): 430–434. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..430R. doi:10.1126/science.1204255. PMID 21778394. S2CID 13537776. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
118. Galli, Maria Teresa; Jadoul, Flavio; Bernasconi, Stefano M.; Weissert, Helmut (1 February 2005). "Anomalies in global carbon cycling and extinction at the Triassic/Jurassic boundary: evidence from a marine C-isotope record". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 216 (3–4): 203–214. Bibcode:2005PPP...216..203G. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.11.009. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
119. Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Bachan, Aviv; Suan, Guillaume; Richoz, Sylvain; Payne, Jonathan L. (19 March 2013). "Microbes, mud and methane: cause and consequence of recurrent Early Jurassic anoxia following the end-Triassic mass extinction". Palaeontology. 56 (4): 685–709. doi:10.1111/pala.12034. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
120. Lindström, Sofie; Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Dybkjær, Karen; Pedersen, Gunver Krarup; Fiebig, Jens; Nielsen, Lars Henrik; Richoz, Sylvain (1 June 2012). "No causal link between terrestrial ecosystem change and methane release during the end-Triassic mass extinction". Geology. 40 (6): 531–534. doi:10.1130/G32928.1. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
121. Landwehrs, Jan Philip; Feulner, Georg; Hofmann, Matthias; Petri, Stefan (1 May 2020). "Climatic fluctuations modeled for carbon and sulfur emissions from end-Triassic volcanism". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 537: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116174. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
122. Kaiho, Kunio; Tanaka, Daisuke; Richoz, Sylvain; Jones, David S.; Saito, Ryosuke; Kameyama, Daichi; Ikeda, Masayuki; Takahashi, Satoshi; Aftabuzzaman, Md.; Fujibayashi, Megumu (1 February 2022). "Volcanic temperature changes modulated volatile release and climate fluctuations at the end-Triassic mass extinction". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 579: 117364. Bibcode:2022E&PSL.57917364K. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117364. S2CID 245922701. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
123. Olsen, Paul; Sha, Jingeng; Fang, Yanan; Chang, Clara; Whiteside, Jessica H.; Kinney, Sean; Sues, Hans-Dieter; Kent, Dennis; Schaller, Morgan; Vajda, Vivi (July 2022). "Arctic ice and the ecological rise of the dinosaurs". Science Advances. 8 (26): eabo6342. Bibcode:2022SciA....8O6342O. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abo6342. PMID 35776799. S2CID 250218588.
124. Lindström, Sofie; Sanei, Haver; Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Pedersen, Gunver Krarup; Lesher, Charles E.; Tegner, Christian; Heunisch, Carmen; Dybkjaer, Karen; Outridge, Peter M. (23 October 2019). "Volcanic mercury and mutagenesis in land plants during the end-Triassic mass extinction". Science Advances. 5 (10): eaaw4018. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw4018. PMC 6810405. PMID 31681836.
125. Petersen, Henrik I.; Lindström, Sofie (15 October 2012). "Synchronous Wildfire Activity Rise and Mire Deforestation at the Triassic–Jurassic Boundary". PLOS ONE. 7 (10): e47236. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...747236P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047236. PMC 3471965. PMID 23077574.
126. Marynowski, Leszek; Simoneit, Bernd R. T. (1 December 2009). "Widespread Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic Wildfire Records from Poland: Evidence from Charcoal and Pyrolytic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons". PALAIOS. 24 (12): 785–798. Bibcode:2009Palai..24..785M. doi:10.2110/palo.2009.p09-044r. S2CID 131470890. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
127. Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Van der Weijst, C. M. H.; Hollaar, T. P.; Vecoli, M.; Strother, P. K.; Kuhlmann, N.; Thein, J.; Visscher, Henk; Van Konijnenburg-van Cittert, H.; Schobben, M. A. N.; Sluijs, Appy; Lindström, Sofie (November 2020). "Catastrophic soil loss associated with end-Triassic deforestation". Earth-Science Reviews. 210: 103332. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103332. S2CID 225203547. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
128. Hautmann, Michael; Benton, Michael J.; Tomašových, Adam (1 July 2008). "Catastrophic ocean acidification at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie – Abhandlungen. 249 (1): 119–127. doi:10.1127/0077-7749/2008/0249-0119.
129. Greene, Sarah E.; Martindale, Rowan C.; Ritterbush, Kathleen A.; Bottjer, David J.; Corsetti, Frank A.; Berelson, William M. (June 2012). "Recognising ocean acidification in deep time: An evaluation of the evidence for acidification across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary". Earth-Science Reviews. 113 (1–2): 72–93. Bibcode:2012ESRv..113...72G. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.009.
130. Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Tremolada, F.; Rosenthal, Y.; Bailey, T. R.; Feist-Burkhardt, S.; Brinkhuis, Henk; Pross, J.; Kent, D. V.; Falkowski, P. G. (9 February 2007). "End-Triassic calcification crisis and blooms of organic-walled 'disaster species'". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 244 (1–4): 126–141. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.026. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
131. Črne, Alenka E.; Weissert, Helmut; Goričan, Špela; Bernasconi, Stefano M. (1 January 2011). "A biocalcification crisis at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary recorded in the Budva Basin (Dinarides, Montenegro)". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 123 (1–2): 40–50. doi:10.1130/B30157.1. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
132. Greene, Sarah E.; Bottjer, David J.; Corsetti, Frank A.; Berelson, William M.; Zonneveld, John-Paul (2012-11-01). "A subseafloor carbonate factory across the Triassic-Jurassic transition". Geology. 40 (11): 1043–1046. Bibcode:2012Geo....40.1043G. doi:10.1130/G33205.1. ISSN 0091-7613. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
133. Jost, Adam B.; Bacham, Aviv; Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Lau, Kimberly V.; Weaver, Karrie L.; Maher, Kate; Payne, Jonathan L. (26 July 2017). "Uranium isotope evidence for an expansion of marine anoxia during the end-Triassic extinction". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 18 (8): 3093–3108. Bibcode:2017GGG....18.3093J. doi:10.1002/2017GC006941. S2CID 133679444. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
134. Quan, Tracy M.; Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Field, M. Paul; Rosenthal, Yair; Falkowski, Paul G. (10 May 2008). "Nitrogen isotope and trace metal analyses from the Mingolsheim core (Germany): Evidence for redox variations across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 22 (2): 1–14. doi:10.1029/2007GB002981. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
135. Richoz, Sylvain; Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Pross, Jörg; Püttmann, Wilhelm; Quan, Tracy M.; Lindström, Sofie; Heunisch, Carmen; Fiebig, Jens; Maquil, Robert; Schouten, Stefan; Hauzenberger, Christoph A.; Wignall, Paul B. (12 August 2012). "Hydrogen sulphide poisoning of shallow seas following the end-Triassic extinction". Nature Geoscience. 5 (1): 662–667. doi:10.1038/ngeo1539. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
136. Jaraula, Caroline M. B.; Grice, Kliti; Twitchett, Richard J.; Böttcher, Michael E.; LeMetayer, Pierre; Dastidar, Apratim G.; Opazo, L. Felipe (1 September 2013). "Elevated pCO2 leading to Late Triassic extinction, persistent photic zone euxinia, and rising sea levels". Geology. 41 (9): 955–958. doi:10.1130/G34183.1. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
137. Williford, Kenneth H.; Foriel, Juliet; Ward, Peter D.; Steig, Eric J. (1 September 2009). "Major perturbation in sulfur cycling at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary". Geology. 37 (9): 835–838. doi:10.1130/G30054A.1. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
138. Tang, Wei; Wang, Jian; Wei, Hengye; Fu, Xiugen; Ke, Puyang (1 August 2023). "Sulfur isotopic evidence for global marine anoxia and low seawater sulfate concentration during the Late Triassic". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 251: 105659. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2023.105659. S2CID 258091074. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
139. Wignall, Paul B.; Bond, David P. G.; Kuwahara, Kiyoko; Kakuwa, Yoshitaka; Newton, Robert J.; Poulton, Simon W. (March 2010). "An 80 million year oceanic redox history from Permian to Jurassic pelagic sediments of the Mino-Tamba terrane, SW Japan, and the origin of four mass extinctions". Global and Planetary Change. 71 (1–2): 109–123. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.01.022. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
140. Larina, Ekaterina; Bottjer, David P.; Corsetti, Frank A.; Zonneveld, John-Paul; Celestian, Aaron J.; Bailey, Jake V. (11 December 2019). "Uppermost Triassic phosphorites from Williston Lake, Canada: link to fluctuating euxinic-anoxic conditions in northeastern Panthalassa before the end-Triassic mass extinction". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 18790. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-55162-2. PMC 6906467. PMID 31827166.
141. Larina, Ekaterina; Bottjer, David P.; Corsetti, Frank A.; Thibodeau, Alyson M.; Berelson, William M.; West, A. Joshua; Yager, Joyce A. (15 December 2021). "Ecosystem change and carbon cycle perturbation preceded the end-Triassic mass extinction". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 576: 117180. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117180. S2CID 244179806. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
142. Fox, Calum P.; Whiteside, Jessica H.; Olsen, Paul E.; Cui, Xingqian; Summons, Roger E.; Idiz, Erdem; Grice, Kliti (5 January 2022). "Two-pronged kill mechanism at the end-Triassic mass extinction". Geology. 50 (4): 448–453. doi:10.1130/G49560.1. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
143. Kasprak, Alex H.; Price-Waldman, Rosalyn; Williford, Kenneth H.; Schoepfer, Shane D.; Haggart, James W.; Ward, Peter D.; Summons, Roger E.; Whiteside, Jessica H. (1 April 2015). "Episodic photic zone euxinia in the northeastern Panthalassic Ocean during the end-Triassic extinction". Geology. 43 (4): 307–310. doi:10.1130/G36371.1. hdl:1721.1/107847. S2CID 132681136. Retrieved 30 May 2023. {{cite journal}}: Missing |author2= (help)
144. Beith, Sarah J.; Fox, Calum P.; Marshall, John E. A.; Whiteside, Jessica H. (15 December 2021). "Recurring photic zone euxinia in the northwest Tethys impinged end-Triassic extinction recovery". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 584: 110680. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110680. S2CID 244263152. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
145. Visscher, Henk; Looy, Cindy V.; Collinson, Margaret E.; Brinkhuis, Henk; Cittert, Johanna H. A. van Konijnenburg-van; Kürschner, Wolfram M.; Sephton, Mark A. (31 August 2004). "Environmental mutagenesis during the end-Permian ecological crisis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (35): 12952–12956. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10112952V. doi:10.1073/pnas.0404472101. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 516500. PMID 15282373.
146. Liu, Feng; Peng, Huiping; Marshall, John E. A.; Lomax, Barry H.; Bomfleur, Benjamin; Kent, Matthew S.; Fraser, Wesley T.; Jardine, Phillip E. (6 January 2023). "Dying in the Sun: Direct evidence for elevated UV-B radiation at the end-Permian mass extinction". Science Advances. 9 (1): eabo6102. Bibcode:2023SciA....9O6102L. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abo6102. PMC 9821938. PMID 36608140.
147. Van de Schootbrugge, Bas; Wignall, Paul B. (26 October 2015). "A tale of two extinctions: converging end-Permian and end-Triassic scenarios". Geological Magazine. 153 (2): 332–354. doi:10.1017/S0016756815000643. S2CID 131750128. Retrieved 26 May 2023.

Literature

• Hodych, J. P.; G. R. Dunning (1992). "Did the Manicougan impact trigger end-of-Triassic mass extinction?". Geology. 20 (1): 51–54. Bibcode:1992Geo....20...51H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0051:DTMITE>2.3.CO;2.
• McElwain, J. C.; D. J. Beerling; F. I. Woodward (27 August 1999). "Fossil Plants and Global Warming at the Triassic–Jurassic Boundary". Science. 285 (5432): 1386–1390. doi:10.1126/science.285.5432.1386. PMID 10464094.
• McHone, J.G. (2003), Volatile emissions of Central Atlantic Magmatic Province basalts: Mass assumptions and environmental consequences, in Hames, W.E. et al., eds., The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: Insights from Fragments of Pangea. American Geophysical Union Monograph 136, p. 241–254.
• Tanner, L.H.; S.G. Lucas; M.G. Chapman (2004). "Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions". Earth-Science Reviews. 65 (1–2): 103–139. Bibcode:2004ESRv...65..103T. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5.
• Whiteside, Jessica H.; Paul E. Olsen; Timothy Eglinton; Michael E. Brookfield; Raymond N. Sambrotto (March 22, 2010). "Compound-specific carbon isotopes from Earth's largest flood basalt eruptions directly linked to the end-Triassic mass extinction". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (15): 6721–5. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.6721W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001706107. PMC 2872409. PMID 20308590.
• Deenen, M.H.L.; M. Ruhl; N.R. Bonis; W. Krijgsman; W. Kuerscher; M. Reitsma; M.J. van Bergen (2010). "A new chronology for the end-Triassic mass extinction". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 291 (1–4): 113–125. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.291..113D. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.003.
• Hautmann, M. (2012). "Extinction: End-Triassic Mass Extinction". eLS. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001655.pub3. ISBN 978-0470016176. S2CID 130434497.
• Tetsuji Onoue; Honami Sato; Daisuke Yamashita; Minoru Ikehara; Kazutaka Yasukawa; Koichiro Fujinaga; Yasuhiro Kato; Atsushi Matsuoka (2016-07-08). "Bolide impact triggered the Late Triassic extinction event in equatorial Panthalassa". Scientific Reports. 6: 29609. Bibcode:2016NatSR...629609O. doi:10.1038/srep29609. PMC 4937377. PMID 27387863.

External links

• Theories on the Triassic–Jurassic Extinction
• 200 million year old mystery BBC News story, 12-Oct-2011