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Wikipedia

Self-driving car

February 16, 2024

This article is about the road vehicle type. For the general concept, see Vehicular automation. For wider applications, see Unmanned ground vehicle.

A self-driving car, also known as an autonomous car (AC), driverless car, or robotic car (robo-car),[1][2][3] is a car that is capable of driving without human input.[4][5] Self-driving cars are responsible for all driving activities including perceiving the environment, monitoring important systems, and controlling the vehicle, including navigating from origin to destination.[6]

ACs have the potential to impact the automotive industry, mobility costs, health, welfare, urban planning, traffic, insurance, labor market, and other domains. Appropriate regulations are necessary to integrate ACs into the existing driving environment.

Multiple vendors are pursuing autonomy, although as of early 2024, no system had achieved full autonomy. Waymo was the first to offer rides in self-driving taxis ("robotaxis") to the general public. It offers services in various US cities. Cruise offered taxi service in San Francisco,[7] but suspended service in 2023. Honda was the first manufacturer to sell an SAE Level 3 car,[8][9][10] followed by Mercedes-Benz,[11] BMW Group and Kia. Nuro offers autonomous commercial delivery service in California.[12] Palo Alto, California certified Nuro at Level 4.[13] DeepRoute.ai launched a robotaxi service in Shenzhen in 2021.[14]

Waymo undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay Area
Roborace autonomous racing car on display at the 2017 New York City ePrix

History edit

Main article: History of self-driving cars

Experiments have been conducted on advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) since at least the 1920s.[15] The first ADAS system was cruise control, which was invented in 1948 by Ralph Teetor.

Trials began in the 1950s. The first semi-autonomous car was developed in 1977, by Japan's Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory.[16] It required specially marked streets that were interpreted by two cameras on the vehicle and an analog computer. The vehicle reached speeds of 30 km/h (19 mph) with the support of an elevated rail.[17][18]

Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab[19] and ALV[20][21] semi-autonomous projects launched in the 1980s, funded by the United States' Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) starting in 1984 and Mercedes-Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich's EUREKA Prometheus Project in 1987.[22] By 1985, ALV had reached 31 km/h (19 mph), on two-lane roads. Obstacle avoidance came in 1986, and day and night off-road driving by 1987.[23] In 1995 Navlab 5 completed the first autonomous US coast-to-coast journey. Traveling from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and San Diego, California, 98.2% of the trip was autonomous. It completed the trip at an average speed of 63.8 mph (102.7 km/h).[24][25][26][27] Until the second DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005, automated vehicle research in the United States was primarily funded by DARPA, the US Army, and the US Navy, yielding incremental advances in speeds, driving competence, controls, and sensor systems.[28]

The US allocated US$650 million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System,[29] which demonstrated automated driving, combining highway-embedded automation with vehicle technology, and cooperative networking between the vehicles and highway infrastructure. The programme concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997.[30] Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA, Navlab drove 4,584 km (2,848 mi) across the US in 1995, 4,501 km (2,797 mi) or 98% autonomously.[31] In 2015, Delphi piloted a Delphi technology-based Audi, over 5,472 km (3,400 mi) through 15 states, 99% autonomously.[32] In 2015, Nevada, Florida, California, Virginia, Michigan, and Washington DC allowed autonomous car testing on public roads.[33]

From 2016 to 2018, the European Commission funded development for connected and automated driving through Coordination Actions CARTRE and SCOUT programs.[34] The Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda (STRIA) Roadmap for Connected and Automated Transport was published in 2019.[35]

In November 2017, Waymo announced testing of autonomous cars without a safety driver.[36] However, an employee was in the car to handle emergencies.[37]

In December 2018, Waymo was the first to commercialize a robotaxi service, in Phoenix, Arizona.[38] In October 2020, Waymo launched a robotaxi service in a (geofenced) part of the area.[39][40] The cars were monitored in real-time, and remote engineers intervened to handle exceptional conditions.[41][40]

In March 2019, ahead of Roborace, Robocar set the Guinness World Record as the world's fastest autonomous car. Robocar reached 282.42 km/h (175.49 mph).[42]

In March 2021, Honda began leasing in Japan a limited edition of 100 Legend Hybrid EX sedans equipped with newly approved Level 3 automated driving equipment that had been safety certified, using their autonomous "Traffic Jam Pilot" driving technology, and legally allowed drivers to take their eyes off the road.[8][9][43][10]

In December 2020, Waymo became the first service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in a part of Phoenix, Arizona. In March 2021, Honda was the first manufacturer to sell a legally approved Level 3 car.[8][9][10] Nuro began autonomous commercial delivery operations in California in 2021.[12] DeepRoute.ai launched robotaxi service in Shenzhen in July 2021.[14] Nuro was approved for Level 4 in Palo Alto in August, 2023.[13] In December 2021, Mercedes-Benz received approval for a Level 3 car.[11] In February 2022, Cruise became the second service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in San Francisco.[7] In December 2022, several manufacturers scaled back plans for self-driving technology, including Ford and Volkswagen.[44] In 2023, Cruise suspended its robotaxi service.[45]

As of August 2023, vehicles operating at Level 3 and above were an insignificant market factor.

Definitions edit

Organizations such as SAE have proposed terminology standards. However, most terms have no standard definition and are employed variously by vendors and others. Proposals to adopt aviation automation terminology for cars have not prevailed.[46]

Names such as AutonoDrive, PilotAssist, Full-Self Driving or DrivePilot are used even though the products offer an assortment of features that may not match the names.[47] Despite offering a system ot called Full Self-Driving, Tesla stated that its system did not autonomously handle all driving tasks.[48] In the United Kingdom, a fully self-driving car is defined as a car so registered, rather than one that supports a specific feature set.[49] The Association of British Insurers claimed that the usage of the word autonomous in marketing was dangerous because car ads make motorists think "autonomous" and "autopilot" imply that the driver can rely on the car to control itself, even though they do not.

Automated driving system edit

An ADS is an SAE J3016 level 3 or higher system.

Advanced driver assistance system edit

Main article: Advanced driver-assistance system

An ADAS is a system that automates specific driving features, such as keeping the car within its lane, cruise control, and emergency braking. An ADAS requires a human driver to handle tasks that the ADAS does not support.

Autonomy versus automation edit

Autonomy implies that an automation system is under the control of the vehicle rather than a driver. Automation is function-specific, handling issues such as speed control, but leaves broader decision-making to the driver.[50]

Euro NCAP defined autonomous as "the system acts independently of the driver to avoid or mitigate the accident".[51]

In Europe, the words automated and autonomous can be used together. For instance, Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 supplied:[52]

  • "automated vehicle" means a vehicle that can move without continuous driver supervision, but that driver intervention is still expected or required in some ODDs;[52]
  • "fully automated vehicle" means a vehicle that can move entirely without driver supervision;[52]

Cooperative system edit

A remote driver is a driver that operates a vehicle at a distance, using a video and data connection.[53]

According to SAE J3016,

Some driving automation systems may indeed be autonomous if they perform all of their functions independently and self-sufficiently, but if they depend on communication and/or cooperation with outside entities, they should be considered cooperative rather than autonomous.

Operational design domain edit

This section is an excerpt from Operational design domain.[edit]

Operational design domain (ODD) is a term for a particular operating context for an automated system, often used in the field of autonomous vehicles. The context is defined by a set of conditions, including environmental, geographical, time of day, and other conditions. For vehicles, traffic and roadway characteristics are included. Manufacturers use ODD to indicate where/how their product operates safely. A given system may operate differently according to the immediate ODD.[54]

The concept presumes that automated systems have limitations.[55] Relating system function to the ODDs it supports is important for developers and regulators to establish and communicate safe operating conditions. Systems should operate within those limitations. Some systems recognize the ODD and modify their behavior accordingly. For example, an autonomous car might recognize that traffic is heavy and disable its automated lane change feature. [55]

Vendors have taken a variety of approaches to the self-driving problem. Tesla's approach is to allow their "full self-driving" (FSD) system to be used in all ODDs as a Level 2 (hands/on, eyes/on) ADAS.[56] Waymo picked specific ODDs (city streets in Phoenix and San Francisco) for their Level 5 robotaxi service.[57] Mercedes Benz offers Level 3 service in Las Vegas in highway traffic jams at speeds up to 40 miles per hour (64 km/h).[58] Mobileye's SuperVision system offers hands-off/eyes-on driving on all road types at speeds up to 130 kilometres per hour (81 mph).[59] GM's hands-free Super Cruise operates on specific roads in specific conditions, stopping or returning control to the driver when ODD changes. In 2024 the company announced plans to expand road coverage from 400,000 miles to 750,000 miles.[60] Ford's BlueCruise hands-off system operates on 130,000 miles of US divided highways.[61]

Self-driving edit

The Union of Concerned Scientists defined self-driving as "cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to safely operate the vehicle. Also known as autonomous or 'driverless' cars, they combine sensors and software to control, navigate, and drive the vehicle."[62]

The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as "driving itself" if the vehicle is "not being controlled, and does not need to be monitored, by an individual".[63]

Another British government definition stated,"Self-driving vehicles are vehicles that can safely and lawfully drive themselves".[64]

British definitions edit

In British English, the word automated alone has several meanings, such as in the sentence: "Thatcham also found that the automated lane keeping systems could only meet two out of the twelve principles required to guarantee safety, going on to say they cannot, therefore, be classed as 'automated driving', preferring 'assisted driving'".[65] The first occurrence of the "automated" word refers to an Unece automated system, while the second refers to the British legal definition of an automated vehicle. British law interprets the meaning of "automated vehicle" based on the interpretation section related to a vehicle "driving itself" and an insured vehicle.[66]

In November 2023 the British Government introduced the Automated Vehicles Bill. It proposed definitions for related terms:[67]

  • Self-driving: "A vehicle “satisfies the self-driving test” if it is designed or adapted with the intention that a feature of the vehicle will allow it to travel autonomously, and it is capable of doing so, by means of that feature, safely and legally."
  • Autonomy: A vehicle travels “autonomously” if it is controlled by the vehicle, and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are monitored by a person who can intervene.
  • Control: control of vehicle motion.
  • Safe: a vehicle that conforms to an acceptably safe standard.
  • Legal: a vehicle that offers an acceptably low risk of committing a traffic infraction.

SAE classification edit

 
Tesla Autopilot is classified as an SAE Level 2 system.[68][69]

A six-level classification system – ranging from fully manual to fully automated – was published in 2014 by SAE International as J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems; the details are revised occasionally.[70] This classification is based on the role of the driver, rather than the vehicle's capabilities, although these are related. After SAE updated its classification in 2016, (J3016_201609),[71] the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) adopted the SAE standard.[72][73] The classification is a topic of debate, with various revisions proposed.[74][75]

Classifications edit

A "driving mode", aka driving scenario, combines an ODD with matched driving requirements (e.g., expressway merging, traffic jam).[1][76] Cars may switch levels in accord with the driving mode.

Above Level 1, level differences are related to how responsibility for safe movement is divided/shared between ADAS and driver rather than specific driving features.

J3016 Automation Levels[76]
Level Name Narrative Direction and
speed control		 Monitoring Fallback responsibility Mode coverage
0 No Automation Full-time performance by the driver of all aspects of driving, even when "enhanced by warning or intervention systems" Driver Driver Driver n/a
1 Driver Assistance Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of either steering or speed Uses information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the driver performs all other driving tasks. Driver and system Some
2 Partial Automation Driving mode-specific execution by one or more driver assistance systems of both steering and speed System
3 Conditional Automation Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of all aspects of driving Driver must appropriately respond to a request to intervene. System
4 High Automation If a driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene, the car can stop safely. System Many
5 Full Automation System controls the vehicle under all conditions. All

SAE Automation Levels have been criticized for their technological focus. It has been argued that the structure of the levels suggests that automation increases linearly and that more automation is better, which may not be the case.[77] SAE Levels also do not account for changes that may be required to infrastructure[78] and road user behavior.[79][80]

Mobileye edit

 

Mobileye CEO Amnon Shashua and CTO Shai Shalev-Shwartz proposed an alternative taxonomy for autonomous driving systems, claiming that a more consumer-friendly approach was needed. Its categories reflect the amount of driver engagement that is required.[81][82] Some vehicle makers have informally adopted some of the terminology involved, while not formally committing to it.[83][84][85][86]

Eyes-on/hands-on edit

The first level, hands-on/eyes-on, implies that the driver is fully engaged in operating the vehicle, but is supervised by the system, which intervenes according to the features it supports (e.g., adaptive cruise control, automatic emergency braking). The driver is entirely responsible, with hands on the wheel, and eyes on the road.[82]

Eyes-on/hands-off edit

Eyes-on/hands-off allows the driver to let go of the wheel. The system drives, the driver monitors and remains prepared to resume control as needed.[82]

Eyes-off/hands-off edit

Eyes-off/hands-off means that the driver can stop monitoring the system, leaving the system in full control. Eyes-off requires that no errors be reproducible (not triggered by exotic transitory conditions) or frequent, that speeds are contextually appropriate (e.g., 80 mph on limited-access roads), and that the system handle typical maneuvers (e.g., getting cut off by another vehicle). The automation level could vary according to the road (e.g., eyes-off on freeways, eyes-on on side streets).[82]

No driver edit

The highest level does not require a human driver in the car: monitoring is done either remotely (telepresence) or not at all.[82]

Safety edit

A critical requirement for the higher two levels is that the vehicle be able to conduct a Minimum Risk Maneuver and stop safely out of traffic without driver intervention.[82]

Technology edit

Main article: Vehicular automation

Architecture edit

The perception system processes visual and audio data from outside and inside the car to create a local model of the vehicle, the road, traffic, traffic controls and other observable objects, and their relative motion. The control system then takes actions to move the vehicle, considering the local model, road map, and driving regulations.[87][88][89][90]

Several classifications have been proposed to describe ADAS technology. One proposal is to adopt these categories: navigation, path planning, perception, and car control.[91]

Navigation edit

Main article: Hybrid navigation

Navigation involves the use of maps to define a path between origin and destination. Hybrid navigation is the use of multiple navigation systems. Some systems use basic maps, relying on perception to deal with anomalies. Such a map understands which roads lead to which others, whether a road is a freeway, a highway, are one-way, etc. Other systems require highly detailed maps, including lane maps, obstacles, traffic controls, etc.

Perception edit

ACs need to be able to perceive the world around them. Supporting technologies include combinations of cameras, LiDAR, radar, audio, and ultrasound,[92] GPS, and inertial measurement.[93][94] Deep neural networks are used to analyse inputs from these sensors to detect and identify objects and their trajectories.[95] Some systems use Bayesian simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithms. Another technique is detection and tracking of other moving objects (DATMO), used to handle potential obstacles.[96][97] Other systems use roadside real-time locating system (RTLS) technologies to aid localization. Tesla's "vision only" system uses eight cameras, without LIDAR or radar, to create its bird's-eye view of the environment.[98]

Maps edit

Maps are necessary for navigation. Map sophistication varies from simple graphs that show which roads connect to each other, with details such as one-way vs two-way, to those that are highly detailed, with information about lanes, traffic controls, roadworks, and more.[92] Researchers at the MITComputer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) developed a system called MapLite, which allows self-driving cars to drive with simple maps. The system combines the GPS position of the vehicle, a "sparse topological map" such as OpenStreetMap (which has only 2D road features), with sensors that observe road conditions.[99] One issue with highly-detailed maps is updating them as the world changes. Vehicles that can operate with less-detailed maps do not require frequent updates or geo-fencing.

Sensors edit

Sensors are necessary for the vehicle to properly respond to the driving environment. Sensor types include cameras, LiDAR, ultrasound, and radar. Control systems typically combine data from multiple sensors.[100] Multiple sensors can provide a more complete view of the surroundings and can be used to cross-check each other to correct errors.[101] For example, radar can image a scene in, e.g., a nighttime snowstorm, that defeats cameras and LiDAR, albeit at reduced precision. After experimenting with radar and ultrasound, Tesla adopted a vision-only approach, asserting that humans drive using only vision, and that cars should be able to do the same, while citing the lower cost of cameras versus other sensor types.[102] By contrast, Waymo makes use of the higher resolution of LiDAR sensors and cites the declining cost of that technology.[103]

Path planning edit

Path planning finds a sequence of segments that a vehicle can use to move from origin to destination. Techniques used for path planning include graph-based search and variational-based optimization techniques. Graph-based techniques can make harder decisions such as how to pass another vehicle/obstacle. Variational-based optimization techniques require more stringent restrictions on the vehicle's path to prevent collisions.[104] The large scale path of the vehicle can be determined by using a voronoi diagram, an occupancy grid mapping, or a driving corridor algorithm. The latter allows the vehicle to locate and drive within open space that is bounded by lanes or barriers.[105]

Drive by wire edit

Main article: Drive by wire

Drive by wire is the use of electrical or electro-mechanical systems for performing vehicle functions such as steering or speed control that are traditionally achieved by mechanical linkages.

Driver monitoring edit

Main article: Driver monitoring system

Driver monitoring is used to assess the driver's attention and alertness. Techniques in use include eye monitoring, and requiring the driver to maintain torque on the steering wheel.[106] It attempts to understand driver status and identify dangerous driving behaviors.[107]

Vehicle communication edit

Main article: Vehicular communication systems

Vehicles can potentially benefit from communicating with others to share information about traffic, road obstacles, to receive map and software updates, etc.[108][109][92]

ISO/TC 22 specifies in-vehicle transport information and control systems,[110] while ISO/TC 204 specifies information, communication and control systems in surface transport.[111] International standards have been developed for ADAS functions, connectivity, human interaction, in-vehicle systems, management/engineering, dynamic map and positioning, privacy and security.[112]

Rather than communicating among vehicles, they can communicate with road-based systems to receive similar information.

Software update edit

See also: Over-the-air programming

Software controls the vehicle, and can provide entertainment and other services. Over-the-air updates can deliver bug fixes and additional features over the internet. Software updates are one way to accomplish recalls that in the past required a visit to a service center. In March 2021, the UNECE regulation on software update and software update management systems was published.[113]

Safety model edit

A safety model is software that attempts to formalize rules that ensure that ACs operate safely.[114]

IEEE is attempting to forge a standard for safety models as "IEEE P2846: A Formal Model for Safety Considerations in Automated Vehicle Decision Making".[115] In 2022, a research group at National Institute of Informatics (NII, Japan) enhanced Mobileye's Reliable Safety System as "Goal-Aware RSS" to enable RSS rules to deal with complex scenarios via program logic.[116]

Notification edit

The US has standardized the use of turquoise lights to inform other drivers that a vehicle is driving autonomously. It will be used in the 2026 Mercedes-Benz EQS and S-Class sedans with Drive Pilot, an SAE Level 3 driving system.[citation needed]

As of 2023, the Turquoise light had not been standardized by the P.R.C or the UN-ECE.[117]

Challenges edit

 
Autonomous delivery vehicles stuck in one place by attempting to avoid one another

Obstacles edit

The primary obstacle to ACs is the advanced software and mapping required to make them work safely across the wide variety of conditions that drivers experience.[118] In addition to handling day/night driving in good and bad weather[119] on roads of arbitrary quality, ACs must cope with other vehicles, road obstacles, poor/missing traffic controls, flawed maps, and handle endless edge cases, such as following the instructions of a police officer managing traffic at a crash site.

Other obstacles include cost, liability,[120][121] consumer reluctance,[122] ethical dilemmas,[123][124] security,[125][126][127][128] privacy,[119] and legal/regulatory framework.[129] Further, AVs could automate the work of professional drivers, eliminating many jobs, which could slow acceptance.[130]

Concerns edit

Deceptive marketing edit

Tesla calls its Level 2 ADAS "Full Self-Driving (FSD) Beta".[131] US Senators Richard Blumenthal and Edward Markey called on the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to investigate this marketing in 2021.[132] In December 2021 in Japan, Mercedes-Benz was punished by the Consumer Affairs Agency for misleading product descriptions.[133]

Mercedes-Benz was criticized for a misleading US commercial advertising E-Class models.[134] At that time, Mercedes-Benz rejected the claims and stopped its "self-driving car" ad campaign that had been running.[135][136] In August 2022, the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) accused Tesla of deceptive marketing practices.[137]

With the Automated Vehicles Bill (AVB) self-driving car-makers could face prison for misleading adverts in the United-Kingdom.[138]

Security edit

In the 2020s, concerns over ACs vulnerability to cyberattacks and data theft emerged.[139]

Espionage edit

In 2018 and 2019 former Apple engineers were charged with stealing information related to Apple's self-driving car project.[140][141][142] In 2021 the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) accused Chinese security officials of coordinating a hacking campaign to steal information from government entities, including research related to autonomous vehicles.[143][144] China has prepared "the Provisions on Management of Automotive Data Security (Trial) to protect its own data".[145][146]

Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything technologies are based on 5G wireless networks.[147] As of November 2022, the US Congress was considering the possibility that imported Chinese AC technology could facilitate espionage.[148]

Testing of Chinese automated cars in the US has raised concern over which US data are collected by Chinese vehicles to be stored in Chinese country and concern with any link with the Chinese communist party.[149]

Driver communications edit

ACs complicate the need for drivers to communicate with each other, e.g., to decide which car enters an intersection first. In an AC without a driver, traditional means such as hand signals do not work (no driver, no hands).[150] Conversely, it would be advantageous for the AC to be able to interpret such signals from human drivers.

Behavior prediction edit

ACs must be able to predict the behavior of possibly moving vehicles, pedestrians, etc in real time in order to proceed safely.[89] The task becomes more challenging the further into the future the prediction extends, requiring rapid revisions to the estimate to cope with unpredicted behavior. One approach is to wholly recompute the position and trajectory of each object many times per second. Another is to cache the results of an earlier prediction for use in the next one to reduce computational complexity.[151][152]

Handover edit

The ADAS has to be able to safely accept control from and return control to the driver.[153]

Risk compensation edit

Risk compensation is a common human behavior. The safer a system is perceived to be, the more likelier people are to test its limits by engaging in riskier behavior. (People who wear seat belts drive faster). For example Tesla Autopilot users in some cases stop monitoring the vehicle.[citation needed]

Trust edit

Consumers will avoid ACs unless they trust them as safe.[154][155] Robotaxis operating in San Francisco received pushback over perceived safety risks.[156] Automatic elevators were invented in 1900, but did not become common until operator strikes and trust was built with advertising and features such as an emergency stop button.[157][158]

Ethical issues edit

See also: Machine ethics

Rationale for liability edit

Standards for liability have yet to be adopted to address crashes and other incidents. Liability could rest with the vehicle occupant, its owner, the vehicle manufacturer, or even the ADAS technology supplier, possibly depending on the circumstances of the crash.[159]

Trolley problem edit

The trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics. Adapted for ACs, it considers an AC carrying one passenger confronts a pedestrian who steps in its way. The ADAS notionally has to choose between killing the pedestrian or swerving into a wall, killing the passenger.[160] Possible frameworks include deontology (formal rules) and utilitarianism (harm reduction).[89][161][162]

One public opinion survey reported that harm reduction was preferred, except that passengers wanted the vehicle to prefer them, while pedestrians took the opposite view. Utilitarian regulations were unpopular.[163]

Privacy edit

Some ACs require an internet connection to function, opening the possibility that a hacker might gain access to private information such as destinations, routes, camera recordings, media preferences, and/or behavioral patterns, although this is true of an internet-connected device.[164][165][166]

Road infrastructure edit

ACs make use of road infrastructure (e.g., traffic signs, turn lanes) and may require modifications to that infrastructure to fully achieve their safety and other goals.[167] In March 2023, the Japanese government unveiled a plan to set up a dedicated highway lane for ACs.[168] In April 2023, JR East announced their challenge to raise their self-driving level of Kesennuma Line bus rapid transit (BRT) in rural area from the current Level 2 to Level 4 at 60 km/h.[169]

Testing edit

Approaches edit

ACs can be tested via digital simulations,[170][171] in a controlled test environment,[172] and/or on public roads. Road testing typically requires some form of permit[173] or a commitment to adhere to acceptable operating principles.[174] For example, New York requires a test driver to be in the vehicle, prepared to override the ADAS as necessary.[175]

2010s and disengagements edit

 
A prototype of Waymo's self-driving car, navigating public streets in Mountain View, California in 2017

In California, self-driving car manufacturers are required to submit annual reports describing how often their vehicles autonomously disengaged from autonomous mode.[176] This is one measure of system robustness (ideally, the system should never disengage).[177]

In 2017, Waymo reported 63 disengagements over 352,545 mi (567,366 km) of testing, an average distance of 5,596 mi (9,006 km) between disengagements, the highest (best) among companies reporting such figures. Waymo also logged more autonomous miles than other companies. Their 2017 rate of 0.18 disengagements per 1,000 mi (1,600 km) was an improvement over the 0.2 disengagements per 1,000 mi (1,600 km) in 2016, and 0.8 in 2015. In March 2017, Uber reported an average of 0.67 mi (1.08 km) per disengagement. In the final three months of 2017, Cruise (owned by GM) averaged 5,224 mi (8,407 km) per disengagement over 62,689 mi (100,888 km).[178]

Disengagement data
Car maker California, 2016[178] California, 2018[179] California, 2019[180]
Distance between
disengagements 		Total distance traveled Distance between
disengagements 		Total distance traveled Distance between
disengagements 		Total distance traveled
Waymo 5,128 mi (8,253 km) 635,868 mi (1,023,330 km) 11,154 mi (17,951 km) 1,271,587 mi (2,046,421 km) 11,017 mi (17,730 km) 1,450,000 mi (2,330,000 km)
BMW 638 mi (1,027 km) 638 mi (1,027 km)
Nissan 263 mi (423 km) 6,056 mi (9,746 km) 210 mi (340 km) 5,473 mi (8,808 km)
Ford 197 mi (317 km) 590 mi (950 km)
General Motors 55 mi (89 km) 8,156 mi (13,126 km) 5,205 mi (8,377 km) 447,621 mi (720,376 km) 12,221 mi (19,668 km) 831,040 mi (1,337,430 km)
Aptiv 15 mi (24 km) 2,658 mi (4,278 km)
Tesla 3 mi (4.8 km) 550 mi (890 km)
Mercedes-Benz 2 mi (3.2 km) 673 mi (1,083 km) 1.5 mi (2.4 km) 1,749 mi (2,815 km)
Bosch 7 mi (11 km) 983 mi (1,582 km)
Zoox 1,923 mi (3,095 km) 30,764 mi (49,510 km) 1,595 mi (2,567 km) 67,015 mi (107,850 km)
Nuro 1,028 mi (1,654 km) 24,680 mi (39,720 km) 2,022 mi (3,254 km) 68,762 mi (110,662 km)
Pony.ai 1,022 mi (1,645 km) 16,356 mi (26,322 km) 6,476 mi (10,422 km) 174,845 mi (281,386 km)
Baidu (Apolong) 206 mi (332 km) 18,093 mi (29,118 km) 18,050 mi (29,050 km) 108,300 mi (174,300 km)
Aurora 100 mi (160 km) 32,858 mi (52,880 km) 280 mi (450 km) 39,729 mi (63,938 km)
Apple 1.1 mi (1.8 km) 79,745 mi (128,337 km) 118 mi (190 km) 7,544 mi (12,141 km)
Uber 0.4 mi (0.64 km) 26,899 mi (43,290 km) 0 mi (0 km)

2020s edit

Disengagement definitions edit

Reporting companies use varying definitions of what qualifies as a disengagement, and such definitions can change over time.[181][177] Executives of self-driving car companies have criticized disengagements as a deceptive metric, because it does not consider varying road conditions.[182]

Standards edit

In April 2021, WP.29 GRVA proposed a "Test Method for Automated Driving (NATM)".[183]

In October 2021, Europe's pilot test, L3Pilot, demonstrated ADAS for cars in Hamburg, Germany, in conjunction with ITS World Congress 2021. SAE Level 3 and 4 functions were tested on ordinary roads.[184][185][186]

In November 2022, an International Standard ISO 34502 on "Scenario based safety evaluation framework" was published.[187][188]

Collision avoidance edit

In April 2022, collision avoidance testing was demonstrated by Nissan.[189][190] Waymo published a document about collision avoidance testing in December 2022.[191]

Simulation and validation edit

In September 2022, Biprogy released Driving Intelligence Validation Platform (DIVP) as part of Japanese national project "SIP-adus", which is interoperable with Open Simulation Interface (OSI) of ASAM.[192][193][194]

Toyota edit

In November 2022, Toyota demonstrated one of its GR Yaris test cars, which had been trained using professional rally drivers.[195] Toyota used its collaboration with Microsoft in FIA World Rally Championship since the 2017 season.[196]

Pedestrian reactions edit

In 2023 David R. Large, senior research fellow with the Human Factors Research Group at the University of Nottingham, disguised himself as a car seat in a study to test people's reactions to driverless cars. He said, "We wanted to explore how pedestrians would interact with a driverless car and developed this unique methodology to explore their reactions." The study found that, in the absence of someone in the driving seat, pedestrians trust certain visual prompts more than others when deciding whether to cross the road.[197]

Incidents edit

Tesla edit

See also: Tesla Autopilot § Notable crashes

As of 2023, Tesla's ADAS Autopilot/Full Self Driving (beta) was classified as Level 2 ADAS.[198]

On 20 January 2016, the first of five known fatal crashes of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred, in China's Hubei province.[199] Initially, Tesla stated that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that their recorder was not able to determine whether the car had been on Autopilot at the time. However, the car failed to take evasive action.

Another fatal Autopilot crash occurred in May in Florida in a Tesla Model S[200][201] that crashed into a tractor-trailer. In a civil suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla, Tesla documented that the car had been on Autopilot.[202] According to Tesla, "neither Autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the brake was not applied." Tesla claimed that this was Tesla's first known Autopilot death in over 130 million miles (210 million kilometers) with Autopilot engaged. Tesla claimed that on average one fatality occurs every 94 million miles (151 million kilometers) across all vehicle types in the US.[203][204][205] However, this number also includes motorcycle/pedestrian fatalities.[206][207] The ultimate NTSB report concluded Tesla was not at fault; the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars, the crash rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed.[208]

Google Waymo edit

See also: Waymo § Crashes
 
Google's in-house automated car

In June 2015, Google confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date. Eight involved rear-end collisions at a stop sign or traffic light, in two of which the vehicle was side-swiped by another driver, one in which another driver rolled a stop sign, and one where a driver was controlling the car manually.[209] In July 2015, three employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear-ended by a car whose driver failed to brake. This was the first collision that resulted in injuries.[210]

According to Google Waymo's accident reports as of early 2016, their test cars had been involved in 14 collisions, of which other drivers were at fault 13 times, although in 2016 the car's software caused a crash.[211] On 14 February 2016 a Google vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path. During the maneuver it struck a bus. Google stated, "In this case, we clearly bear some responsibility, because if our car hadn't moved, there wouldn't have been a collision."[212][213] Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience. No injuries were reported.[211]

Uber's Advanced Technologies Group (ATG) edit

In March 2018, Elaine Herzberg died after she was hit by an AC tested by Uber's Advanced Technologies Group (ATG) in Arizona. A safety driver was in the car. Herzberg was crossing the road about 400 feet from an intersection.[214] Some experts said a human driver could have avoided the crash.[215] Arizona governor Doug Ducey suspended the company's ability to test its ACs citing an "unquestionable failure" of Uber to protect public safety.[216] Uber also stopped testing in California until receiving a new permit in 2020.[217][218]

NTSB's final report determined that the immediate cause of the accident was that safety driver Rafaela Vasquez failed to monitor the road, because she was distracted by her phone, but that Uber's "inadequate safety culture" contributed. The report noted that the victim had "a very high level" of methamphetamine in her body.[219] The board called on federal regulators to carry out a review before allowing automated test vehicles to operate on public roads.[220][221]

In September 2020, Vasquez pled guilty to negligent homicide.[222]

NIO Navigate on Pilot edit

On 12 August 2021, a 31-year-old Chinese man was killed after his NIO ES8 collided with a construction vehicle.[citation needed] NIO's self-driving feature was in beta and could not deal with static obstacles.[223] The vehicle's manual clearly stated that the driver must take over near construction sites. Lawyers of the deceased's family questioned NIO's private access to the vehicle, which they argued did not guarantee the integrity of the data.[224]

Pony.ai edit

In November 2021, the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) notified Pony.ai that it was suspending its testing permit following a reported collision in Fremont on 28 October.[225] In May 2022, DMV revoked Pony.ai's permit for failing to monitor the driving records of its safety drivers.[226]

Cruise edit

See also: Cruise_(autonomous_vehicle) § Incidents

In April 2022, Cruise's testing vehicle was reported to have blocked a fire engine on emergency call, and sparked questions about its ability to handle unexpected circumstances.[227][228]

Public opinion surveys edit

2010s edit

In a 2011 online survey of 2,006 US and UK consumers, 49% said they would be comfortable using a "driverless car".[229]

A 2012 survey of 17,400 vehicle owners found 37% who initially said they would be interested in purchasing a "fully autonomous car". However, that figure dropped to 20% if told the technology would cost US$3,000 more.[230]

In a 2012 survey of about 1,000 German drivers, 22% had a positive attitude, 10% were undecided, 44% were skeptical and 24% were hostile.[231]

A 2013 survey of 1,500 consumers across 10 countries found 57% "stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver", with Brazil, India and China the most willing to trust automated technology.[232]

In a 2014 US telephone survey, over three-quarters of licensed drivers said they would consider buying a self-driving car, rising to 86% if car insurance were cheaper. 31.7% said they would not continue to drive once an automated car was available.[233]

In 2015, a survey of 5,000 people from 109 countries reported that average respondents found manual driving the most enjoyable. 22% did not want to pay more money for autonomy. Respondents were found to be most concerned about hacking/misuse, and were also concerned about legal issues and safety. Finally, respondents from more developed countries were less comfortable with their vehicle sharing data.[234] The survey reported consumer interest in purchasing an AC, stating that 37% of surveyed current owners were either "definitely" or "probably" interested.[234]

In 2016, a survey of 1,603 people in Germany that controlled for age, gender, and education reported that men felt less anxiety and more enthusiasm, whereas women showed the opposite. The difference was pronounced between young men and women and decreased with age.[235]

In a 2016 US survey of 1,584 people, "66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver". People were worried about safety and hacking risk. Nevertheless, only 13% of the interviewees saw no advantages in this new kind of cars.[236]

In a 2017 survey of 4,135 US adults found that many Americans anticipated significant impacts from various automation technologies including the widespread adoption of automated vehicles.[237]

In 2019, results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published. The questionnaire was termed the autonomous vehicle acceptance model (AVAM), including additional description to help respondents better understand the implications of various automation levels. Users were less accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use autonomous vehicles. Additionally, partial autonomy (regardless of level) was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement (usage of hands, feet and eyes) than full autonomy.[238]

In the 2020s edit

In 2022, a survey reported that only a quarter (27%) of the world's population would feel safe in self-driving cars.[239]

Opinion surveys may have little salience given that few respondents had any personal experience with ACs.

Regulation edit

Main article: Regulation of self-driving cars
See also: Regulation of algorithms

AC regulation liability, approvals, and international conventions.

In the 2010s, researchers openly worried that delayed regulations could delay deployment.[240] In 2020, UNECE WP.29 GRVA was issued to address regulation of Level 3 automated driving.

Commercialization edit

See also: History of self-driving cars § The 2020s

Vehicles operating below Level 5 still offer many advantages.[241]

As of 2023 most commercially available ADAS vehicles are SAE Level 2. A couple of companies reached higher levels, but only in restricted (geofenced) locations.[242]

Level 2 - Partial Automation edit

See also: Lane centering § Sample of level 2 automated cars, and List of self-driving system suppliers § Date of first public road driverless operation

SAE Level 2 features are available as part of the ADAS systems in many vehicles. In the US, 50% of new cars provide driver assistance for both steering and speed.[243]

Ford started offering BlueCruise service on certain vehicles in 2022; the system is named ActiveGlide in Lincoln vehicles. The system provided features such as lane centering, street sign recognition, and hands-free highway driving on more than 130,000 miles of divided highways. The 2022 1.2 version added features including hands-free lane changing, in-lane repositioning, and predictive speed assist.[244][245] In April 2023 BlueCruise was approved in the UK for use on certain motorways, starting with 2023 models of Ford's electric Mustang Mach-E SUV.[246]

Tesla's Autopilot and its Full Self-Driving (FSD) ADAS suites are available on all Tesla cars. FSD offers highway and street driving (without geofencing), navigation/turn management, steering, and dynamic cruise control, collision avoidance, lane-keeping/switching, emergency braking, obstacle avoidance, but still requires the driver to remain ready to control the vehicle at any moment. Its driver management system combines eye tracking with monitoring pressure on the steering wheel to ensure that drives are both hands on and eyes on.[247][248]

Development edit

General Motors is developing the "Ultra Cruise" ADAS system, that will be a dramatic improvement over their current "Super Cruise" system. Ultra Cruise will cover "95 percent" of driving scenarios on 2 million miles of roads in the US, according to the company. The system hardware in and around the car includes multiple cameras, short- and long-range radar, and a LiDAR sensor, and will be powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon Ride Platform. The luxury Cadillac Celestiq electric vehicle will be one of the first vehicles to feature Ultra Cruise.[249]

Tesla's FASD rewrite V12 (released in 2024) uses a single deep learning transformer model for all aspects of perception, monitoring, and control. It relies on its 8 cameras for its vision-only perception system, without use of LIDAR, radar, or ultrasound. As of January 2024, FSD V12 was undergoing testing in a limited number of customer vehicles. Tesla has not initiated requests for Level 3 status for its systems and has not disclosed its reason for not doing so.[248]

Europe is developing a new "Driver Control Assistance Systems" (DCAS) level 2 regulation to no longer limit the use of lane changing systems to roads with 2 lanes and a physical separation from traffic in the opposite direction.[250][251]

Level 3 - Conditional Automation edit

As of 2023, three car manufacturers had registered Level 3 cars: Honda in Japan, Mercedes in Germany, Nevada and California[252] and BMW in Germany.[253]

Development edit

Honda continued to enhance its Level 3 technology.[254][255] As of 2023, 80 vehicles with Level 3 support had been sold.[256]

Mercedes-Benz received authorization in early 2023 to pilot its Level 3 software in Las Vegas.[257] California also authorized Drive Pilot in 2023.[258]

BMW commercialized its AC in 2021.[259] In 2023 BMW stated that its Level-3 technology was nearing release. It would be the second manufacturer to deliver Level-3 technology, but the only one with a Level 3 technology which works in the dark.[260]

In 2023, in China, IM Motors, Mercedes, and BMW obtained authorization to test vehicles with Level 3 systems on motorways.[261][262]

In September 2021, Stellantis presented its findings from its Level 3 pilot testing on Italian highways. Stellantis's Highway Chauffeur claimed Level 3 capabilities, as tested on the Maserati Ghibli and Fiat 500X prototypes.[263]

Polestar, a Volvo Cars' brand, announced in January 2022 its plan to offer Level 3 autonomous driving system in the Polestar 3 SUV, a Volvo XC90 successor, with technologies from Luminar Technologies, Nvidia, and Zenseact.[264]

In January 2022, Bosch and the Volkswagen Group subsidiary CARIAD released a collaboration for autonomous driving up to Level 3. This joint development targets Level 4 capabilities.[265]

Hyundai Motor Company is enhancing cybersecurity of connected cars to offer a Level 3 self-driving Genesis G90.[266] Kia and Hyundai Korean car makers delayed their Level 3 plans, and will not deliver Level 3 vehicles in 2023.[267]

Level 4 - High Automation edit

Waymo offers robotaxi services in parts of a few North-American cities, as fully autonomous vehicles without safety drivers.[268]

In April 2023 in Japan, a Level 4 protocol became part of the amended Road Traffic Act.[269] ZEN drive Pilot Level 4 made by AIST operates there.[270]

Development edit

In July 2020, Toyota started public demonstration rides on Lexus LS (fifth generation) based TRI-P4 with Level 4 capability.[271] In August 2021, Toyota operated a potentially Level 4 service using e-Palette around the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village.[272]

In September 2020, Mercedes-Benz introduced world's first commercial Level 4 Automated Valet Parking (AVP) system named Intelligent Park Pilot for its new S-Class..[273][274] In November 2022, Germany’s Federal Motor Transport Authority (KBA) approved the system for use at Stuttgart Airport.[275]

In September 2021, Cruise, General Motors, and Honda started a joint testing programme, using Cruise AV.[276] In 2023, the Origin was put on indefinite hold following Cruise's loss of its operating permit.[277]

In January 2023, Holon ann autonomous shuttle during the 2023 CES. The company claimed the vehicle is the world's first Level 4 shuttle built to automotive standard.[278]

See also edit

Self-driving vehicles edit

Connected vehicles edit

Other vehicle technologies edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  Media related to Self-driving cars at Wikimedia Commons

  • O'Toole, Randal (18 January 2010). Gridlock: Why We're Stuck in Traffic and What To Do About It. Cato Institute. ISBN 978-1-935308-24-9.
  • Macdonald, Iain David Graham (2011). A Simulated Autonomous Car (PDF) (thesis). The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
  • Knight, Will (22 October 2013). "The Future of Self-driving Cars". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  • Taiebat, Morteza; Brown, Austin; Safford, Hannah; Qu, Shen; Xu, Ming (2019). "A Review on Energy, Environmental, and Sustainability Implications of Connected and Automated Vehicles". Environmental Science & Technology. 52 (20): 11449–11465. arXiv:1901.10581. Bibcode:2019arXiv190110581T. doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b00127. PMID 30192527. S2CID 52174043.
  • Glancy, Dorothy (2016). A Look at the Legal Environment for Driverless Vehicles (PDF) (Report). National Cooperative Highway Research Program Legal Research Digest. Vol. 69. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. ISBN 978-0-309-37501-6. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  • Newbold, Richard (17 June 2015). "The driving forces behind what would be the next revolution in the haulage sector". The Loadstar. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  • Bergen, Mark (27 October 2015). "Meet the Companies Building Self-Driving Cars for Google and Tesla (And Maybe Apple)". re/code.
  • John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center (March 2016). (PDF). National Transportation Library. US Department of Transportation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
  • Slone, Sean (August 2016). (PDF). Capitol Research – Transportation Policy. Council of State Governments. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
  • Henn, Steve (31 July 2015). "Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism".
  • Anderson, James M.; et al. (2016). "Autonomous Vehicle Technology: A Guide for Policymakers" (PDF). RAND Corporation.
  • Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2014). "Road Vehicle Automation". Lecture Notes in Mobility. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05990-7. ISBN 978-3-319-05989-1. ISSN 2196-5544.
    • Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2015). "Road Vehicle Automation 2". Lecture Notes in Mobility. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19078-5. ISBN 978-3-319-19077-8. ISSN 2196-5544.
    • Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2016). "Road Vehicle Automation 3". Lecture Notes in Mobility. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-40503-2. ISBN 978-3-319-40502-5. ISSN 2196-5544.
    • Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2018). "Road Vehicle Automation 4". Lecture Notes in Mobility. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60934-8. ISBN 978-3-319-60933-1. ISSN 2196-5544.
    • Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2019). "Road Vehicle Automation 5". Lecture Notes in Mobility. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94896-6. ISBN 978-3-319-94895-9. ISSN 2196-5544. S2CID 168659939.
    • Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2019). "Road Vehicle Automation 6". Lecture Notes in Mobility. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22933-7. ISBN 978-3-030-22932-0. ISSN 2196-5544.

These books are based on presentations and discussions at the Automated Vehicles Symposium organized annually by TRB and AUVSI.

  • Kemp, Roger (2018). "Autonomous vehicles – who will be liable for accidents?". [15 Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review (2018) 33 – 47].

February 16, 2024
self, driving, this, article, about, road, vehicle, type, general, concept, vehicular, automation, wider, applications, unmanned, ground, vehicle, self, driving, also, known, autonomous, driverless, robotic, robo, that, capable, driving, without, human, input,. This article is about the road vehicle type For the general concept see Vehicular automation For wider applications see Unmanned ground vehicle A self driving car also known as an autonomous car AC driverless car or robotic car robo car 1 2 3 is a car that is capable of driving without human input 4 5 Self driving cars are responsible for all driving activities including perceiving the environment monitoring important systems and controlling the vehicle including navigating from origin to destination 6 ACs have the potential to impact the automotive industry mobility costs health welfare urban planning traffic insurance labor market and other domains Appropriate regulations are necessary to integrate ACs into the existing driving environment Multiple vendors are pursuing autonomy although as of early 2024 no system had achieved full autonomy Waymo was the first to offer rides in self driving taxis robotaxis to the general public It offers services in various US cities Cruise offered taxi service in San Francisco 7 but suspended service in 2023 Honda was the first manufacturer to sell an SAE Level 3 car 8 9 10 followed by Mercedes Benz 11 BMW Group and Kia Nuro offers autonomous commercial delivery service in California 12 Palo Alto California certified Nuro at Level 4 13 DeepRoute ai launched a robotaxi service in Shenzhen in 2021 14 Waymo undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay Area Roborace autonomous racing car on display at the 2017 New York City ePrixContents 1 History 2 Definitions 2 1 Automated driving system 2 2 Advanced driver assistance system 2 3 Autonomy versus automation 2 4 Cooperative system 2 5 Operational design domain 2 6 Self driving 2 7 British definitions 2 8 SAE classification 2 8 1 Classifications 2 9 Mobileye 2 9 1 Eyes on hands on 2 9 2 Eyes on hands off 2 9 3 Eyes off hands off 2 9 4 No driver 2 9 5 Safety 3 Technology 3 1 Architecture 3 2 Navigation 3 2 1 Perception 3 2 2 Maps 3 2 3 Sensors 3 2 4 Path planning 3 3 Drive by wire 3 4 Driver monitoring 3 5 Vehicle communication 3 6 Software update 3 7 Safety model 3 8 Notification 4 Challenges 4 1 Obstacles 4 2 Concerns 4 2 1 Deceptive marketing 4 2 2 Security 4 2 3 Espionage 4 2 4 Driver communications 4 2 5 Behavior prediction 4 2 6 Handover 4 2 7 Risk compensation 4 2 8 Trust 4 3 Ethical issues 4 3 1 Rationale for liability 4 3 2 Trolley problem 4 3 3 Privacy 4 4 Road infrastructure 5 Testing 5 1 Approaches 5 2 2010s and disengagements 5 3 2020s 5 3 1 Disengagement definitions 5 3 2 Standards 5 3 3 Collision avoidance 5 3 4 Simulation and validation 5 3 5 Toyota 5 3 6 Pedestrian reactions 6 Incidents 6 1 Tesla 6 2 Google Waymo 6 3 Uber s Advanced Technologies Group ATG 6 4 NIO Navigate on Pilot 6 5 Pony ai 6 6 Cruise 7 Public opinion surveys 7 1 2010s 7 2 In the 2020s 8 Regulation 9 Commercialization 9 1 Level 2 Partial Automation 9 1 1 Development 9 2 Level 3 Conditional Automation 9 2 1 Development 9 3 Level 4 High Automation 9 3 1 Development 10 See also 10 1 Self driving vehicles 10 2 Connected vehicles 10 3 Other vehicle technologies 11 References 12 Further readingHistory editMain article History of self driving cars Experiments have been conducted on advanced driver assistance systems ADAS since at least the 1920s 15 The first ADAS system was cruise control which was invented in 1948 by Ralph Teetor Trials began in the 1950s The first semi autonomous car was developed in 1977 by Japan s Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory 16 It required specially marked streets that were interpreted by two cameras on the vehicle and an analog computer The vehicle reached speeds of 30 km h 19 mph with the support of an elevated rail 17 18 Carnegie Mellon University s Navlab 19 and ALV 20 21 semi autonomous projects launched in the 1980s funded by the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DARPA starting in 1984 and Mercedes Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich s EUREKA Prometheus Project in 1987 22 By 1985 ALV had reached 31 km h 19 mph on two lane roads Obstacle avoidance came in 1986 and day and night off road driving by 1987 23 In 1995 Navlab 5 completed the first autonomous US coast to coast journey Traveling from Pittsburgh Pennsylvania and San Diego California 98 2 of the trip was autonomous It completed the trip at an average speed of 63 8 mph 102 7 km h 24 25 26 27 Until the second DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005 automated vehicle research in the United States was primarily funded by DARPA the US Army and the US Navy yielding incremental advances in speeds driving competence controls and sensor systems 28 The US allocated US 650 million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System 29 which demonstrated automated driving combining highway embedded automation with vehicle technology and cooperative networking between the vehicles and highway infrastructure The programme concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997 30 Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA Navlab drove 4 584 km 2 848 mi across the US in 1995 4 501 km 2 797 mi or 98 autonomously 31 In 2015 Delphi piloted a Delphi technology based Audi over 5 472 km 3 400 mi through 15 states 99 autonomously 32 In 2015 Nevada Florida California Virginia Michigan and Washington DC allowed autonomous car testing on public roads 33 From 2016 to 2018 the European Commission funded development for connected and automated driving through Coordination Actions CARTRE and SCOUT programs 34 The Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda STRIA Roadmap for Connected and Automated Transport was published in 2019 35 In November 2017 Waymo announced testing of autonomous cars without a safety driver 36 However an employee was in the car to handle emergencies 37 In December 2018 Waymo was the first to commercialize a robotaxi service in Phoenix Arizona 38 In October 2020 Waymo launched a robotaxi service in a geofenced part of the area 39 40 The cars were monitored in real time and remote engineers intervened to handle exceptional conditions 41 40 In March 2019 ahead of Roborace Robocar set the Guinness World Record as the world s fastest autonomous car Robocar reached 282 42 km h 175 49 mph 42 In March 2021 Honda began leasing in Japan a limited edition of 100 Legend Hybrid EX sedans equipped with newly approved Level 3 automated driving equipment that had been safety certified using their autonomous Traffic Jam Pilot driving technology and legally allowed drivers to take their eyes off the road 8 9 43 10 In December 2020 Waymo became the first service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public in a part of Phoenix Arizona In March 2021 Honda was the first manufacturer to sell a legally approved Level 3 car 8 9 10 Nuro began autonomous commercial delivery operations in California in 2021 12 DeepRoute ai launched robotaxi service in Shenzhen in July 2021 14 Nuro was approved for Level 4 in Palo Alto in August 2023 13 In December 2021 Mercedes Benz received approval for a Level 3 car 11 In February 2022 Cruise became the second service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public in San Francisco 7 In December 2022 several manufacturers scaled back plans for self driving technology including Ford and Volkswagen 44 In 2023 Cruise suspended its robotaxi service 45 As of August 2023 update vehicles operating at Level 3 and above were an insignificant market factor Definitions editOrganizations such as SAE have proposed terminology standards However most terms have no standard definition and are employed variously by vendors and others Proposals to adopt aviation automation terminology for cars have not prevailed 46 Names such as AutonoDrive PilotAssist Full Self Driving or DrivePilot are used even though the products offer an assortment of features that may not match the names 47 Despite offering a system ot called Full Self Driving Tesla stated that its system did not autonomously handle all driving tasks 48 In the United Kingdom a fully self driving car is defined as a car so registered rather than one that supports a specific feature set 49 The Association of British Insurers claimed that the usage of the word autonomous in marketing was dangerous because car ads make motorists think autonomous and autopilot imply that the driver can rely on the car to control itself even though they do not Automated driving system edit An ADS is an SAE J3016 level 3 or higher system Advanced driver assistance system edit Main article Advanced driver assistance system An ADAS is a system that automates specific driving features such as keeping the car within its lane cruise control and emergency braking An ADAS requires a human driver to handle tasks that the ADAS does not support Autonomy versus automation edit Autonomy implies that an automation system is under the control of the vehicle rather than a driver Automation is function specific handling issues such as speed control but leaves broader decision making to the driver 50 Euro NCAP defined autonomous as the system acts independently of the driver to avoid or mitigate the accident 51 In Europe the words automated and autonomous can be used together For instance Regulation EU 2019 2144 supplied 52 automated vehicle means a vehicle that can move without continuous driver supervision but that driver intervention is still expected or required in some ODDs 52 fully automated vehicle means a vehicle that can move entirely without driver supervision 52 Cooperative system edit A remote driver is a driver that operates a vehicle at a distance using a video and data connection 53 According to SAE J3016 Some driving automation systems may indeed be autonomous if they perform all of their functions independently and self sufficiently but if they depend on communication and or cooperation with outside entities they should be considered cooperative rather than autonomous Operational design domain edit This section is an excerpt from Operational design domain edit Operational design domain ODD is a term for a particular operating context for an automated system often used in the field of autonomous vehicles The context is defined by a set of conditions including environmental geographical time of day and other conditions For vehicles traffic and roadway characteristics are included Manufacturers use ODD to indicate where how their product operates safely A given system may operate differently according to the immediate ODD 54 The concept presumes that automated systems have limitations 55 Relating system function to the ODDs it supports is important for developers and regulators to establish and communicate safe operating conditions Systems should operate within those limitations Some systems recognize the ODD and modify their behavior accordingly For example an autonomous car might recognize that traffic is heavy and disable its automated lane change feature 55 Vendors have taken a variety of approaches to the self driving problem Tesla s approach is to allow their full self driving FSD system to be used in all ODDs as a Level 2 hands on eyes on ADAS 56 Waymo picked specific ODDs city streets in Phoenix and San Francisco for their Level 5 robotaxi service 57 Mercedes Benz offers Level 3 service in Las Vegas in highway traffic jams at speeds up to 40 miles per hour 64 km h 58 Mobileye s SuperVision system offers hands off eyes on driving on all road types at speeds up to 130 kilometres per hour 81 mph 59 GM s hands free Super Cruise operates on specific roads in specific conditions stopping or returning control to the driver when ODD changes In 2024 the company announced plans to expand road coverage from 400 000 miles to 750 000 miles 60 Ford s BlueCruise hands off system operates on 130 000 miles of US divided highways 61 Self driving edit The Union of Concerned Scientists defined self driving as cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to safely operate the vehicle Also known as autonomous or driverless cars they combine sensors and software to control navigate and drive the vehicle 62 The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as driving itself if the vehicle is not being controlled and does not need to be monitored by an individual 63 Another British government definition stated Self driving vehicles are vehicles that can safely and lawfully drive themselves 64 British definitions edit In British English the word automated alone has several meanings such as in the sentence Thatcham also found that the automated lane keeping systems could only meet two out of the twelve principles required to guarantee safety going on to say they cannot therefore be classed as automated driving preferring assisted driving 65 The first occurrence of the automated word refers to an Unece automated system while the second refers to the British legal definition of an automated vehicle British law interprets the meaning of automated vehicle based on the interpretation section related to a vehicle driving itself and an insured vehicle 66 In November 2023 the British Government introduced the Automated Vehicles Bill It proposed definitions for related terms 67 Self driving A vehicle satisfies the self driving test if it is designed or adapted with the intention that a feature of the vehicle will allow it to travel autonomously and it is capable of doing so by means of that feature safely and legally Autonomy A vehicle travels autonomously if it is controlled by the vehicle and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are monitored by a person who can intervene Control control of vehicle motion Safe a vehicle that conforms to an acceptably safe standard Legal a vehicle that offers an acceptably low risk of committing a traffic infraction SAE classification edit nbsp Tesla Autopilot is classified as an SAE Level 2 system 68 69 A six level classification system ranging from fully manual to fully automated was published in 2014 by SAE International as J3016 Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems the details are revised occasionally 70 This classification is based on the role of the driver rather than the vehicle s capabilities although these are related After SAE updated its classification in 2016 J3016 201609 71 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NHTSA adopted the SAE standard 72 73 The classification is a topic of debate with various revisions proposed 74 75 Classifications edit A driving mode aka driving scenario combines an ODD with matched driving requirements e g expressway merging traffic jam 1 76 Cars may switch levels in accord with the driving mode Above Level 1 level differences are related to how responsibility for safe movement is divided shared between ADAS and driver rather than specific driving features J3016 Automation Levels 76 Level Name Narrative Direction andspeed control Monitoring Fallback responsibility Mode coverage0 No Automation Full time performance by the driver of all aspects of driving even when enhanced by warning or intervention systems Driver Driver Driver n a1 Driver Assistance Driving mode specific control by an ADAS of either steering or speed Uses information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the driver performs all other driving tasks Driver and system Some2 Partial Automation Driving mode specific execution by one or more driver assistance systems of both steering and speed System3 Conditional Automation Driving mode specific control by an ADAS of all aspects of driving Driver must appropriately respond to a request to intervene System4 High Automation If a driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene the car can stop safely System Many5 Full Automation System controls the vehicle under all conditions AllSAE Automation Levels have been criticized for their technological focus It has been argued that the structure of the levels suggests that automation increases linearly and that more automation is better which may not be the case 77 SAE Levels also do not account for changes that may be required to infrastructure 78 and road user behavior 79 80 Mobileye edit nbsp Mobileye CEO Amnon Shashua and CTO Shai Shalev Shwartz proposed an alternative taxonomy for autonomous driving systems claiming that a more consumer friendly approach was needed Its categories reflect the amount of driver engagement that is required 81 82 Some vehicle makers have informally adopted some of the terminology involved while not formally committing to it 83 84 85 86 Eyes on hands on edit The first level hands on eyes on implies that the driver is fully engaged in operating the vehicle but is supervised by the system which intervenes according to the features it supports e g adaptive cruise control automatic emergency braking The driver is entirely responsible with hands on the wheel and eyes on the road 82 Eyes on hands off edit Eyes on hands off allows the driver to let go of the wheel The system drives the driver monitors and remains prepared to resume control as needed 82 Eyes off hands off edit Eyes off hands off means that the driver can stop monitoring the system leaving the system in full control Eyes off requires that no errors be reproducible not triggered by exotic transitory conditions or frequent that speeds are contextually appropriate e g 80 mph on limited access roads and that the system handle typical maneuvers e g getting cut off by another vehicle The automation level could vary according to the road e g eyes off on freeways eyes on on side streets 82 No driver edit The highest level does not require a human driver in the car monitoring is done either remotely telepresence or not at all 82 Safety edit A critical requirement for the higher two levels is that the vehicle be able to conduct a Minimum Risk Maneuver and stop safely out of traffic without driver intervention 82 Technology editMain article Vehicular automation Architecture edit The perception system processes visual and audio data from outside and inside the car to create a local model of the vehicle the road traffic traffic controls and other observable objects and their relative motion The control system then takes actions to move the vehicle considering the local model road map and driving regulations 87 88 89 90 Several classifications have been proposed to describe ADAS technology One proposal is to adopt these categories navigation path planning perception and car control 91 Navigation edit Main article Hybrid navigation Navigation involves the use of maps to define a path between origin and destination Hybrid navigation is the use of multiple navigation systems Some systems use basic maps relying on perception to deal with anomalies Such a map understands which roads lead to which others whether a road is a freeway a highway are one way etc Other systems require highly detailed maps including lane maps obstacles traffic controls etc Perception edit ACs need to be able to perceive the world around them Supporting technologies include combinations of cameras LiDAR radar audio and ultrasound 92 GPS and inertial measurement 93 94 Deep neural networks are used to analyse inputs from these sensors to detect and identify objects and their trajectories 95 Some systems use Bayesian simultaneous localization and mapping SLAM algorithms Another technique is detection and tracking of other moving objects DATMO used to handle potential obstacles 96 97 Other systems use roadside real time locating system RTLS technologies to aid localization Tesla s vision only system uses eight cameras without LIDAR or radar to create its bird s eye view of the environment 98 Maps edit Maps are necessary for navigation Map sophistication varies from simple graphs that show which roads connect to each other with details such as one way vs two way to those that are highly detailed with information about lanes traffic controls roadworks and more 92 Researchers at the MITComputer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory CSAIL developed a system called MapLite which allows self driving cars to drive with simple maps The system combines the GPS position of the vehicle a sparse topological map such as OpenStreetMap which has only 2D road features with sensors that observe road conditions 99 One issue with highly detailed maps is updating them as the world changes Vehicles that can operate with less detailed maps do not require frequent updates or geo fencing Sensors edit Sensors are necessary for the vehicle to properly respond to the driving environment Sensor types include cameras LiDAR ultrasound and radar Control systems typically combine data from multiple sensors 100 Multiple sensors can provide a more complete view of the surroundings and can be used to cross check each other to correct errors 101 For example radar can image a scene in e g a nighttime snowstorm that defeats cameras and LiDAR albeit at reduced precision After experimenting with radar and ultrasound Tesla adopted a vision only approach asserting that humans drive using only vision and that cars should be able to do the same while citing the lower cost of cameras versus other sensor types 102 By contrast Waymo makes use of the higher resolution of LiDAR sensors and cites the declining cost of that technology 103 Path planning edit Path planning finds a sequence of segments that a vehicle can use to move from origin to destination Techniques used for path planning include graph based search and variational based optimization techniques Graph based techniques can make harder decisions such as how to pass another vehicle obstacle Variational based optimization techniques require more stringent restrictions on the vehicle s path to prevent collisions 104 The large scale path of the vehicle can be determined by using a voronoi diagram an occupancy grid mapping or a driving corridor algorithm The latter allows the vehicle to locate and drive within open space that is bounded by lanes or barriers 105 Drive by wire edit Main article Drive by wire Drive by wire is the use of electrical or electro mechanical systems for performing vehicle functions such as steering or speed control that are traditionally achieved by mechanical linkages Driver monitoring edit Main article Driver monitoring system Driver monitoring is used to assess the driver s attention and alertness Techniques in use include eye monitoring and requiring the driver to maintain torque on the steering wheel 106 It attempts to understand driver status and identify dangerous driving behaviors 107 Vehicle communication edit Main article Vehicular communication systems Vehicles can potentially benefit from communicating with others to share information about traffic road obstacles to receive map and software updates etc 108 109 92 ISO TC 22 specifies in vehicle transport information and control systems 110 while ISO TC 204 specifies information communication and control systems in surface transport 111 International standards have been developed for ADAS functions connectivity human interaction in vehicle systems management engineering dynamic map and positioning privacy and security 112 Rather than communicating among vehicles they can communicate with road based systems to receive similar information Software update edit See also Over the air programming Software controls the vehicle and can provide entertainment and other services Over the air updates can deliver bug fixes and additional features over the internet Software updates are one way to accomplish recalls that in the past required a visit to a service center In March 2021 the UNECE regulation on software update and software update management systems was published 113 Safety model edit A safety model is software that attempts to formalize rules that ensure that ACs operate safely 114 IEEE is attempting to forge a standard for safety models as IEEE P2846 A Formal Model for Safety Considerations in Automated Vehicle Decision Making 115 In 2022 a research group at National Institute of Informatics NII Japan enhanced Mobileye s Reliable Safety System as Goal Aware RSS to enable RSS rules to deal with complex scenarios via program logic 116 Notification edit The US has standardized the use of turquoise lights to inform other drivers that a vehicle is driving autonomously It will be used in the 2026 Mercedes Benz EQS and S Class sedans with Drive Pilot an SAE Level 3 driving system citation needed As of 2023 the Turquoise light had not been standardized by the P R C or the UN ECE 117 Challenges edit nbsp Autonomous delivery vehicles stuck in one place by attempting to avoid one anotherObstacles edit The primary obstacle to ACs is the advanced software and mapping required to make them work safely across the wide variety of conditions that drivers experience 118 In addition to handling day night driving in good and bad weather 119 on roads of arbitrary quality ACs must cope with other vehicles road obstacles poor missing traffic controls flawed maps and handle endless edge cases such as following the instructions of a police officer managing traffic at a crash site Other obstacles include cost liability 120 121 consumer reluctance 122 ethical dilemmas 123 124 security 125 126 127 128 privacy 119 and legal regulatory framework 129 Further AVs could automate the work of professional drivers eliminating many jobs which could slow acceptance 130 Concerns edit Deceptive marketing edit Tesla calls its Level 2 ADAS Full Self Driving FSD Beta 131 US Senators Richard Blumenthal and Edward Markey called on the Federal Trade Commission FTC to investigate this marketing in 2021 132 In December 2021 in Japan Mercedes Benz was punished by the Consumer Affairs Agency for misleading product descriptions 133 Mercedes Benz was criticized for a misleading US commercial advertising E Class models 134 At that time Mercedes Benz rejected the claims and stopped its self driving car ad campaign that had been running 135 136 In August 2022 the California Department of Motor Vehicles DMV accused Tesla of deceptive marketing practices 137 With the Automated Vehicles Bill AVB self driving car makers could face prison for misleading adverts in the United Kingdom 138 Security edit In the 2020s concerns over ACs vulnerability to cyberattacks and data theft emerged 139 Espionage edit In 2018 and 2019 former Apple engineers were charged with stealing information related to Apple s self driving car project 140 141 142 In 2021 the United States Department of Justice DOJ accused Chinese security officials of coordinating a hacking campaign to steal information from government entities including research related to autonomous vehicles 143 144 China has prepared the Provisions on Management of Automotive Data Security Trial to protect its own data 145 146 Cellular Vehicle to Everything technologies are based on 5G wireless networks 147 As of November 2022 update the US Congress was considering the possibility that imported Chinese AC technology could facilitate espionage 148 Testing of Chinese automated cars in the US has raised concern over which US data are collected by Chinese vehicles to be stored in Chinese country and concern with any link with the Chinese communist party 149 Driver communications edit ACs complicate the need for drivers to communicate with each other e g to decide which car enters an intersection first In an AC without a driver traditional means such as hand signals do not work no driver no hands 150 Conversely it would be advantageous for the AC to be able to interpret such signals from human drivers Behavior prediction edit ACs must be able to predict the behavior of possibly moving vehicles pedestrians etc in real time in order to proceed safely 89 The task becomes more challenging the further into the future the prediction extends requiring rapid revisions to the estimate to cope with unpredicted behavior One approach is to wholly recompute the position and trajectory of each object many times per second Another is to cache the results of an earlier prediction for use in the next one to reduce computational complexity 151 152 Handover edit The ADAS has to be able to safely accept control from and return control to the driver 153 Risk compensation edit Risk compensation is a common human behavior The safer a system is perceived to be the more likelier people are to test its limits by engaging in riskier behavior People who wear seat belts drive faster For example Tesla Autopilot users in some cases stop monitoring the vehicle citation needed Trust edit Consumers will avoid ACs unless they trust them as safe 154 155 Robotaxis operating in San Francisco received pushback over perceived safety risks 156 Automatic elevators were invented in 1900 but did not become common until operator strikes and trust was built with advertising and features such as an emergency stop button 157 158 Ethical issues edit See also Machine ethics Rationale for liability edit Standards for liability have yet to be adopted to address crashes and other incidents Liability could rest with the vehicle occupant its owner the vehicle manufacturer or even the ADAS technology supplier possibly depending on the circumstances of the crash 159 Trolley problem edit The trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics Adapted for ACs it considers an AC carrying one passenger confronts a pedestrian who steps in its way The ADAS notionally has to choose between killing the pedestrian or swerving into a wall killing the passenger 160 Possible frameworks include deontology formal rules and utilitarianism harm reduction 89 161 162 One public opinion survey reported that harm reduction was preferred except that passengers wanted the vehicle to prefer them while pedestrians took the opposite view Utilitarian regulations were unpopular 163 Privacy edit Some ACs require an internet connection to function opening the possibility that a hacker might gain access to private information such as destinations routes camera recordings media preferences and or behavioral patterns although this is true of an internet connected device 164 165 166 Road infrastructure edit ACs make use of road infrastructure e g traffic signs turn lanes and may require modifications to that infrastructure to fully achieve their safety and other goals 167 In March 2023 the Japanese government unveiled a plan to set up a dedicated highway lane for ACs 168 In April 2023 JR East announced their challenge to raise their self driving level of Kesennuma Line bus rapid transit BRT in rural area from the current Level 2 to Level 4 at 60 km h 169 Testing editApproaches edit ACs can be tested via digital simulations 170 171 in a controlled test environment 172 and or on public roads Road testing typically requires some form of permit 173 or a commitment to adhere to acceptable operating principles 174 For example New York requires a test driver to be in the vehicle prepared to override the ADAS as necessary 175 2010s and disengagements edit nbsp A prototype of Waymo s self driving car navigating public streets in Mountain View California in 2017In California self driving car manufacturers are required to submit annual reports describing how often their vehicles autonomously disengaged from autonomous mode 176 This is one measure of system robustness ideally the system should never disengage 177 In 2017 Waymo reported 63 disengagements over 352 545 mi 567 366 km of testing an average distance of 5 596 mi 9 006 km between disengagements the highest best among companies reporting such figures Waymo also logged more autonomous miles than other companies Their 2017 rate of 0 18 disengagements per 1 000 mi 1 600 km was an improvement over the 0 2 disengagements per 1 000 mi 1 600 km in 2016 and 0 8 in 2015 In March 2017 Uber reported an average of 0 67 mi 1 08 km per disengagement In the final three months of 2017 Cruise owned by GM averaged 5 224 mi 8 407 km per disengagement over 62 689 mi 100 888 km 178 Disengagement data Car maker California 2016 178 California 2018 179 California 2019 180 Distance betweendisengagements Total distance traveled Distance betweendisengagements Total distance traveled Distance betweendisengagements Total distance traveledWaymo 5 128 mi 8 253 km 635 868 mi 1 023 330 km 11 154 mi 17 951 km 1 271 587 mi 2 046 421 km 11 017 mi 17 730 km 1 450 000 mi 2 330 000 km BMW 638 mi 1 027 km 638 mi 1 027 km Nissan 263 mi 423 km 6 056 mi 9 746 km 210 mi 340 km 5 473 mi 8 808 km Ford 197 mi 317 km 590 mi 950 km General Motors 55 mi 89 km 8 156 mi 13 126 km 5 205 mi 8 377 km 447 621 mi 720 376 km 12 221 mi 19 668 km 831 040 mi 1 337 430 km Aptiv 15 mi 24 km 2 658 mi 4 278 km Tesla 3 mi 4 8 km 550 mi 890 km Mercedes Benz 2 mi 3 2 km 673 mi 1 083 km 1 5 mi 2 4 km 1 749 mi 2 815 km Bosch 7 mi 11 km 983 mi 1 582 km Zoox 1 923 mi 3 095 km 30 764 mi 49 510 km 1 595 mi 2 567 km 67 015 mi 107 850 km Nuro 1 028 mi 1 654 km 24 680 mi 39 720 km 2 022 mi 3 254 km 68 762 mi 110 662 km Pony ai 1 022 mi 1 645 km 16 356 mi 26 322 km 6 476 mi 10 422 km 174 845 mi 281 386 km Baidu Apolong 206 mi 332 km 18 093 mi 29 118 km 18 050 mi 29 050 km 108 300 mi 174 300 km Aurora 100 mi 160 km 32 858 mi 52 880 km 280 mi 450 km 39 729 mi 63 938 km Apple 1 1 mi 1 8 km 79 745 mi 128 337 km 118 mi 190 km 7 544 mi 12 141 km Uber 0 4 mi 0 64 km 26 899 mi 43 290 km 0 mi 0 km 2020s edit Disengagement definitions edit Reporting companies use varying definitions of what qualifies as a disengagement and such definitions can change over time 181 177 Executives of self driving car companies have criticized disengagements as a deceptive metric because it does not consider varying road conditions 182 Standards edit In April 2021 WP 29 GRVA proposed a Test Method for Automated Driving NATM 183 In October 2021 Europe s pilot test L3Pilot demonstrated ADAS for cars in Hamburg Germany in conjunction with ITS World Congress 2021 SAE Level 3 and 4 functions were tested on ordinary roads 184 185 186 In November 2022 an International Standard ISO 34502 on Scenario based safety evaluation framework was published 187 188 Collision avoidance edit In April 2022 collision avoidance testing was demonstrated by Nissan 189 190 Waymo published a document about collision avoidance testing in December 2022 191 Simulation and validation edit In September 2022 Biprogy released Driving Intelligence Validation Platform DIVP as part of Japanese national project SIP adus which is interoperable with Open Simulation Interface OSI of ASAM 192 193 194 Toyota edit In November 2022 Toyota demonstrated one of its GR Yaris test cars which had been trained using professional rally drivers 195 Toyota used its collaboration with Microsoft in FIA World Rally Championship since the 2017 season 196 Pedestrian reactions edit In 2023 David R Large senior research fellow with the Human Factors Research Group at the University of Nottingham disguised himself as a car seat in a study to test people s reactions to driverless cars He said We wanted to explore how pedestrians would interact with a driverless car and developed this unique methodology to explore their reactions The study found that in the absence of someone in the driving seat pedestrians trust certain visual prompts more than others when deciding whether to cross the road 197 Incidents editTesla edit See also Tesla Autopilot Notable crashes As of 2023 Tesla s ADAS Autopilot Full Self Driving beta was classified as Level 2 ADAS 198 On 20 January 2016 the first of five known fatal crashes of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred in China s Hubei province 199 Initially Tesla stated that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that their recorder was not able to determine whether the car had been on Autopilot at the time However the car failed to take evasive action Another fatal Autopilot crash occurred in May in Florida in a Tesla Model S 200 201 that crashed into a tractor trailer In a civil suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla Tesla documented that the car had been on Autopilot 202 According to Tesla neither Autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor trailer against a brightly lit sky so the brake was not applied Tesla claimed that this was Tesla s first known Autopilot death in over 130 million miles 210 million kilometers with Autopilot engaged Tesla claimed that on average one fatality occurs every 94 million miles 151 million kilometers across all vehicle types in the US 203 204 205 However this number also includes motorcycle pedestrian fatalities 206 207 The ultimate NTSB report concluded Tesla was not at fault the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars the crash rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed 208 Google Waymo edit See also Waymo Crashes nbsp Google s in house automated carIn June 2015 Google confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date Eight involved rear end collisions at a stop sign or traffic light in two of which the vehicle was side swiped by another driver one in which another driver rolled a stop sign and one where a driver was controlling the car manually 209 In July 2015 three employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear ended by a car whose driver failed to brake This was the first collision that resulted in injuries 210 According to Google Waymo s accident reports as of early 2016 their test cars had been involved in 14 collisions of which other drivers were at fault 13 times although in 2016 the car s software caused a crash 211 On 14 February 2016 a Google vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path During the maneuver it struck a bus Google stated In this case we clearly bear some responsibility because if our car hadn t moved there wouldn t have been a collision 212 213 Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience No injuries were reported 211 Uber s Advanced Technologies Group ATG edit In March 2018 Elaine Herzberg died after she was hit by an AC tested by Uber s Advanced Technologies Group ATG in Arizona A safety driver was in the car Herzberg was crossing the road about 400 feet from an intersection 214 Some experts said a human driver could have avoided the crash 215 Arizona governor Doug Ducey suspended the company s ability to test its ACs citing an unquestionable failure of Uber to protect public safety 216 Uber also stopped testing in California until receiving a new permit in 2020 217 218 NTSB s final report determined that the immediate cause of the accident was that safety driver Rafaela Vasquez failed to monitor the road because she was distracted by her phone but that Uber s inadequate safety culture contributed The report noted that the victim had a very high level of methamphetamine in her body 219 The board called on federal regulators to carry out a review before allowing automated test vehicles to operate on public roads 220 221 In September 2020 Vasquez pled guilty to negligent homicide 222 NIO Navigate on Pilot edit On 12 August 2021 a 31 year old Chinese man was killed after his NIO ES8 collided with a construction vehicle citation needed NIO s self driving feature was in beta and could not deal with static obstacles 223 The vehicle s manual clearly stated that the driver must take over near construction sites Lawyers of the deceased s family questioned NIO s private access to the vehicle which they argued did not guarantee the integrity of the data 224 Pony ai edit In November 2021 the California Department of Motor Vehicles DMV notified Pony ai that it was suspending its testing permit following a reported collision in Fremont on 28 October 225 In May 2022 DMV revoked Pony ai s permit for failing to monitor the driving records of its safety drivers 226 Cruise edit See also Cruise autonomous vehicle Incidents In April 2022 Cruise s testing vehicle was reported to have blocked a fire engine on emergency call and sparked questions about its ability to handle unexpected circumstances 227 228 Public opinion surveys edit2010s edit In a 2011 online survey of 2 006 US and UK consumers 49 said they would be comfortable using a driverless car 229 A 2012 survey of 17 400 vehicle owners found 37 who initially said they would be interested in purchasing a fully autonomous car However that figure dropped to 20 if told the technology would cost US 3 000 more 230 In a 2012 survey of about 1 000 German drivers 22 had a positive attitude 10 were undecided 44 were skeptical and 24 were hostile 231 A 2013 survey of 1 500 consumers across 10 countries found 57 stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver with Brazil India and China the most willing to trust automated technology 232 In a 2014 US telephone survey over three quarters of licensed drivers said they would consider buying a self driving car rising to 86 if car insurance were cheaper 31 7 said they would not continue to drive once an automated car was available 233 In 2015 a survey of 5 000 people from 109 countries reported that average respondents found manual driving the most enjoyable 22 did not want to pay more money for autonomy Respondents were found to be most concerned about hacking misuse and were also concerned about legal issues and safety Finally respondents from more developed countries were less comfortable with their vehicle sharing data 234 The survey reported consumer interest in purchasing an AC stating that 37 of surveyed current owners were either definitely or probably interested 234 In 2016 a survey of 1 603 people in Germany that controlled for age gender and education reported that men felt less anxiety and more enthusiasm whereas women showed the opposite The difference was pronounced between young men and women and decreased with age 235 In a 2016 US survey of 1 584 people 66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver People were worried about safety and hacking risk Nevertheless only 13 of the interviewees saw no advantages in this new kind of cars 236 In a 2017 survey of 4 135 US adults found that many Americans anticipated significant impacts from various automation technologies including the widespread adoption of automated vehicles 237 In 2019 results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published The questionnaire was termed the autonomous vehicle acceptance model AVAM including additional description to help respondents better understand the implications of various automation levels Users were less accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use autonomous vehicles Additionally partial autonomy regardless of level was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement usage of hands feet and eyes than full autonomy 238 In the 2020s edit In 2022 a survey reported that only a quarter 27 of the world s population would feel safe in self driving cars 239 Opinion surveys may have little salience given that few respondents had any personal experience with ACs Regulation editMain article Regulation of self driving cars See also Regulation of algorithms AC regulation liability approvals and international conventions In the 2010s researchers openly worried that delayed regulations could delay deployment 240 In 2020 UNECE WP 29 GRVA was issued to address regulation of Level 3 automated driving Commercialization editSee also History of self driving cars The 2020s Vehicles operating below Level 5 still offer many advantages 241 As of 2023 update most commercially available ADAS vehicles are SAE Level 2 A couple of companies reached higher levels but only in restricted geofenced locations 242 Level 2 Partial Automation edit See also Lane centering Sample of level 2 automated cars and List of self driving system suppliers Date of first public road driverless operation SAE Level 2 features are available as part of the ADAS systems in many vehicles In the US 50 of new cars provide driver assistance for both steering and speed 243 Ford started offering BlueCruise service on certain vehicles in 2022 the system is named ActiveGlide in Lincoln vehicles The system provided features such as lane centering street sign recognition and hands free highway driving on more than 130 000 miles of divided highways The 2022 1 2 version added features including hands free lane changing in lane repositioning and predictive speed assist 244 245 In April 2023 BlueCruise was approved in the UK for use on certain motorways starting with 2023 models of Ford s electric Mustang Mach E SUV 246 Tesla s Autopilot and its Full Self Driving FSD ADAS suites are available on all Tesla cars FSD offers highway and street driving without geofencing navigation turn management steering and dynamic cruise control collision avoidance lane keeping switching emergency braking obstacle avoidance but still requires the driver to remain ready to control the vehicle at any moment Its driver management system combines eye tracking with monitoring pressure on the steering wheel to ensure that drives are both hands on and eyes on 247 248 Development edit General Motors is developing the Ultra Cruise ADAS system that will be a dramatic improvement over their current Super Cruise system Ultra Cruise will cover 95 percent of driving scenarios on 2 million miles of roads in the US according to the company The system hardware in and around the car includes multiple cameras short and long range radar and a LiDAR sensor and will be powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon Ride Platform The luxury Cadillac Celestiq electric vehicle will be one of the first vehicles to feature Ultra Cruise 249 Tesla s FASD rewrite V12 released in 2024 uses a single deep learning transformer model for all aspects of perception monitoring and control It relies on its 8 cameras for its vision only perception system without use of LIDAR radar or ultrasound As of January 2024 FSD V12 was undergoing testing in a limited number of customer vehicles Tesla has not initiated requests for Level 3 status for its systems and has not disclosed its reason for not doing so 248 Europe is developing a new Driver Control Assistance Systems DCAS level 2 regulation to no longer limit the use of lane changing systems to roads with 2 lanes and a physical separation from traffic in the opposite direction 250 251 Level 3 Conditional Automation edit As of 2023 three car manufacturers had registered Level 3 cars Honda in Japan Mercedes in Germany Nevada and California 252 and BMW in Germany 253 Development edit Honda continued to enhance its Level 3 technology 254 255 As of 2023 80 vehicles with Level 3 support had been sold 256 Mercedes Benz received authorization in early 2023 to pilot its Level 3 software in Las Vegas 257 California also authorized Drive Pilot in 2023 258 BMW commercialized its AC in 2021 259 In 2023 BMW stated that its Level 3 technology was nearing release It would be the second manufacturer to deliver Level 3 technology but the only one with a Level 3 technology which works in the dark 260 In 2023 in China IM Motors Mercedes and BMW obtained authorization to test vehicles with Level 3 systems on motorways 261 262 In September 2021 Stellantis presented its findings from its Level 3 pilot testing on Italian highways Stellantis s Highway Chauffeur claimed Level 3 capabilities as tested on the Maserati Ghibli and Fiat 500X prototypes 263 Polestar a Volvo Cars brand announced in January 2022 its plan to offer Level 3 autonomous driving system in the Polestar 3 SUV a Volvo XC90 successor with technologies from Luminar Technologies Nvidia and Zenseact 264 In January 2022 Bosch and the Volkswagen Group subsidiary CARIAD released a collaboration for autonomous driving up to Level 3 This joint development targets Level 4 capabilities 265 Hyundai Motor Company is enhancing cybersecurity of connected cars to offer a Level 3 self driving Genesis G90 266 Kia and Hyundai Korean car makers delayed their Level 3 plans and will not deliver Level 3 vehicles in 2023 267 Level 4 High Automation edit Waymo offers robotaxi services in parts of a few North American cities as fully autonomous vehicles without safety drivers 268 In April 2023 in Japan a Level 4 protocol became part of the amended Road Traffic Act 269 ZEN drive Pilot Level 4 made by AIST operates there 270 Development edit In July 2020 Toyota started public demonstration rides on Lexus LS fifth generation based TRI P4 with Level 4 capability 271 In August 2021 Toyota operated a potentially Level 4 service using e Palette around the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village 272 In September 2020 Mercedes Benz introduced world s first commercial Level 4 Automated Valet Parking AVP system named Intelligent Park Pilot for its new S Class 273 274 In November 2022 Germany s Federal Motor Transport Authority KBA approved the system for use at Stuttgart Airport 275 In September 2021 Cruise General Motors and Honda started a joint testing programme using Cruise AV 276 In 2023 the Origin was put on indefinite hold following Cruise s loss of its operating permit 277 In January 2023 Holon ann autonomous shuttle during the 2023 CES The company claimed the vehicle is the world s first Level 4 shuttle built to automotive standard 278 See also editSelf driving vehicles edit History of self driving cars Self driving car liability Self driving truck Dutch Automated Vehicle Initiative Driverless tractor List of self driving system suppliers Mobility as a service Platoon automobile Unmanned ground vehicle Unmanned aerial vehicle Connected vehicles edit Connected car Intelligent transportation system Remote control vehicle Other vehicle technologies edit Automotive navigation system Advanced driver assistance system 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Consumers in US and UK Frustrated with Intelligent Devices That Frequently Crash or Freeze New Accenture Survey Finds Accenture 10 October 2011 Retrieved 30 June 2013 Yvkoff Liane 27 April 2012 Many car buyers show interest in autonomous car tech CNET Retrieved 30 June 2013 Grosse Akzeptanz fur selbstfahrende Autos in Deutschland motorvision de 9 October 2012 Archived from the original on 15 May 2016 Retrieved 6 September 2013 Autonomous Cars Found Trustworthy in Global Study autosphere ca 22 May 2013 Retrieved 6 September 2013 Autonomous cars Bring em on drivers say in Insurance com survey Insurance com 28 July 2014 Retrieved 29 July 2014 a b Kyriakidis M Happee R De Winter J C F 2015 Public opinion on automated driving Results of an international questionnaire among 5 000 respondents Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 32 127 140 doi 10 1016 j trf 2015 04 014 S2CID 2071964 Hohenberger C Sporrle M Welpe I M 2016 How and why do men and women differ in their willingness to use automated cars The influence of emotions across different age groups Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice 94 374 385 doi 10 1016 j tra 2016 09 022 Hall Geisler Kristen 22 December 2016 Autonomous cars seen as smarter than human drivers TechCrunch Retrieved 26 December 2016 Smith Aaron Anderson Monica 4 October 2017 Automation in Everyday Life Hewitt Charlie Politis Ioannis Amanatidis Theocharis Sarkar Advait 2019 Assessing public perception of self driving cars The autonomous vehicle acceptance model Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces ACM Press pp 518 527 doi 10 1145 3301275 3302268 ISBN 9781450362726 S2CID 67773581 Majority of world s population feel self driving cars are unsafe Lloyd s Register Foundation 25 November 2022 Retrieved 4 December 2022 Brodsky Jessica 2016 Autonomous Vehicle Regulation How an Uncertain Legal Landscape May Hit the Brakes on Self Driving Cars Berkeley Technology Law Journal 31 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April 2023 Retrieved 18 April 2023 Stumpf Rob 8 March 2021 Tesla Admits Current Full Self Driving Beta Will Always Be a Level 2 System Emails The Drive Retrieved 29 August 2021 a b Lambert Fred 22 January 2024 Tesla finally releases FSD v12 its last hope for self driving Electrek Retrieved 3 February 2024 Hawkins Andrew 7 March 2023 GM s Ultra Cruise will use radar camera and lidar to enable hands free driving The Verge Retrieved 9 April 2023 New UN regulation paves the way for the roll out of additional driver assistance systems 1 February 2024 UNECE Paving the way to driving automation in EU 19 January 2023 CCAM Capparella Joey 9 December 2021 Mercedes Drive Pilot Level 3 Autonomous System to Launch in Germany Car and Driver BMW receives approval to roll out Level 3 automated driving features in Germany 17 October 2023 Honda Unveils Next generation Technologies of Honda SENSING 360 and Honda SENSING Elite Honda 1 December 2022 Retrieved 1 December 2022 Honda to develop advanced level 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2021 Stellantis Shows Off its Level 3 Technology Informa Retrieved 29 November 2021 Jay Ramey 11 January 2022 Polestar 3 with Level 3 Autonomous Tech on the Way Autoweek Retrieved 31 May 2022 hannovermesse 26 January 2022 Bosch and CARIAD advance automated driving hannovermesse Retrieved 26 January 2022 Seo Jin woo Jung You jung Lee Ha yeon 16 February 2022 Korean firms enhance car cybersecurity before Level 3 autonomous car releases Pulse by Maeil Business Newspaper Retrieved 22 April 2022 Herh Michael 1 December 2023 Hyundai Motor Puts Level 3 Autonomous Driving Technology on Back Burner Businesskorea in Korean Retrieved 2 February 2024 No driver No problem Robotaxis eye San Francisco expansion AP NEWS 5 April 2023 Retrieved 9 April 2023 Level 4 Autonomous Driving Allowed in Japan Yomiuri Shimbun 1 April 2023 Retrieved 3 April 2023 国内初 自動運転車に対するレベル4の認可を取得しました Domestically the first Approved as Level 4 self driving car METI Japan 31 March 2023 Retrieved 3 April 2023 Toyota to Offer Rides in SAE Level 4 Automated Vehicles on Public Roads in Japan Next Summer Press release Toyota 24 October 2019 Retrieved 17 March 2022 River Davis 2 August 2021 Hyperdrive Daily The Driverless Shuttle Helping Toyota Win Gold Bloomberg News Retrieved 7 November 2021 Automotive luxury experienced in a completely new way The main points of the new Mercedes Benz S Class at a glance Mercedes me media 2 September 2020 Retrieved 21 May 2022 Bosch Stuttgart Airport Set to Welcome Fully Automated and Driverless Parking IoT Automotive News Retrieved 21 May 2022 Mercedes Benz and Bosch driverless parking system Approved for commercial use Mercedes Benz Group 30 November 2022 Retrieved 3 February 2024 Honda to Start Testing Program in September Toward Launch of Autonomous Vehicle Mobility Service Business in Japan Press release Honda 8 September 2021 Retrieved 16 March 2022 MILLER CALEB 29 November 2023 GM s Self Driving Cruise Origin Indefinitely Delayed Amid Major Setbacks Car and Driver Anthony James 5 January 2022 New Benteler brand Holon presents world s first autonomous mover built to automotive standards ADAS amp Autonomous Vehicle International Retrieved 21 January 2023 Further reading edit nbsp Media related to Self driving cars at Wikimedia Commons O Toole Randal 18 January 2010 Gridlock Why We re Stuck in Traffic and What To Do About It Cato Institute ISBN 978 1 935308 24 9 Macdonald Iain David Graham 2011 A Simulated Autonomous Car PDF thesis The University of Edinburgh Retrieved 17 April 2013 Knight Will 22 October 2013 The Future of Self driving Cars MIT Technology Review Retrieved 22 July 2016 Taiebat Morteza Brown Austin Safford Hannah Qu Shen Xu Ming 2019 A Review on Energy Environmental and Sustainability Implications of Connected and Automated Vehicles Environmental Science amp Technology 52 20 11449 11465 arXiv 1901 10581 Bibcode 2019arXiv190110581T doi 10 1021 acs est 8b00127 PMID 30192527 S2CID 52174043 Glancy Dorothy 2016 A Look at the Legal Environment for Driverless Vehicles PDF Report National Cooperative Highway Research Program Legal Research Digest Vol 69 Washington DC Transportation Research Board ISBN 978 0 309 37501 6 Retrieved 22 July 2016 Newbold Richard 17 June 2015 The driving forces behind what would be the next revolution in the haulage sector The Loadstar Retrieved 22 July 2016 Bergen Mark 27 October 2015 Meet the Companies Building Self Driving Cars for Google and Tesla And Maybe Apple re code John A Volpe National Transportation Systems Center March 2016 Review of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards FMVSS for Automated Vehicles Identifying potential barriers and challenges for the certification of automated vehicles using existing FMVSS PDF National Transportation Library US Department of Transportation Archived from the original PDF on 16 June 2017 Retrieved 6 April 2016 Slone Sean August 2016 State Laws on Autonomous Vehicles PDF Capitol Research Transportation Policy Council of State Governments Archived from the original PDF on 28 February 2021 Retrieved 28 September 2016 Henn Steve 31 July 2015 Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism Anderson James M et al 2016 Autonomous Vehicle Technology A Guide for Policymakers PDF RAND Corporation Meyer Gereon Beiker Sven eds 2014 Road Vehicle Automation Lecture Notes in Mobility doi 10 1007 978 3 319 05990 7 ISBN 978 3 319 05989 1 ISSN 2196 5544 Meyer Gereon Beiker Sven eds 2015 Road Vehicle Automation 2 Lecture Notes in Mobility doi 10 1007 978 3 319 19078 5 ISBN 978 3 319 19077 8 ISSN 2196 5544 Meyer Gereon Beiker Sven eds 2016 Road Vehicle Automation 3 Lecture Notes in Mobility doi 10 1007 978 3 319 40503 2 ISBN 978 3 319 40502 5 ISSN 2196 5544 Meyer Gereon Beiker Sven eds 2018 Road Vehicle Automation 4 Lecture Notes in Mobility doi 10 1007 978 3 319 60934 8 ISBN 978 3 319 60933 1 ISSN 2196 5544 Meyer Gereon Beiker Sven eds 2019 Road Vehicle Automation 5 Lecture Notes in Mobility doi 10 1007 978 3 319 94896 6 ISBN 978 3 319 94895 9 ISSN 2196 5544 S2CID 168659939 Meyer Gereon Beiker Sven eds 2019 Road Vehicle Automation 6 Lecture Notes in Mobility doi 10 1007 978 3 030 22933 7 ISBN 978 3 030 22932 0 ISSN 2196 5544 These books are based on presentations and discussions at the Automated Vehicles Symposium organized annually by TRB and AUVSI Kemp Roger 2018 Autonomous vehicles who will be liable for accidents 15 Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review 2018 33 47 Portal nbsp Cars Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Self driving car amp oldid 1207795647, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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