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Colonia (Roman)

February 16, 2024

For other uses, see Colonia.

A Roman colonia (pl.: coloniae) was originally a settlement of Roman citizens, establishing a Roman outpost in federated or conquered territory, for the purpose of securing it. Eventually, however, the term came to denote the highest status of a Roman city. It is also the origin of the modern term "colony".

Characteristics edit

Under the Roman Republic, which had no standing army, their own citizens were planted in conquered towns as a kind of garrison. There were two types:[1][2]

  • Roman colonies, coloniae civium Romanorum or coloniae maritimae, as they were often built near the sea, e.g. Ostia (350 BC) and Rimini (268 BC). The colonists consisted of about three hundred Roman veterans with their families who were assigned from 1 to 2.5 hectares of agricultural land from the ager colonicus (state land), as well as free use of the ager compascus scripturarius (common state land) for pasture and woodland.[3]
  • Latin colonies (coloniae Latinae) were considerably larger than Roman colonies. They were military strongholds near or in enemy territory. They may have been similar to the Athenian cleruchy. The colonists were given large estates up to 35 hectares. They lost their citizenship which they could regain if they returned to Rome.

After 133 BC tribunes introduced reforms to support the urban poor to become farmers again in new colonies as agricultural settlements (e.g. Tarentum in 122 BC).[citation needed]

Under Caesar and in the Imperial era starting from Augustus, thousands of Roman legionary veterans were granted lands in many coloniae in the empire and were responsible for the Romanization of many territories (mainly in the spread of Latin language and of Roman laws and customs).[citation needed]

History edit

According to Livy, Rome's first colonies were established in about 752 BC at Antemnae and Crustumerium, both in Latium.[4]

Other early colonies were established at Signia in the 6th century BC, Velitrae and Norba in the 5th century BC, and Ostia, Antium, and Tarracina in the late 4th century. In this first period of colonisation, which lasted down to the end of the Punic Wars, colonies were primarily military in purpose, being intended to defend Roman territory.

The first Roman colony outside Italy was probably Italica in Hispania[5] founded in 206 BC by Publius Cornelius Scipio during the Second Carthaginian War.[6]

In the Empire colonies became large centres for the settlement of army veterans, especially in Roman north Africa which had the largest density of Roman colonies per region in the Roman Empire, where the Italic population constituted more than one third of the total population during the second century AD.[citation needed]

Under the Kingdom edit

  • BC 752 at Antemnae and Crustumerium, both in Latium.
  • BC 745 (or 737) Fidenae became a Roman colony
  • BC 737 Cameria

Under the Republic edit

New bilateral defence contracts with Falerii, Tarquinii (Etruria) Caere (again), Pomptina and Poplilia tribus (tribes) formed in territories of Antium

  • BC 338 Capua inhabitants got Roman civil rights
  • BC 335 Cales (Latium)
  • BC 332 (two new voting tribus established): Scaptia, Maecia
  • BC 329 Anxur (Latium)
  • BC 318 Falerna tribus established, Cales made contract with Rome again
  • BC 318 Canusium (Apulia)

New Roman municipiums made from small towns around Rome: Aricia, Lanuvium, Nomentum, Pedum, Tusculum. Latin ius contracts made with Tibur, Praeneste, Lavinium, Cora (Latium) Ius comercii contracts made with Circei, Notba, Setia, Signia, Nepi, Ardea, Gabii Ius migrationi and ius connubii Ufentina tribus established (on territories of Volscus city Antium), Privernum, Velitrae, Terracia, Fondi and Fotmiae made contract with Rome (cives sine suffragio)

Under the Principate edit

Colonies were not founded on a large scale until the inception of the Principate. Augustus, who needed to settle over a hundred thousand of his veterans after the end of his civil wars, began a massive colony creation program throughout his empire. However, not all colonies were new cities. Many were created from already-occupied settlements and the process of colonization just expanded them. Some of these colonies would later grow into large cities (modern day Cologne was first founded as a Roman colony). During this time, provincial cities can gain the rank of colony, gaining certain rights and privileges.[7] After the era of the Severan emperors the new "colonies" were only cities that were granted a status (often of tax exemption), and in most cases during the Late Imperial times there was no more settlement of retired legionaries.[citation needed]

Effects and legacy of colonization edit

Roman colonies sometimes served as a potential reserve of veterans which could be called upon during times of emergency. However, these colonies more importantly served to produce future Roman citizens and therefore recruits to the Roman army.[7]

Roman colonies played a major role in the spread of the Latin language within the central and southern Italian peninsula during the early empire.[8] The colonies showed surrounding native populations an example of Roman life.[9] Since the veterans settled there were usually single until discharge and married local women, colonies tended to become culturally integrated in their surroundings within a few generations.

Examples edit

Modern name Latin name Modern country Roman province Foundation or Promotion Founder or Promotor additional Info
Arles Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensis Sextanorum France Gallia Narbonensis 45 BC Julius Caesar
Belgrade Singidunum Serbia Moesia Superior 239 AD founded by Celts c.279 BC, conquered by Romans in 15 BC
Budapest Aquincum Hungary Pannonia 41-54
Carteia Carteia Spain Hispania Ulterior 171 BC Roman Senate
Colchester Colonia Claudia Victricensis Camulodunum United Kingdom Britannia / Britannia Superior / Maxima Caesariensis 49 Claudius
Köln Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium Germany Germania Inferior 50 Claudius
Jerusalem (on the site of) Colonia Aelia Capitolina Hierosoloma Israel and Palestine Judaea After Bar Kokhba's revolt Hadrian
Lincoln Lindum Colonia or Colonia Domitiana Lindensium United Kingdom Britannia / Britannia Inferior / Flavia Caesariensis 71 Domitian
Narbonne Colonia Iulia Paterna Claudius Narbo Martius Decumanorum France Gallia / Gallia Narbonensis 118 BC Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus refounded by Caesar in 45 BC[10]
Patras Colonia Augusta Achaica Patrensis Greece Achaia After the battle of Actium Augustus
Şebinkarahisar Colonia (Κολώνεια) Turkey Bithynia et Pontus 1st century BC Pompey [11]
Colonia Iulia Concordia Apamea Turkey Bithynia-Pontus ca. 45 BC Iulius Caesar
York Eboracum United Kingdom Britannia / Britannia Inferior / Britannia Secunda early 3rd century [12] Caracalla
Mérida Colonia Emerita Augusta Spain Hispania / Lusitania 25 BC Augustus for war veterans of V Alaudae and X Gemina legions
Sarmizegetusa Colonia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Romania Dacia 106-110 Trajan
Alba Iulia Apulum Romania Dacia 180-192 [13] Commodus
Cluj Napoca Napoca Romania Dacia 2nd half of 2nd century Commodus
Drobeta-Turnu Severin Drobeta Romania Dacia 198-208 [14] Septimius Severus
Gigen Oescus Bulgaria Moesia Inferior 106-112 Trajan
Ljubljana Colonia Iulia Aemona Slovenia Illyricum 14 or 15 Decree of Augustus, completed by Tiberius On the site of the Legio XV Apollinaris, after it left for Carnuntum
Debelt Colonia Flavia Pancensis Deultum Bulgaria Thracia After the Year of the Four Emperors Vespasian for veterans of VIII Augusta
Qalunya Colonia Amosa or Colonia Emmaus[15] Israel Judaea After 71 Vespasian Might have been Emmaus of the New Testament.[16]
Zaragoza/Saragossa Caesaraugusta Spain Hispania Tarraconensis Between 25 BC and 11 BC[17] Augustus To settle army veterans from the Cantabrian wars.
Augsburg Augusta Vindelicorum Germany Raetia 15 BC [18] Augustus The name means "the Augustan city of the Vindelici" [19]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ E.T. Salmon, The Coloniae Maritimae, Athenaeum, N.S.41 (1963) 3-33
  2. ^ A.N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship, 86
  3. ^ C.G.Severino, Crotone. Da polis a città di Calabria, 1988, p. 29
  4. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:11
  5. ^ Livy (25 June 2009). Hannibal's War: Books 21-30. ISBN 978-0-19-955597-0. from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
  6. ^ Appian, Iberian Wars 38
  7. ^ a b Nigel., Rodgers (2006). Roman Empire. Dodge, Hazel. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 0754816028. OCLC 62177842.
  8. ^ "History of Europe - Romans". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-07-03.
  9. ^ "Colonia - Livius". www.livius.org. from the original on 2018-07-02. Retrieved 2018-07-02.
  10. ^ "CHRONOLOGIE - Les grandes dates - Narbo Martius" (in French). from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  11. ^ Procopius De Aedificiis 3.4.6-7
  12. ^ "EBORACUM or Eburacum or Eburaco (York) Yorkshire, England". from the original on 10 August 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  13. ^ "APULUM (Alba Iulia) Romania". from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  14. ^ "DROBETA or Drubeta (Drobeta-Turnu Severin) Romania". from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  15. ^ Khalidi, 1992, p. 309
  16. ^ Conder and Kitchener, 1883, SWP III, p. 40
  17. ^ Sivan, H.; S. Keay; R. Mathisen; DARMC, R.; Talbert, S.; Gillies, J.; Åhlfeldt; J. Becker; T. Elliott. "Places: 246344 (Col. Caesaraugusta)". Pleiades. from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
  18. ^ Jecmen, Gregory; Spira, Freyda (2012). Imperial Augsburg: Renaissance Prints and Drawings, 1475-1540. National Gallery of Art (U.S.). p. 25. ISBN 9781848221222.
  19. ^ Tore Janson (2007). A Natural History of Latin. OUP Oxford. p. 169. ISBN 9780191622656.

Further reading edit

  • Bradley, Guy, and John-Paul Wilson, eds. 2006. Greek and Roman Colonization: Origins, Ideologies and Interactions. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.
  • Broadhead, William. 2007. "Colonization, Land Distribution, and Veteran Settlement". In A Companion to the Roman Army. Edited by Paul Erdkamp, 148–163. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  • Crawford, Michael H. 2014. "The Roman History of Roman Colonisation". In The Roman Historical Tradition: Regal and Republican Rome. Oxford Readings in Classical Studies. Edited by James H. Richardson and Federico Santangelo. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Curchin, Leonard A. 1991. Roman Spain: Conquest and Assimilation. London: Routledge.
  • Fuhrmann, Christopher J. 2012. Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  • Salmon, Edward T. 1955. "Roman Expansion and Roman Colonization in Italy". Phoenix 9.2: 63–75.
  • Stek, Tesse D. and Gert-Jan Burgers eds. 2015. The Impact of Rome on Cult Places and Religious Practices in Ancient Italy. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 132. London: Institute of Classical Studies, University of London.
  • Sears, Gareth. 2011. The Cities of Roman Africa. Stroud, UK: History Press.
  • Termeer, Marleen K. 2010. "Early Colonies in Latium (ca. 534–338 BC): A Reconsideration of Current Images and the Archaeological Evidence". Bulletin Antieke Beschaving 85:43–58.
  • Woolf, Greg. 1998. Becoming Roman: The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

External links edit

  • Jona Lendering, “Coloniae”, Livius.org (2006) 2014-02-28 at the Wayback Machine
  • L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, “Coloniae”, in L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome, New York, 1994. 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
  • M. Bunson, “colonies, Roman”, in M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, New York, 1994. 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine

February 16, 2024
colonia, roman, other, uses, colonia, roman, colonia, coloniae, originally, settlement, roman, citizens, establishing, roman, outpost, federated, conquered, territory, purpose, securing, eventually, however, term, came, denote, highest, status, roman, city, al. For other uses see Colonia A Roman colonia pl coloniae was originally a settlement of Roman citizens establishing a Roman outpost in federated or conquered territory for the purpose of securing it Eventually however the term came to denote the highest status of a Roman city It is also the origin of the modern term colony Contents 1 Characteristics 2 History 2 1 Under the Kingdom 2 2 Under the Republic 2 3 Under the Principate 3 Effects and legacy of colonization 4 Examples 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksCharacteristics editUnder the Roman Republic which had no standing army their own citizens were planted in conquered towns as a kind of garrison There were two types 1 2 Roman colonies coloniae civium Romanorum or coloniae maritimae as they were often built near the sea e g Ostia 350 BC and Rimini 268 BC The colonists consisted of about three hundred Roman veterans with their families who were assigned from 1 to 2 5 hectares of agricultural land from the ager colonicus state land as well as free use of the ager compascus scripturarius common state land for pasture and woodland 3 Latin colonies coloniae Latinae were considerably larger than Roman colonies They were military strongholds near or in enemy territory They may have been similar to the Athenian cleruchy The colonists were given large estates up to 35 hectares They lost their citizenship which they could regain if they returned to Rome After 133 BC tribunes introduced reforms to support the urban poor to become farmers again in new colonies as agricultural settlements e g Tarentum in 122 BC citation needed Under Caesar and in the Imperial era starting from Augustus thousands of Roman legionary veterans were granted lands in many coloniae in the empire and were responsible for the Romanization of many territories mainly in the spread of Latin language and of Roman laws and customs citation needed History editAccording to Livy Rome s first colonies were established in about 752 BC at Antemnae and Crustumerium both in Latium 4 Other early colonies were established at Signia in the 6th century BC Velitrae and Norba in the 5th century BC and Ostia Antium and Tarracina in the late 4th century In this first period of colonisation which lasted down to the end of the Punic Wars colonies were primarily military in purpose being intended to defend Roman territory The first Roman colony outside Italy was probably Italica in Hispania 5 founded in 206 BC by Publius Cornelius Scipio during the Second Carthaginian War 6 In the Empire colonies became large centres for the settlement of army veterans especially in Roman north Africa which had the largest density of Roman colonies per region in the Roman Empire where the Italic population constituted more than one third of the total population during the second century AD citation needed Under the Kingdom edit BC 752 at Antemnae and Crustumerium both in Latium BC 745 or 737 Fidenae became a Roman colony BC 737 CameriaUnder the Republic edit BC 396 Veii and Fidenae defeated 4 new tribus election district organised Stellatina Tromentana Sabatina Arniensis BC 385 Satricum lost and burned in BC 346 BC 354 349 Tibur Praeneste Caere Latium alliance agreement BC 332 or after Sutrium Nepete Latium BC 338 Ostia colony and portNew bilateral defence contracts with Falerii Tarquinii Etruria Caere again Pomptina and Poplilia tribus tribes formed in territories of Antium BC 338 Capua inhabitants got Roman civil rights BC 335 Cales Latium BC 332 two new voting tribus established Scaptia Maecia BC 329 Anxur Latium BC 318 Falerna tribus established Cales made contract with Rome again BC 318 Canusium Apulia New Roman municipiums made from small towns around Rome Aricia Lanuvium Nomentum Pedum Tusculum Latin ius contracts made with Tibur Praeneste Lavinium Cora Latium Ius comercii contracts made with Circei Notba Setia Signia Nepi Ardea Gabii Ius migrationi and ius connubii Ufentina tribus established on territories of Volscus city Antium Privernum Velitrae Terracia Fondi and Fotmiae made contract with Rome cives sine suffragio BC 303 Alba Fucens Carsioli Latium BC 313 Suessula Saticula Campania BC 315 Luceria Apulia BC 303 Sora Latium BC 299 Nequinum Narnia Narni in Etruria and Umbria was a keypoint fortress against the Samnis tribes BC 296 Minturnae Latium BC 291 Venusia Apulia colonia 20 000 male inhabitants to control the Samnis tribes BC 290 Pinceum besieged and occupied soon became a Roman colony BC 290 Hatri Atria by Adriatic sea Abruzzo BC 269 Castrum Novum Picenii in BC 286 BC 264 Picenum colonies Abruzzo BC 289 or in BC 283 Sena Gallica Umbria BC 273 Paestum Latium BC 273 Cosa Etruria BC 268 Beneventum Samnium BC 268 Ariminum Aemilia BC 268 Brundisium Apulia BC 264 Firmum BC 263 Aesernia Samnium BC 247 Alsium Etruria BC 245 Fregenae Etruria BC 222 Mediolanum Transoadana BC 218 Placentia Aemilia BC 218 Cremona Venetia et Histria BC 197 192 Volturnum Liternum Puteoli Salernum Campania Sipontum Buxentum Calabria BC 196 Brixia Venetia et Histria BC 193 Copia Lucania et Bruttii BC 192 Vibo Valentia Lucania et Bruttii BC 189 Bononia Aemilia BC 184 Pisaurum Umbria Potentia Romanorum Lucania et Bruttii BC 183 Mutina Parma Aemilia BC 181 Aquilea Venetia es Histria Gravisca Latium BC 180 Portus Pisanus Etruria BC 177 Luna Etruria BC 125 Pollentia Vardacate Liguria BC 123 118 Hasta Dertona Liguria BC 100 Eporedia Transpadana today Piemonte region BC 36 Tauromenium Sicily BC 21 Catina Sicily BC 21 Syracusae Sicily BC 21 Thermae Sicily BC 21 Tyndaris Sicily Under the Principate edit Colonies were not founded on a large scale until the inception of the Principate Augustus who needed to settle over a hundred thousand of his veterans after the end of his civil wars began a massive colony creation program throughout his empire However not all colonies were new cities Many were created from already occupied settlements and the process of colonization just expanded them Some of these colonies would later grow into large cities modern day Cologne was first founded as a Roman colony During this time provincial cities can gain the rank of colony gaining certain rights and privileges 7 After the era of the Severan emperors the new colonies were only cities that were granted a status often of tax exemption and in most cases during the Late Imperial times there was no more settlement of retired legionaries citation needed Effects and legacy of colonization editRoman colonies sometimes served as a potential reserve of veterans which could be called upon during times of emergency However these colonies more importantly served to produce future Roman citizens and therefore recruits to the Roman army 7 Roman colonies played a major role in the spread of the Latin language within the central and southern Italian peninsula during the early empire 8 The colonies showed surrounding native populations an example of Roman life 9 Since the veterans settled there were usually single until discharge and married local women colonies tended to become culturally integrated in their surroundings within a few generations Examples editModern name Latin name Modern country Roman province Foundation or Promotion Founder or Promotor additional InfoArles Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensis Sextanorum France Gallia Narbonensis 45 BC Julius CaesarBelgrade Singidunum Serbia Moesia Superior 239 AD founded by Celts c 279 BC conquered by Romans in 15 BCBudapest Aquincum Hungary Pannonia 41 54Carteia Carteia Spain Hispania Ulterior 171 BC Roman SenateColchester Colonia Claudia Victricensis Camulodunum United Kingdom Britannia Britannia Superior Maxima Caesariensis 49 ClaudiusKoln Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium Germany Germania Inferior 50 ClaudiusJerusalem on the site of Colonia Aelia Capitolina Hierosoloma Israel and Palestine Judaea After Bar Kokhba s revolt HadrianLincoln Lindum Colonia or Colonia Domitiana Lindensium United Kingdom Britannia Britannia Inferior Flavia Caesariensis 71 DomitianNarbonne Colonia Iulia Paterna Claudius Narbo Martius Decumanorum France Gallia Gallia Narbonensis 118 BC Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus refounded by Caesar in 45 BC 10 Patras Colonia Augusta Achaica Patrensis Greece Achaia After the battle of Actium AugustusSebinkarahisar Colonia Kolwneia Turkey Bithynia et Pontus 1st century BC Pompey 11 Colonia Iulia Concordia Apamea Turkey Bithynia Pontus ca 45 BC Iulius CaesarYork Eboracum United Kingdom Britannia Britannia Inferior Britannia Secunda early 3rd century 12 CaracallaMerida Colonia Emerita Augusta Spain Hispania Lusitania 25 BC Augustus for war veterans of V Alaudae and X Gemina legionsSarmizegetusa Colonia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Romania Dacia 106 110 TrajanAlba Iulia Apulum Romania Dacia 180 192 13 CommodusCluj Napoca Napoca Romania Dacia 2nd half of 2nd century CommodusDrobeta Turnu Severin Drobeta Romania Dacia 198 208 14 Septimius SeverusGigen Oescus Bulgaria Moesia Inferior 106 112 TrajanLjubljana Colonia Iulia Aemona Slovenia Illyricum 14 or 15 Decree of Augustus completed by Tiberius On the site of the Legio XV Apollinaris after it left for CarnuntumDebelt Colonia Flavia Pancensis Deultum Bulgaria Thracia After the Year of the Four Emperors Vespasian for veterans of VIII AugustaQalunya Colonia Amosa or Colonia Emmaus 15 Israel Judaea After 71 Vespasian Might have been Emmaus of the New Testament 16 Zaragoza Saragossa Caesaraugusta Spain Hispania Tarraconensis Between 25 BC and 11 BC 17 Augustus To settle army veterans from the Cantabrian wars Augsburg Augusta Vindelicorum Germany Raetia 15 BC 18 Augustus The name means the Augustan city of the Vindelici 19 See also editLocal government ancient Roman Duumviri Colonies in antiquity List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia List of ancient cities in IllyriaReferences edit E T Salmon The Coloniae Maritimae Athenaeum N S 41 1963 3 33 A N Sherwin White The Roman Citizenship 86 C G Severino Crotone Da polis a citta di Calabria 1988 p 29 Livy Ab urbe condita 1 11 Livy 25 June 2009 Hannibal s War Books 21 30 ISBN 978 0 19 955597 0 Archived from the original on 17 February 2023 Retrieved 17 February 2023 Appian Iberian Wars 38 a b Nigel Rodgers 2006 Roman Empire Dodge Hazel London Lorenz Books ISBN 0754816028 OCLC 62177842 History of Europe Romans Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 2018 07 03 Colonia Livius www livius org Archived from the original on 2018 07 02 Retrieved 2018 07 02 CHRONOLOGIE Les grandes dates Narbo Martius in French Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 4 February 2017 Procopius De Aedificiis 3 4 6 7 EBORACUM or Eburacum or Eburaco York Yorkshire England Archived from the original on 10 August 2020 Retrieved 4 May 2021 APULUM Alba Iulia Romania Archived from the original on 4 May 2021 Retrieved 4 May 2021 DROBETA or Drubeta Drobeta Turnu Severin Romania Archived from the original on 4 May 2021 Retrieved 4 May 2021 Khalidi 1992 p 309 Conder and Kitchener 1883 SWP III p 40 Sivan H S Keay R Mathisen DARMC R Talbert S Gillies J Ahlfeldt J Becker T Elliott Places 246344 Col Caesaraugusta Pleiades Archived from the original on 24 December 2014 Retrieved 23 December 2014 Jecmen Gregory Spira Freyda 2012 Imperial Augsburg Renaissance Prints and Drawings 1475 1540 National Gallery of Art U S p 25 ISBN 9781848221222 Tore Janson 2007 A Natural History of Latin OUP Oxford p 169 ISBN 9780191622656 Further reading editBradley Guy and John Paul Wilson eds 2006 Greek and Roman Colonization Origins Ideologies and Interactions Swansea UK Classical Press of Wales Broadhead William 2007 Colonization Land Distribution and Veteran Settlement In A Companion to the Roman Army Edited by Paul Erdkamp 148 163 Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World Malden MA Blackwell Crawford Michael H 2014 The Roman History of Roman Colonisation In The Roman Historical Tradition Regal and Republican Rome Oxford Readings in Classical Studies Edited by James H Richardson and Federico Santangelo Oxford New York Oxford University Press Curchin Leonard A 1991 Roman Spain Conquest and Assimilation London Routledge Fuhrmann Christopher J 2012 Policing the Roman Empire Soldiers Administration and Public Order Oxford and New York Oxford Univ Press Salmon Edward T 1955 Roman Expansion and Roman Colonization in Italy Phoenix 9 2 63 75 Stek Tesse D and Gert Jan Burgers eds 2015 The Impact of Rome on Cult Places and Religious Practices in Ancient Italy Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 132 London Institute of Classical Studies University of London Sears Gareth 2011 The Cities of Roman Africa Stroud UK History Press Termeer Marleen K 2010 Early Colonies in Latium ca 534 338 BC A Reconsideration of Current Images and the Archaeological Evidence Bulletin Antieke Beschaving 85 43 58 Woolf Greg 1998 Becoming Roman The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul Oxford Oxford Univ Press External links editJona Lendering Coloniae Livius org 2006 Archived 2014 02 28 at the Wayback Machine L Adkins and R A Adkins Coloniae in L Adkins and R A Adkins Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome New York 1994 Archived 2007 09 30 at the Wayback Machine M Bunson colonies Roman in M Bunson Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire New York 1994 Archived 2007 09 30 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Colonia Roman amp oldid 1190321581, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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