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Wikipedia

Restoration ecology

February 16, 2024

Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.[1] It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures.[2][3] Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change, and support local economies.[4] The United Nations named 2021-2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.[5]

Recently constructed wetland regeneration in Australia, on a site previously used for agriculture
Rehabilitation of a portion of Johnson Creek, to restore bioswale and flood control functions of the land which had long been converted to pasture for cow grazing. The horizontal logs can float, but are anchored by the posts. Just-planted trees will eventually stabilize the soil. The fallen trees with roots jutting into the stream are intended to enhance wildlife habitat. The meandering of the stream is enhanced here by a factor of about three times, perhaps to its original course.
Sankey diagram for the evolution of keywords used in publications about ecological restoration in Canada over time.

Scientists estimate that the current species extinction rate, or the rate of the Holocene extinction, is 1,000 to 10,000 times higher than the normal, background rate.[6][7][8] Habitat loss is a leading cause of species extinctions[8] and ecosystem service decline.[9]

Two methods have been identified to slow the rate of species extinction and ecosystem service decline: conservation of quality habitat and restoration of degraded habitat. The number and size of ecological restoration projects have increased exponentially in recent years.[10][11]

Restoration goals reflect political choices, and restoration goals differ by place and culture.[12][13][14][15]

Definition edit

Restoration ecology is the academic study of the science of restoration, whereas ecological restoration is the implementation by practitioners.[16] The Society for Ecological Restoration defines restoration as "the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed."[1] Ecological restoration includes a wide diversity of methods including erosion control, reforestation, removal of non-native species and weeds, revegetation of disturbed areas, daylighting streams, the reintroduction of native species, and habitat and range improvement for targeted species.[17] Many scholars and practitioners argue that ecological restoration must include local communities and stakeholders: they call this process the "social-ecological restoration".[18]

Rationale edit

There are many reasons to restore ecosystems. Some include:[19]

  • Restoring natural capital such as drinkable water or wildlife populations
  • Helping human communities and the ecosystems upon which they depend adapt to the impacts of climate change (through ecosystem-based adaptation)
  • Mitigating climate change (e.g. through carbon sequestration)[20]
  • Helping threatened or endangered species[21]
  • Aesthetic reasons [22]
  • Moral reasons: human intervention has unnaturally destroyed many habitats, and there exists an innate obligation to restore these destroyed habitats
  • Regulated use/harvest, particularly for subsistence[23]
  • Cultural importance to indigenous people[23][24]
  • The environmental health of nearby populations [25]
 
Forest restoration in action at the Buffelsdraai Landfill Site Community Reforestation Project in South Africa

There exist considerable differences of opinion on how to set restoration goals and how to define their success.[26] As Laura J. Martin writes, "Restoration targets are moral and political matters as well as logistical and scientific ones."[27] Some restorationists urge active restoration (e.g. killing invasive animals) and others believe that protected areas should have the bare minimum of human interference, such as rewilding.

Ecological restoration has generated controversy. Skeptics doubt that the benefits justify the economic investment or point to failed restoration projects and question the feasibility of restoration altogether. It can be difficult to set restoration goals because, as Anthony Bradshaw writes, "ecosystems are not static, but in a state of dynamic equilibrium."[28] Some scientists argue that, though an ecosystem may not be returned to its original state, the functions of a "novel ecosystem" are still valuable.[29]

Ecosystem restoration can mitigate climate change through activities such as afforestation. Afforestation involves replanting forests that remove carbon dioxide from the air. Forestry-based carbon offsetting is controversial and is sometimes critiqued as carbon colonialism.[30] Another driver of restoration projects in the United States is the legal framework of the Clean Water Act, which often requires mitigation for damage inflicted on aquatic systems by development or other activities.[31][32]

Theoretical foundations edit

Restoration ecology draws on a wide range of ecological concepts.

Disturbance edit

Disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that disrupt the functioning of an ecosystem. Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and is a natural component of many communities.[33] For example, many forest and grassland restorations implement fire as a natural disturbance regime. However the severity and scope of anthropogenic impact has grown in the last few centuries. Differentiating between human-caused and naturally occurring disturbances is important if we are to understand how to restore natural processes and minimize anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystems.

Succession edit

Ecological succession is the process by which a community changes over time, especially following a disturbance. In many instances, an ecosystem will change from a simple level of organization with a few dominant pioneer species to an increasingly complex community with many interdependent species. Restoration often consists of initiating, assisting, or accelerating ecological successional processes, depending on the severity of the disturbance.[34] Following mild to moderate natural and anthropogenic disturbances, restoration in these systems involves hastening natural successional trajectories through careful management. However, in a system that has experienced a more severe disturbance (such as in urban ecosystems), restoration may require intensive efforts to recreate environmental conditions that favor natural successional processes.[35]

Fragmentation edit

Habitat fragmentation describes spatial discontinuities in a biological system, where ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land-use changes (e.g. agriculture) and natural disturbance. This both reduces the size of the population and increases the degree of isolation. These smaller and isolated populations are more vulnerable to extinction. Fragmenting ecosystems decreases the quality of the habitat. The edge of a fragment has a different range of environmental conditions and therefore supports different species than the interior. Restorative projects can increase the effective size of a population by adding suitable habitat and decrease isolation by creating habitat corridors that link isolated fragments. Reversing the effects of fragmentation is an important component of restoration ecology.[36][37][38] The composition of the surrounding landscape can also influence the effectiveness of restoration projects. For example, a restoration site that is closer to remaining vegetation will be more likely to be naturally regenerated through seed disperal than a site that is further away.[39]

Ecosystem function edit

Ecosystem function describes the most basic and essential foundational processes of any natural systems, including nutrient cycles and energy fluxes. An understanding of the complexity of these ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological processes that may be degraded. Ecosystem functions are emergent properties of the system as a whole, thus monitoring and management are crucial for the long-term stability of ecosystems. A completely self-perpetuating and fully functional ecosystem is the ultimate goal of restorative efforts. We must understand what ecosystem properties influence others to restore desired functions and reach this goal.[40]

Community assembly edit

Community assembly "is a framework that can unify virtually all of (community) ecology under a single conceptual umbrella".[41] Community assembly theory attempts to explain the existence of environmentally similar sites with differing assemblages of species. It assumes that species have similar niche requirements, so that community formation is a product of random fluctuations from a common species pool.[42] Essentially, if all species are fairly ecologically equivalent, then random variation in colonization, and migration and extinction rates between species, drive differences in species composition between sites with comparable environmental conditions.[43]

Population genetics edit

Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes.[44] Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices. Population genetic processes that are important to consider in restored populations include founder effects, inbreeding depression, outbreeding depression, genetic drift, and gene flow. Such processes can predict whether or not a species successfully establishes at a restoration site.[45][46]

Applications edit

Leaf litter accumulation edit

Leaf litter accumulation plays an important role in the restoration process. Higher quantities of leaf litter hold higher humidity levels, a key factor for the establishment of plants. The process of accumulation depends on factors like wind and species composition of the forest. The leaf litter found in primary forests is more abundant, deeper, and holds more humidity than in secondary forests. These technical considerations are important to take into account when planning a restoration project.[47]

Soil heterogeneity effects on community heterogeneity edit

Spatial heterogeneity of resources can influence plant community composition, diversity, and assembly trajectory. Baer et al. (2005) manipulated soil resource heterogeneity in a tallgrass prairie restoration project. They found increasing resource heterogeneity, which on its own was insufficient to ensure species diversity in situations where one species may dominate across the range of resource levels. Their findings were consistent with the theory regarding the role of ecological filters on community assembly. The establishment of a single species, best adapted to the physical and biological conditions can play an inordinately important role in determining the community structure.[48]

Invasion and restoration edit

Restoration is used as a tool for reducing the spread of invasive plant species many ways. The first method views restoration primarily as a means to reduce the presence of invasive species and limit their spread. As this approach emphasizes the control of invaders, the restoration techniques can differ from typical restoration projects.[49][50] The goal of such projects is not necessarily to restore an entire ecosystem or habitat.[51] These projects frequently use lower diversity mixes of aggressive native species seeded at high density.[52] They are not always actively managed following seeding.[53] The target areas for this type of restoration are those which are heavily dominated by invasive species. The goals are to first remove the species and then in so doing, reduce the number of invasive seeds being spread to surrounding areas. An example of this is through the use of biological control agents (such as herbivorous insects) which suppress invasive weed species while restoration practitioners concurrently seed in native plant species that take advantage of the freed resources.[54] These approaches have been shown to be effective in reducing weeds, although it is not always a sustainable solution long term without additional weed control, such as mowing, or re-seeding.[50][53][55][56]

Restoration projects are also used as a way to better understand what makes an ecological community resistant to invasion. As restoration projects have a broad range of implementation strategies and methods used to control invasive species, they can be used by ecologists to test theories about invasion.[53] Restoration projects have been used to understand how the diversity of the species introduced in the restoration affects invasion. We know that generally higher diversity prairies have lower levels of invasion.[57] The incorporation of functional ecology has shown that more functionally diverse restorations have lower levels of invasion.[58] Furthermore, studies have shown that using native species functionally similar to invasive species are better able to compete with invasive species.[59][60] Restoration ecologists have also used a variety of strategies employed at different restoration sites to better understand the most successful management techniques to control invasion.[61] To develop restoration ecology into a full science and to improve its practice requires generalizations about the processes governing the development of restored communities. While new experiments can be designed , one way forward is to use data from existing restoration studies to relate plant species performance to their ecological trait.[62]

Successional trajectories edit

Progress along a desired successional pathway may be difficult if multiple stable states exist. Looking over 40 years of wetland restoration data, Klötzli and Gootjans (2001) argue that unexpected and undesired vegetation assemblies "may indicate that environmental conditions are not suitable for target communities".[63] Succession may move in unpredicted directions, but constricting environmental conditions within a narrow range may rein in the possible successional trajectories and increase the likelihood of the desired outcome.[64][65]

Sourcing land for restoration edit

A study quantified climate change mitigation potentials of 'high-income' nations shifting diets – away from meat-consumption – and restoration of the spared land. They find that the hypothetical dietary change "could reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61% while sequestering as much as 98.3 (55.6–143.7) GtCO2 equivalent, equal to approximately 14 years of current global agricultural emissions until natural vegetation matures", outcomes they call 'double climate dividend'.[66][67]

Sourcing material for restoration edit

For most restoration projects it is generally recommended to source material from local populations, to increase the chance of restoration success and minimize the effects of maladaptation.[68] However the definition of local can vary based on species, habitat and region.[69] US Forest Service recently developed provisional seed zones based on a combination of minimum winter temperature zones, aridity, and the Level III ecoregions.[70] Rather than putting strict distance recommendations, other guidelines recommend sourcing seeds to match similar environmental conditions that the species is exposed to, either now, or under projected climate change. For example, sourcing for Castilleja levisecta found that farther source populations that matched similar environmental variables were better suited for the restoration project than closer source populations.[71] Similarly, a suite of new methods are surveying gene-environment interactions in order to identify the optimum source populations based on genetic adaptation to environmental conditions.[72][73]

Challenges edit

Some view ecosystem restoration as impractical, partially because restorations often fall short of their goals. Hilderbrand et al. point out that many times uncertainty (about ecosystem functions, species relationships, and such) is not addressed, and that the time-scales set out for 'complete' restoration are unreasonably short, while other critical markers for full-scale restoration are either ignored or abridged due to feasibility concerns.[74] In other instances an ecosystem may be so degraded that abandonment (allowing a severely degraded ecosystem to recover on its own) may be the wisest option.[75] Local communities sometimes object to restorations that include the introduction of large predators or plants that require disturbance regimes such as regular fires, citing threat to human habitation in the area.[76] High economic costs can also be perceived as a negative impact of the restoration process.

 
Ecosystem restoration for the superb parrot on an abandoned railway line in Australia

Public opinion is very important in the feasibility of a restoration; if the public believes that the costs of restoration outweigh the benefits they will not support it.[76]

Many failures have occurred in past restoration projects, many times because clear goals were not set out as the aim of the restoration, or an incomplete understanding of the underlying ecological framework lead to insufficient measures. This may be because, as Peter Alpert says, "people may not [always] know how to manage natural systems effectively".[77] Furthermore, many assumptions are made about myths of restoration such as carbon copy, where a restoration plan, which worked in one area, is applied to another with the same results expected, but not realized.[74]

Science–practice gap edit

 
Restored prairie at the West Eugene Wetlands in Eugene, Oregon

One of the struggles for both fields is a divide between restoration ecology and ecological restoration in practice. Many restoration practitioners as well as scientists feel that science is not being adequately incorporated into ecological restoration projects.[78][79][80][81] In a 2009 survey of practitioners and scientists, the "science-practice gap" was listed as the second most commonly cited reason limiting the growth of both science and practice of restoration.[79]

There are a variety of theories about the cause of this gap. However, it has been well established that one of the main issues is that the questions studied by restoration ecologists are frequently not found useful or easily applicable by land managers.[78][82] For instance, many publications in restoration ecology characterize the scope of a problem in-depth, without providing concrete solutions.[82] Additionally many restoration ecology studies are carried out under controlled conditions and frequently at scales much smaller than actual restorations.[53] Whether or not these patterns hold true in an applied context is often unknown. There is evidence that these small-scale experiments inflate type II error rates and differ from ecological patterns in actual restorations.[83][84] One approach to addressing this gap has been the development of International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration by the Society for Ecological restoration (see below) – however this approach is contended, with scientists active in the field suggesting that this is restrictive, and instead principles and guidelines offer flexibility.[85]

There is further complication in that restoration ecologists who want to collect large-scale data on restoration projects can face enormous hurdles in obtaining the data. Managers vary in how much data they collect, and how many records they keep. Some agencies keep only a handful of physical copies of data that make it difficult for the researcher to access.[86] Many restoration projects are limited by time and money, so data collection and record-keeping are not always feasible.[79] However, this limits the ability of scientists to analyze restoration projects and give recommendations based on empirical data.

Food security and nature degradation edit

A range of activities in the name of "nature restoration", such as monoculture tree plantations, "degrade nature—destroying biodiversity, increasing pollution, and removing land from food production".[87]

Consideration as a substitute for steep emission reductions edit

Climate benefits from nature restoration are "dwarfed by the scale of ongoing fossil fuel emissions".[88][87] It risks "over-relying on land for mitigation at the expense of phasing out fossil fuels". Despite these issues, nature restoration is receiving increasing attention, with a study concluding that "Land restoration is an important option for tackling climate change but cannot compensate for delays in reducing fossil fuel emissions" as it's "unlikely to be done quickly enough to notably reduce the global peak temperatures expected in the next few decades".[87]

For instance, researchers have compared reforestation and prevention of (mainly tropical) deforestation in specific:

This section is an excerpt from Reforestation § Comparison to forest protection.[edit]
Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the former leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation.[89] Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest.[90] Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019.[91] Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact.[92] It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.[93] Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution".[94]

Contrasting restoration ecology and conservation biology edit

Both restoration ecologists and conservation biologists agree that protecting and restoring habitat is important for protecting biodiversity. However, conservation biology is primarily rooted in population biology. Because of that, it is generally organized at the population genetic level and assesses specific species populations (i.e. endangered species). Restoration ecology is organized at the community level, which focuses on broader groups within ecosystems.[95]

In addition, conservation biology often concentrates on vertebrate and invertebrate animals because of their salience and popularity, whereas restoration ecology concentrates on plants. Restoration ecology focuses on plants because restoration projects typically begin by establishing plant communities. Ecological restoration, despite being focused on plants, may also have "umbrella species" for individual ecosystems and restoration projects.[95] For example, the Monarch butterfly is an umbrella species for conserving and restoring milkweed plant habitat, because Monarch butterflies require milkweed plants to reproduce. Finally, restoration ecology has a stronger focus on soils, soil structure, fungi, and microorganisms because soils provide the foundation of functional terrestrial ecosystems.[96][97]

International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration edit

The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) released the second edition of the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration on September 27, 2019, in Cape Town, South Africa, at SER's 8th World Conference on Ecological Restoration.[98]  The publication provides updated and expanded guidance on the practice of ecological restoration, clarifies the breadth of ecological restoration and allied environmental repair activities, and includes ideas and input from a diverse international group of restoration scientists and practitioners.

The second edition builds on the first edition of the Standards, which was released December 12, 2016, at the Convention on Biological Diversity's 13th Conference of the Parties in Cancun, Mexico. The development of these Standards has been broadly consultative. The first edition was circulated to dozens of practitioners and experts for feedback and review. After release of the first edition, SER held workshops and listening sessions, sought feedback from key international partners and stakeholders, opened a survey to members, affiliates and supporters, and considered and responded to published critiques.

The International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration:

  • Present a robust framework to guide restoration projects toward achieving intended goals.
  • Address restoration challenges including: effective design and implementation, accounting for complex ecosystem dynamics (especially in the context of climate change), and navigating trade-offs associated with land management priorities and decisions.
  • Highlight the role of ecological restoration in connecting social, community, productivity, and sustainability goals.
  • Recommend performance measures for restorative activities for industries, communities, and governments to consider.
  • Enhance the list of practices and actions that guide practitioners in planning, implementation, and monitoring activities, including: appropriate approaches to site assessment and identification of reference ecosystems, different restoration approaches including natural regeneration, and the role of ecological restoration in global restoration initiatives.
  • Include an expanded glossary of restoration terminology.
  • Provide a technical appendix on sourcing of seeds and other propagules for restoration.

History edit

Indigenous peoples, land managers, stewards, and laypeople have been practicing ecological restoration or ecological management for thousands of years.[99] Restoration ecology emerged as a separate field in ecology in the late twentieth century.[100] The term was coined by John Aber and William Jordan III when they were at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.[101][when?]

US edit

Prior to the emergence of ecology as a scientific discipline, large-scale restoration began with big game restoration in the early 20th century.[102] The first native plant restoration project in the United States was established in 1907 by Eloise Butler in Minneapolis, Minnesota.[103][104] This was followed by the Vassar College Ecological Laboratory restoration program, founded by Professor Edith Roberts in 1921.[105] The first tallgrass prairie restoration was the 1936 Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Arboretum.[106][101] Civilian Conservation Corps workers replanted nearby prairie species onto a former horse pasture, overseen by university faculty including Aldo Leopold, Theodore Sperry, Henry C. Greene, and John T. Curtis.[107] The UW Arboretum was the center of tallgrass prairie research through the first half of the 20th century and the study of techniques like prescribed burning.[106] It was followed by the 40-hectare Schulenberg Prairie at the Morton Arboretum, initiated in 1962 by Ray Schulenberg and Robert Betz. Betz then worked with The Nature Conservancy to establish the 260-hectare Fermi National Laboratory tallgrass prairie in 1974.[108] Restoration ecology emerged as a distinct sub-discipline of ecology and natural resources management with the dramatic increase in the number of protected natural areas in the 1980s.[109] In 1997 the National Wildlife Federation signed a memorandum of understanding with the Intertribal Bison Cooperative, the first-ever conservation agreement between an environmental organization and an inter-tribal group, to advocate for the restoration of wild bison to tribal lands.[110] Anishinaabek/Neshnabék throughout the Great Lakes region are leading ecological restoration projects that, in the words of Kyle Whyte, "seek to learn from, adapt, and put into practice local human and nonhuman relationships and stories at the convergence of deep Anishinaabe history and the disruptiveness of industrial settler campaigns."[111]

Australia edit

Australia has been the site of historically significant ecological restoration projects, commencing in the 1930s. These projects were responses to the extensive environmental damage inflicted by colonising settlers, following the forced dispossession of the First Nations communities of Australia. The substantial Traditional Ecological Knowledge of First Nations communities was not utilised in the historical restoration projects.

Many of the first Australian settler restoration projects were initiated by volunteers, often in the form of community groups. Many of these volunteers appreciated and utilised science resources, such as botanical and ecological knowledge. Local and state government agencies participated, and also industry. Australian scientists came to play an increasingly important role. A prominent scientist who took an interest in the reversal of vegetation degradation was botanist and plant ecologist Professor T G Osborn, University of Adelaide, who, in the 1920s, conducted pioneering research into the causes of arid-zone indigenous vegetation degradation. From this time, Australian botanists, plant ecologists and soil erosion researchers have increasingly developed interests in the recovery of ecological functioning on degraded sites.

The earliest known attempt by Australian settlers to restore a degraded natural ecosystem commenced in 1896, at Nairm (as it is known to people of the Kulin nation), or Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne.[112] Local government and community groups replanted degraded areas of the foreshore reserves with the indigenous plant species, Coastal Teatree (Leptospermum laevigatum).[112] The projects were motivated by utilitarian considerations: to conserve recreation sites, and promote tourism. However, some local residents, including Australian journalist, nature writer and amateur ornithologist, Donald Macdonald, were distressed at the loss of valued biological qualities, and campaigned to fully restore the Teatree ecosystems and conserve them and their indigenous fauna.[112]

The degraded arid-zone regions of Australia were the site of historical ecological restoration projects. Pastoral industry established in the arid-zone regions of South Australia and New South Wales resulted in the substantial degradation of these areas by ca.1900 resulting in severe wind erosion. From approximately 1930, Australian pastoralists implemented revegetation projects aiming to the substantial to full restoration of indigenous flora to degraded, wind eroded areas.[113]

At his arid-zone Koonamore research station in South Australia, established in 1925, Professor T G Osborn studied the loss of indigenous vegetation caused by overstocking and the resultant wind erosion and degradation, concluding that restoration of the indigenous saltbushes (Atriplex spp.), bluebushes (Maireana spp.) and mulga (Acacia aneura) vegetation communities was possible, if a stock exclosure and natural regeneration revegetation technique was applied to degraded paddocks.[114] Most likely influenced by Osborn's research, throughout the 1930s South Australian pastoralists adopted this revegetation technique. For example, at Wirraminna station (or property, ranch), following fencing to exclude stock, severe soil-drifts were fully revegetated and stabilised through natural regeneration of the indigenous vegetation. It was also found that furrowing (or ploughing) of eroded areas resulted in the natural regeneration of indigenous vegetation. So successful were these programs that the South Australian government adopted them as approved state soil conservation policies in 1936. Legislation introduced in 1939 codified these policies.[115]

In 1936 mining assayer Albert Morris and his restoration colleagues initiated the Broken Hill regeneration area project. This project involved the natural regeneration of indigenous flora on a severely wind eroded site of hundreds of hectares, located in arid western New South Wales.[116] Local and state governments, and the Broken Hill mining industry, supported and funded the project.[116] In fact, as the regeneration area project was so well adapted to the harsh arid-zone conditions, the New South Wales state government adopted it as a model for the proposed restoration of the twenty million hectares of the arid western portion of the state that had been reduced to a severely eroded condition. Legislation to this effect was passed in 1949.[117]

Another significant early Australian settler ecological restoration project occurred on the north coast of New South Wales. From approximately 1840 settlers forcibly occupied the coastal hinterlands, dispossessed First Nations communities, destroyed extensive areas of biologically diverse rainforest and converted the land to farms. Only small patches of rainforest survived. In 1935 dairy farmer Ambrose Crawford began restoring a degraded four acre (1.7 hectare) patch of local rainforest, or "Big Scrub" (Lowland Tropical Rainforest), as it was referred to, at Lumley Park reserve, Alstonville.[118] His main restoration techniques were clearing weeds that were smothering the rainforest plants and planting of suitable indigenous rainforest species. Crawford utilised professional government botanists as advisors, and received support from his local government council. The restored rainforest reserve still exists today.

United Kingdom edit

Natural Capital Committee's recommendation for a 25-year plan edit

The UK Natural Capital Committee (NCC) made a recommendation in its second State of Natural Capital report published in March 2014 that in order to meet the Government's goal of being the first generation to leave the environment in a better state than it was inherited, a long-term 25-year plan was needed to maintain and improve England's natural capital.

The Secretary of State for the UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Owen Paterson, described his ambition for the natural environment and how the work of the Committee fits into this at an NCC event in November 2012: "I do not, however, just want to maintain our natural assets; I want to improve them. I want us to derive the greatest possible benefit from them, while ensuring that they are available for generations to come. This is what the NCC's innovative work is geared towards".[119]

Traditional ecological knowledge edit

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) from Indigenous Peoples demonstrates how restoration ecology is a historical field, lived out by humans for thousands of years.[120] Indigenous people have acquired ecological knowledge through observation, experience, and management of the natural resources and the environment around them. In the past, they managed their environment and changed the structure of the vegetation to not only meet their basic needs (food, water, shelter, medicines) but also to improve desired characteristics and even increasing the populations and biodiversity. In that way, they achieved a close relationship with the environment and learned lessons that indigenous people keep in their culture.[99]

This means there is much that could be learned from local people indigenous to the ecosystem being restored[121] because of the deep connection and biocultural and linguistic diversity of place.[122] The use of natural resources by indigenous people considers many cultural, social, and environmental aspects, since they have always had an intimate connection with the animals and plants around them over centuries since they obtained their livelihood from the environment around them.[123]

Restoration ecologists must consider that TEK is place dependent due to intimate connection[124] and thus when engaging Indigenous Peoples to include knowledge for restoration purposes, respect and care must be taken to avoid appropriation of the TEK.[125] Successful ecological restoration which includes Indigenous Peoples must be led by Indigenous Peoples[125] to ensure non-indigenous people acknowledge the unequal relationship of power.[126]

For example, the California Indians have a rigid and complex harvesting, management and production practice, largely typical horticultural techniques and concentrated forest burning. The California Indians had a rich knowledge of ecology and natural techniques to understand burn patterns, plant material, cultivation, pruning, digging; what was edible vs. what was not. This knowledge extends into wildlife management – how abundant, where the distribution was, and how diverse the large mammal population was.[127] While the United States has counteracted the degradation, fragmentation and loss of habitat through land set aside from all human influence, indigenous practices could inform ecosystem restoration and wildlife management.[127]

Related journals edit

See also edit

References edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b "Restoration Resource Center What is Ecological Restoration?". ser-rrc.org. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
  2. ^ "Restoration Resource Center What is Ecological Restoration?". ser-rrc.org. Retrieved February 4, 2024.
  3. ^ Martin, Laura (2022). Wild by Design: The Rise of Ecological Restoration. Harvard University Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780674979420.
  4. ^ UNEP-WCMC (April 30, 2020). "10 years to boost ecosystem restoration for people and planet". UNEP-WCMC. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  5. ^ "UN Decade on Restoration". UN Decade on Restoration. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
  6. ^ Pimm, Stuart L.; Russell, Gareth J.; Gittleman, John L.; Brooks, Thomas M. (July 21, 1995). "The Future of Biodiversity". Science. 269 (5222): 347–350. Bibcode:1995Sci...269..347P. doi:10.1126/science.269.5222.347. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17841251. S2CID 35154695.
  7. ^ Simberloff, Daniel (January 1996). "Lawton, J. H. and May, R. M. (Eds.). Extinction Rates. 1995. Oxford University Press, Oxford. xii + 233 pp. Price: f17.95". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 9 (1): 124–126. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1996.t01-1-9010124.x. ISBN 0-19-854829-X. ISSN 1010-061X.
  8. ^ a b Sciences, National Academy of (January 1, 1988). Biodiversity. doi:10.17226/989. ISBN 978-0-309-03739-6. PMID 25032475.
  9. ^ Daily, Gretchen C. (1997). "Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems" (PDF). Issues in Ecology.
  10. ^ Young, T. P.; Petersen, D. A.; Clary, J. J. (April 28, 2005). "The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms". Ecology Letters. 8 (6): 662–673. Bibcode:2005EcolL...8..662Y. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00764.x. ISSN 1461-023X.
  11. ^ BenDor, Todd; Lester, T. William; Livengood, Avery; Davis, Adam; Yonavjak, Logan (June 17, 2015). "Estimating the Size and Impact of the Ecological Restoration Economy". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0128339. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1028339B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128339. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4470920. PMID 26083034.
  12. ^ Lackey, Robert (2004). "Societal values and the proper role of restoration ecologists" (PDF). Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 22 (4): 45–46.
  13. ^ Martin, Laura J. (2022). Wild by design: the rise of ecological restoration. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-97942-0.
  14. ^ Hall, Marcus (2005). Earth Repair: A Transatlantic History of Environmental Restoration. University of Virginia Press.
  15. ^ Higgs, Eric S.; Higgs, Eric (2003). Nature by design: people, natural process, and ecological restoration. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-58226-1.
  16. ^ Palmer, Margaret (2016). Foundations of Restoration Ecology. Island Press. ISBN 9781610916974.
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Bibliography edit

  • Allen, M.F., Jasper, D.A. & Zak, J.C. (2002). Micro-organisms. In Perrow M.R. & Davy, A.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Ecological Restoration, Volume 1 Principles of Restoration, pp. 257–278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79128-6
  • Anderson, M.K. (2005). Tending the Wild: Native American knowledge and the management of California's natural resources. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23856-7
  • Ardill, Peter J. (2017) Albert Morris and the Broken Hill regeneration area: time, landscape and renewal. Australian Association of Bush Regenerators (AABR). Sydney. http://www.aabr.org.au/morris-broken-hill/
  • Ardill, Peter J (2021) ‘Innovative Federation and Inter-war Period repair of degraded natural areas and their ecosystems: local government and community restoration of Coast Teatree Leptospermum laevigatum at Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia’ The Repair Press Sydney (February) https://ecologicalrestorationhistory.org/articles/
  • Ardill, Peter J. (2022). "Rekindling memory of environmental repair responses to the Australian wind erosion crisis of 1930–45: ecologically aligned restoration of degraded arid-zone pastoral lands and the resultant shaping of state soil conservation policies" (PDF). Ecological Restoration History. The Repair Press Sydney.
  • Baer, S.G., Collins, S.L., Blair, J.M., Knapp, A.K. & Fiedler, A.K. 2005. "Soil heterogeneity effects on tallgrass prairie community heterogeneity: an application of ecological theory to restoration ecology". Restoration Ecology 13 (2), 413–424.
  • Bradshaw, A.D. (1987). Restoration: the acid test for ecology. In Jordan, W.R., Gilpin, M.E. & Aber, J.D. (Eds.), Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to Ecological Research, pp. 23–29. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33728-3
  • Bradshaw, A. D. 1997. What do we mean by restoration?. Restoration ecology and sustainable development., eds. Krystyna M., Urbanska, Nigel R., Webb, Edwards P. University Press, Cambridge.
  • Court, Franklin E. (2012) Pioneers of ecological restoration: the people and legacy of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299286644
  • Daily, G.C., Alexander, S., Ehrlich, P.R., Goulder, L., Lubchenco, J., Matson, P.A., Mooney, H.A., Postel, S., Schneider, S.H., Tilman, D. & Woodwell, G.M. (1997) "Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems". Issues in Ecology 1 (2), 1–18.
  • Harris, J.A. (2003) Measurements of the soil microbial community for estimating the success of restoration. European Journal of Soil Science. 54, 801–808.
  • Harris, J.A., Hobbs, R.J, Higgs, E. and Aronson, J. (2006) Ecological restoration and global climate change. Restoration Ecology 14(2) 170 - 176.
  • Hilderbrand et al. 2005. The myths of restoration ecology. Ecology and Society 10(2): 19. Full Article
  • Holl, K. 2006. Professor of environmental studies at the university of California santa cruz. Personal Communication.
  • Jordan, William R. & Lubick, George M. (2012) Making nature whole: a history of ecological restoration. Washington, D.C. Island Press. ISBN 9781597265126
  • Klotzi, F. & Gootjans, A.P. (2001). Restoration of natural and semi-natural wetland systems in Central Europe: progress and predictability of developments. Restoration Ecology 9 (2), 209–219.
  • Liu, John D (2011). Finding Sustainability in Ecosystem Restoration. Kosmos Fall | Winter 2011. Full Article
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  • Seabloom, E.W., Harpole, W.S., Reichman, O.J. & Tilman, D. 2003. "Invasion, competitive dominance, and resource use by exotic and native California grassland species". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (23), 13384–13389.
  • SER (2004). The SER Primer on Ecological Restoration, Version 2. Society for Ecological Restoration Science and Policy Working Group.
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  • van Andel, J. & Grootjans, A.P. (2006). Restoration Ecology: The New Frontier . In van Andel, J. & Aronson, J. (Eds.), Restoration Ecology, pp. 16–28. Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-05834-X
  • White, P.S. & Jentsch, A. (2004). Disturbance, succession and community assembly in terrestrial plant communities. In Temperton, V.K., Hobbs, R.J., Nuttle, T. & Halle, S. (Eds.), Assembly Rules and Restoration Ecology: Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice, pp. 342–366. Washington, DC: Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-375-1
  • Wilson, E. O. (1988). Biodiversity. Washington DC: National Academy. ISBN 0-309-03739-5
  • Young, T.P. (2000). "Restoration ecology and conservation biology". Biological Conservation. 92, 73–83.
  • Young, T.P., Chase, J.M. & Huddleston, R.T. (2001). "Succession and assembly as conceptual bases in community ecology and ecological restoration". Ecological Restoration. 19, 5–19.
  • Young, T.P., Petersen, D.A. & Clary, J.J. (2005). "The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms". Ecology Letters 8, 662–673.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ecological restoration.
  • Restoration Ecology: The Journal of the Society for Ecological Restoration
  • Australian Ecological Restoration History
  • Society for Ecological Restoration
  • Restoration ecology working group at restoration-ecology.eu
  • Nature - Revive Service
  • Nature Education Knowledge entry on Restoration Ecology (peer-reviewed) at nature.com
  • Green Infrastructure Resource Guide at asla.org
  • Conservation Effects Assessment Project bibliographies at nal.usda.gov
  • Seagrass Restoration Information at seagrassli.org
  • Back to Natives Restoration (non-profit org.) at backtonatives.org
  • A Guide to Prairie and Wetland Restoration In Eastern Nebraska
  • EEMP – a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization dedicated to communicate the lessons of restoration through media around the world.
  • Hope in a Changing Climate awarded documentary film on the potential of global ecosystem restoration
  • Massachusetts Division of Ecological Restoration

February 16, 2024
restoration, ecology, ecological, restoration, process, assisting, recovery, ecosystem, that, been, degraded, damaged, destroyed, distinct, from, conservation, that, attempts, retroactively, repair, already, damaged, ecosystems, rather, than, take, preventativ. Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded damaged or destroyed 1 It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures 2 3 Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss combat climate change and support local economies 4 The United Nations named 2021 2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 5 Recently constructed wetland regeneration in Australia on a site previously used for agricultureRehabilitation of a portion of Johnson Creek to restore bioswale and flood control functions of the land which had long been converted to pasture for cow grazing The horizontal logs can float but are anchored by the posts Just planted trees will eventually stabilize the soil The fallen trees with roots jutting into the stream are intended to enhance wildlife habitat The meandering of the stream is enhanced here by a factor of about three times perhaps to its original course Sankey diagram for the evolution of keywords used in publications about ecological restoration in Canada over time Scientists estimate that the current species extinction rate or the rate of the Holocene extinction is 1 000 to 10 000 times higher than the normal background rate 6 7 8 Habitat loss is a leading cause of species extinctions 8 and ecosystem service decline 9 Two methods have been identified to slow the rate of species extinction and ecosystem service decline conservation of quality habitat and restoration of degraded habitat The number and size of ecological restoration projects have increased exponentially in recent years 10 11 Restoration goals reflect political choices and restoration goals differ by place and culture 12 13 14 15 Contents 1 Definition 2 Rationale 3 Theoretical foundations 3 1 Disturbance 3 2 Succession 3 3 Fragmentation 3 4 Ecosystem function 3 5 Community assembly 3 6 Population genetics 4 Applications 4 1 Leaf litter accumulation 4 2 Soil heterogeneity effects on community heterogeneity 4 3 Invasion and restoration 4 4 Successional trajectories 4 5 Sourcing land for restoration 4 6 Sourcing material for restoration 5 Challenges 5 1 Science practice gap 5 2 Food security and nature degradation 5 3 Consideration as a substitute for steep emission reductions 6 Contrasting restoration ecology and conservation biology 7 International Principles amp Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration 8 History 8 1 US 8 2 Australia 8 3 United Kingdom 8 3 1 Natural Capital Committee s recommendation for a 25 year plan 9 Traditional ecological knowledge 10 Related journals 11 See also 12 References 12 1 Notes 12 2 Bibliography 13 External linksDefinition editRestoration ecology is the academic study of the science of restoration whereas ecological restoration is the implementation by practitioners 16 The Society for Ecological Restoration defines restoration as the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded damaged or destroyed 1 Ecological restoration includes a wide diversity of methods including erosion control reforestation removal of non native species and weeds revegetation of disturbed areas daylighting streams the reintroduction of native species and habitat and range improvement for targeted species 17 Many scholars and practitioners argue that ecological restoration must include local communities and stakeholders they call this process the social ecological restoration 18 Rationale editThere are many reasons to restore ecosystems Some include 19 Restoring natural capital such as drinkable water or wildlife populations Helping human communities and the ecosystems upon which they depend adapt to the impacts of climate change through ecosystem based adaptation Mitigating climate change e g through carbon sequestration 20 Helping threatened or endangered species 21 Aesthetic reasons 22 Moral reasons human intervention has unnaturally destroyed many habitats and there exists an innate obligation to restore these destroyed habitats Regulated use harvest particularly for subsistence 23 Cultural importance to indigenous people 23 24 The environmental health of nearby populations 25 nbsp Forest restoration in action at the Buffelsdraai Landfill Site Community Reforestation Project in South AfricaThere exist considerable differences of opinion on how to set restoration goals and how to define their success 26 As Laura J Martin writes Restoration targets are moral and political matters as well as logistical and scientific ones 27 Some restorationists urge active restoration e g killing invasive animals and others believe that protected areas should have the bare minimum of human interference such as rewilding Ecological restoration has generated controversy Skeptics doubt that the benefits justify the economic investment or point to failed restoration projects and question the feasibility of restoration altogether It can be difficult to set restoration goals because as Anthony Bradshaw writes ecosystems are not static but in a state of dynamic equilibrium 28 Some scientists argue that though an ecosystem may not be returned to its original state the functions of a novel ecosystem are still valuable 29 Ecosystem restoration can mitigate climate change through activities such as afforestation Afforestation involves replanting forests that remove carbon dioxide from the air Forestry based carbon offsetting is controversial and is sometimes critiqued as carbon colonialism 30 Another driver of restoration projects in the United States is the legal framework of the Clean Water Act which often requires mitigation for damage inflicted on aquatic systems by development or other activities 31 32 Theoretical foundations editRestoration ecology draws on a wide range of ecological concepts Disturbance edit Disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that disrupt the functioning of an ecosystem Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales and is a natural component of many communities 33 For example many forest and grassland restorations implement fire as a natural disturbance regime However the severity and scope of anthropogenic impact has grown in the last few centuries Differentiating between human caused and naturally occurring disturbances is important if we are to understand how to restore natural processes and minimize anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystems Succession edit Ecological succession is the process by which a community changes over time especially following a disturbance In many instances an ecosystem will change from a simple level of organization with a few dominant pioneer species to an increasingly complex community with many interdependent species Restoration often consists of initiating assisting or accelerating ecological successional processes depending on the severity of the disturbance 34 Following mild to moderate natural and anthropogenic disturbances restoration in these systems involves hastening natural successional trajectories through careful management However in a system that has experienced a more severe disturbance such as in urban ecosystems restoration may require intensive efforts to recreate environmental conditions that favor natural successional processes 35 Fragmentation edit Habitat fragmentation describes spatial discontinuities in a biological system where ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land use changes e g agriculture and natural disturbance This both reduces the size of the population and increases the degree of isolation These smaller and isolated populations are more vulnerable to extinction Fragmenting ecosystems decreases the quality of the habitat The edge of a fragment has a different range of environmental conditions and therefore supports different species than the interior Restorative projects can increase the effective size of a population by adding suitable habitat and decrease isolation by creating habitat corridors that link isolated fragments Reversing the effects of fragmentation is an important component of restoration ecology 36 37 38 The composition of the surrounding landscape can also influence the effectiveness of restoration projects For example a restoration site that is closer to remaining vegetation will be more likely to be naturally regenerated through seed disperal than a site that is further away 39 Ecosystem function edit Ecosystem function describes the most basic and essential foundational processes of any natural systems including nutrient cycles and energy fluxes An understanding of the complexity of these ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological processes that may be degraded Ecosystem functions are emergent properties of the system as a whole thus monitoring and management are crucial for the long term stability of ecosystems A completely self perpetuating and fully functional ecosystem is the ultimate goal of restorative efforts We must understand what ecosystem properties influence others to restore desired functions and reach this goal 40 Community assembly edit Community assembly is a framework that can unify virtually all of community ecology under a single conceptual umbrella 41 Community assembly theory attempts to explain the existence of environmentally similar sites with differing assemblages of species It assumes that species have similar niche requirements so that community formation is a product of random fluctuations from a common species pool 42 Essentially if all species are fairly ecologically equivalent then random variation in colonization and migration and extinction rates between species drive differences in species composition between sites with comparable environmental conditions 43 Population genetics edit Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes 44 Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices Population genetic processes that are important to consider in restored populations include founder effects inbreeding depression outbreeding depression genetic drift and gene flow Such processes can predict whether or not a species successfully establishes at a restoration site 45 46 Applications editLeaf litter accumulation edit Leaf litter accumulation plays an important role in the restoration process Higher quantities of leaf litter hold higher humidity levels a key factor for the establishment of plants The process of accumulation depends on factors like wind and species composition of the forest The leaf litter found in primary forests is more abundant deeper and holds more humidity than in secondary forests These technical considerations are important to take into account when planning a restoration project 47 Soil heterogeneity effects on community heterogeneity edit Spatial heterogeneity of resources can influence plant community composition diversity and assembly trajectory Baer et al 2005 manipulated soil resource heterogeneity in a tallgrass prairie restoration project They found increasing resource heterogeneity which on its own was insufficient to ensure species diversity in situations where one species may dominate across the range of resource levels Their findings were consistent with the theory regarding the role of ecological filters on community assembly The establishment of a single species best adapted to the physical and biological conditions can play an inordinately important role in determining the community structure 48 Invasion and restoration edit Restoration is used as a tool for reducing the spread of invasive plant species many ways The first method views restoration primarily as a means to reduce the presence of invasive species and limit their spread As this approach emphasizes the control of invaders the restoration techniques can differ from typical restoration projects 49 50 The goal of such projects is not necessarily to restore an entire ecosystem or habitat 51 These projects frequently use lower diversity mixes of aggressive native species seeded at high density 52 They are not always actively managed following seeding 53 The target areas for this type of restoration are those which are heavily dominated by invasive species The goals are to first remove the species and then in so doing reduce the number of invasive seeds being spread to surrounding areas An example of this is through the use of biological control agents such as herbivorous insects which suppress invasive weed species while restoration practitioners concurrently seed in native plant species that take advantage of the freed resources 54 These approaches have been shown to be effective in reducing weeds although it is not always a sustainable solution long term without additional weed control such as mowing or re seeding 50 53 55 56 Restoration projects are also used as a way to better understand what makes an ecological community resistant to invasion As restoration projects have a broad range of implementation strategies and methods used to control invasive species they can be used by ecologists to test theories about invasion 53 Restoration projects have been used to understand how the diversity of the species introduced in the restoration affects invasion We know that generally higher diversity prairies have lower levels of invasion 57 The incorporation of functional ecology has shown that more functionally diverse restorations have lower levels of invasion 58 Furthermore studies have shown that using native species functionally similar to invasive species are better able to compete with invasive species 59 60 Restoration ecologists have also used a variety of strategies employed at different restoration sites to better understand the most successful management techniques to control invasion 61 To develop restoration ecology into a full science and to improve its practice requires generalizations about the processes governing the development of restored communities While new experiments can be designed one way forward is to use data from existing restoration studies to relate plant species performance to their ecological trait 62 Successional trajectories edit Progress along a desired successional pathway may be difficult if multiple stable states exist Looking over 40 years of wetland restoration data Klotzli and Gootjans 2001 argue that unexpected and undesired vegetation assemblies may indicate that environmental conditions are not suitable for target communities 63 Succession may move in unpredicted directions but constricting environmental conditions within a narrow range may rein in the possible successional trajectories and increase the likelihood of the desired outcome 64 65 Sourcing land for restoration edit A study quantified climate change mitigation potentials of high income nations shifting diets away from meat consumption and restoration of the spared land They find that the hypothetical dietary change could reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high income nations diets by 61 while sequestering as much as 98 3 55 6 143 7 GtCO2 equivalent equal to approximately 14 years of current global agricultural emissions until natural vegetation matures outcomes they call double climate dividend 66 67 Sourcing material for restoration edit For most restoration projects it is generally recommended to source material from local populations to increase the chance of restoration success and minimize the effects of maladaptation 68 However the definition of local can vary based on species habitat and region 69 US Forest Service recently developed provisional seed zones based on a combination of minimum winter temperature zones aridity and the Level III ecoregions 70 Rather than putting strict distance recommendations other guidelines recommend sourcing seeds to match similar environmental conditions that the species is exposed to either now or under projected climate change For example sourcing for Castilleja levisecta found that farther source populations that matched similar environmental variables were better suited for the restoration project than closer source populations 71 Similarly a suite of new methods are surveying gene environment interactions in order to identify the optimum source populations based on genetic adaptation to environmental conditions 72 73 Challenges editSome view ecosystem restoration as impractical partially because restorations often fall short of their goals Hilderbrand et al point out that many times uncertainty about ecosystem functions species relationships and such is not addressed and that the time scales set out for complete restoration are unreasonably short while other critical markers for full scale restoration are either ignored or abridged due to feasibility concerns 74 In other instances an ecosystem may be so degraded that abandonment allowing a severely degraded ecosystem to recover on its own may be the wisest option 75 Local communities sometimes object to restorations that include the introduction of large predators or plants that require disturbance regimes such as regular fires citing threat to human habitation in the area 76 High economic costs can also be perceived as a negative impact of the restoration process nbsp Ecosystem restoration for the superb parrot on an abandoned railway line in AustraliaPublic opinion is very important in the feasibility of a restoration if the public believes that the costs of restoration outweigh the benefits they will not support it 76 Many failures have occurred in past restoration projects many times because clear goals were not set out as the aim of the restoration or an incomplete understanding of the underlying ecological framework lead to insufficient measures This may be because as Peter Alpert says people may not always know how to manage natural systems effectively 77 Furthermore many assumptions are made about myths of restoration such as carbon copy where a restoration plan which worked in one area is applied to another with the same results expected but not realized 74 Science practice gap edit nbsp Restored prairie at the West Eugene Wetlands in Eugene OregonOne of the struggles for both fields is a divide between restoration ecology and ecological restoration in practice Many restoration practitioners as well as scientists feel that science is not being adequately incorporated into ecological restoration projects 78 79 80 81 In a 2009 survey of practitioners and scientists the science practice gap was listed as the second most commonly cited reason limiting the growth of both science and practice of restoration 79 There are a variety of theories about the cause of this gap However it has been well established that one of the main issues is that the questions studied by restoration ecologists are frequently not found useful or easily applicable by land managers 78 82 For instance many publications in restoration ecology characterize the scope of a problem in depth without providing concrete solutions 82 Additionally many restoration ecology studies are carried out under controlled conditions and frequently at scales much smaller than actual restorations 53 Whether or not these patterns hold true in an applied context is often unknown There is evidence that these small scale experiments inflate type II error rates and differ from ecological patterns in actual restorations 83 84 One approach to addressing this gap has been the development of International Principles amp Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration by the Society for Ecological restoration see below however this approach is contended with scientists active in the field suggesting that this is restrictive and instead principles and guidelines offer flexibility 85 There is further complication in that restoration ecologists who want to collect large scale data on restoration projects can face enormous hurdles in obtaining the data Managers vary in how much data they collect and how many records they keep Some agencies keep only a handful of physical copies of data that make it difficult for the researcher to access 86 Many restoration projects are limited by time and money so data collection and record keeping are not always feasible 79 However this limits the ability of scientists to analyze restoration projects and give recommendations based on empirical data Food security and nature degradation edit A range of activities in the name of nature restoration such as monoculture tree plantations degrade nature destroying biodiversity increasing pollution and removing land from food production 87 Consideration as a substitute for steep emission reductions edit Climate benefits from nature restoration are dwarfed by the scale of ongoing fossil fuel emissions 88 87 It risks over relying on land for mitigation at the expense of phasing out fossil fuels Despite these issues nature restoration is receiving increasing attention with a study concluding that Land restoration is an important option for tackling climate change but cannot compensate for delays in reducing fossil fuel emissions as it s unlikely to be done quickly enough to notably reduce the global peak temperatures expected in the next few decades 87 For instance researchers have compared reforestation and prevention of mainly tropical deforestation in specific This section is an excerpt from Reforestation Comparison to forest protection edit Researchers have found that in terms of environmental services it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest as the former leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation 89 Furthermore the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest 90 Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019 91 Additionally the effects of af or reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact 92 It takes much longer several decades for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation 93 Therefore scientists consider the protection and recovery of carbon rich and long lived ecosystems especially natural forests to be the major climate solution 94 Contrasting restoration ecology and conservation biology editBoth restoration ecologists and conservation biologists agree that protecting and restoring habitat is important for protecting biodiversity However conservation biology is primarily rooted in population biology Because of that it is generally organized at the population genetic level and assesses specific species populations i e endangered species Restoration ecology is organized at the community level which focuses on broader groups within ecosystems 95 In addition conservation biology often concentrates on vertebrate and invertebrate animals because of their salience and popularity whereas restoration ecology concentrates on plants Restoration ecology focuses on plants because restoration projects typically begin by establishing plant communities Ecological restoration despite being focused on plants may also have umbrella species for individual ecosystems and restoration projects 95 For example the Monarch butterfly is an umbrella species for conserving and restoring milkweed plant habitat because Monarch butterflies require milkweed plants to reproduce Finally restoration ecology has a stronger focus on soils soil structure fungi and microorganisms because soils provide the foundation of functional terrestrial ecosystems 96 97 International Principles amp Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration editThe Society for Ecological Restoration SER released the second edition of the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration on September 27 2019 in Cape Town South Africa at SER s 8th World Conference on Ecological Restoration 98 The publication provides updated and expanded guidance on the practice of ecological restoration clarifies the breadth of ecological restoration and allied environmental repair activities and includes ideas and input from a diverse international group of restoration scientists and practitioners The second edition builds on the first edition of the Standards which was released December 12 2016 at the Convention on Biological Diversity s 13th Conference of the Parties in Cancun Mexico The development of these Standards has been broadly consultative The first edition was circulated to dozens of practitioners and experts for feedback and review After release of the first edition SER held workshops and listening sessions sought feedback from key international partners and stakeholders opened a survey to members affiliates and supporters and considered and responded to published critiques The International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration Present a robust framework to guide restoration projects toward achieving intended goals Address restoration challenges including effective design and implementation accounting for complex ecosystem dynamics especially in the context of climate change and navigating trade offs associated with land management priorities and decisions Highlight the role of ecological restoration in connecting social community productivity and sustainability goals Recommend performance measures for restorative activities for industries communities and governments to consider Enhance the list of practices and actions that guide practitioners in planning implementation and monitoring activities including appropriate approaches to site assessment and identification of reference ecosystems different restoration approaches including natural regeneration and the role of ecological restoration in global restoration initiatives Include an expanded glossary of restoration terminology Provide a technical appendix on sourcing of seeds and other propagules for restoration History editIndigenous peoples land managers stewards and laypeople have been practicing ecological restoration or ecological management for thousands of years 99 Restoration ecology emerged as a separate field in ecology in the late twentieth century 100 The term was coined by John Aber and William Jordan III when they were at the University of Wisconsin Madison 101 when This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience Please help by removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia s inclusion policy March 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message US edit Prior to the emergence of ecology as a scientific discipline large scale restoration began with big game restoration in the early 20th century 102 The first native plant restoration project in the United States was established in 1907 by Eloise Butler in Minneapolis Minnesota 103 104 This was followed by the Vassar College Ecological Laboratory restoration program founded by Professor Edith Roberts in 1921 105 The first tallgrass prairie restoration was the 1936 Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin Madison Arboretum 106 101 Civilian Conservation Corps workers replanted nearby prairie species onto a former horse pasture overseen by university faculty including Aldo Leopold Theodore Sperry Henry C Greene and John T Curtis 107 The UW Arboretum was the center of tallgrass prairie research through the first half of the 20th century and the study of techniques like prescribed burning 106 It was followed by the 40 hectare Schulenberg Prairie at the Morton Arboretum initiated in 1962 by Ray Schulenberg and Robert Betz Betz then worked with The Nature Conservancy to establish the 260 hectare Fermi National Laboratory tallgrass prairie in 1974 108 Restoration ecology emerged as a distinct sub discipline of ecology and natural resources management with the dramatic increase in the number of protected natural areas in the 1980s 109 In 1997 the National Wildlife Federation signed a memorandum of understanding with the Intertribal Bison Cooperative the first ever conservation agreement between an environmental organization and an inter tribal group to advocate for the restoration of wild bison to tribal lands 110 Anishinaabek Neshnabek throughout the Great Lakes region are leading ecological restoration projects that in the words of Kyle Whyte seek to learn from adapt and put into practice local human and nonhuman relationships and stories at the convergence of deep Anishinaabe history and the disruptiveness of industrial settler campaigns 111 Australia edit Australia has been the site of historically significant ecological restoration projects commencing in the 1930s These projects were responses to the extensive environmental damage inflicted by colonising settlers following the forced dispossession of the First Nations communities of Australia The substantial Traditional Ecological Knowledge of First Nations communities was not utilised in the historical restoration projects Many of the first Australian settler restoration projects were initiated by volunteers often in the form of community groups Many of these volunteers appreciated and utilised science resources such as botanical and ecological knowledge Local and state government agencies participated and also industry Australian scientists came to play an increasingly important role A prominent scientist who took an interest in the reversal of vegetation degradation was botanist and plant ecologist Professor T G Osborn University of Adelaide who in the 1920s conducted pioneering research into the causes of arid zone indigenous vegetation degradation From this time Australian botanists plant ecologists and soil erosion researchers have increasingly developed interests in the recovery of ecological functioning on degraded sites The earliest known attempt by Australian settlers to restore a degraded natural ecosystem commenced in 1896 at Nairm as it is known to people of the Kulin nation or Port Phillip Bay Melbourne 112 Local government and community groups replanted degraded areas of the foreshore reserves with the indigenous plant species Coastal Teatree Leptospermum laevigatum 112 The projects were motivated by utilitarian considerations to conserve recreation sites and promote tourism However some local residents including Australian journalist nature writer and amateur ornithologist Donald Macdonald were distressed at the loss of valued biological qualities and campaigned to fully restore the Teatree ecosystems and conserve them and their indigenous fauna 112 The degraded arid zone regions of Australia were the site of historical ecological restoration projects Pastoral industry established in the arid zone regions of South Australia and New South Wales resulted in the substantial degradation of these areas by ca 1900 resulting in severe wind erosion From approximately 1930 Australian pastoralists implemented revegetation projects aiming to the substantial to full restoration of indigenous flora to degraded wind eroded areas 113 At his arid zone Koonamore research station in South Australia established in 1925 Professor T G Osborn studied the loss of indigenous vegetation caused by overstocking and the resultant wind erosion and degradation concluding that restoration of the indigenous saltbushes Atriplex spp bluebushes Maireana spp and mulga Acacia aneura vegetation communities was possible if a stock exclosure and natural regeneration revegetation technique was applied to degraded paddocks 114 Most likely influenced by Osborn s research throughout the 1930s South Australian pastoralists adopted this revegetation technique For example at Wirraminna station or property ranch following fencing to exclude stock severe soil drifts were fully revegetated and stabilised through natural regeneration of the indigenous vegetation It was also found that furrowing or ploughing of eroded areas resulted in the natural regeneration of indigenous vegetation So successful were these programs that the South Australian government adopted them as approved state soil conservation policies in 1936 Legislation introduced in 1939 codified these policies 115 In 1936 mining assayer Albert Morris and his restoration colleagues initiated the Broken Hill regeneration area project This project involved the natural regeneration of indigenous flora on a severely wind eroded site of hundreds of hectares located in arid western New South Wales 116 Local and state governments and the Broken Hill mining industry supported and funded the project 116 In fact as the regeneration area project was so well adapted to the harsh arid zone conditions the New South Wales state government adopted it as a model for the proposed restoration of the twenty million hectares of the arid western portion of the state that had been reduced to a severely eroded condition Legislation to this effect was passed in 1949 117 Another significant early Australian settler ecological restoration project occurred on the north coast of New South Wales From approximately 1840 settlers forcibly occupied the coastal hinterlands dispossessed First Nations communities destroyed extensive areas of biologically diverse rainforest and converted the land to farms Only small patches of rainforest survived In 1935 dairy farmer Ambrose Crawford began restoring a degraded four acre 1 7 hectare patch of local rainforest or Big Scrub Lowland Tropical Rainforest as it was referred to at Lumley Park reserve Alstonville 118 His main restoration techniques were clearing weeds that were smothering the rainforest plants and planting of suitable indigenous rainforest species Crawford utilised professional government botanists as advisors and received support from his local government council The restored rainforest reserve still exists today United Kingdom edit Natural Capital Committee s recommendation for a 25 year plan edit The UK Natural Capital Committee NCC made a recommendation in its second State of Natural Capital report published in March 2014 that in order to meet the Government s goal of being the first generation to leave the environment in a better state than it was inherited a long term 25 year plan was needed to maintain and improve England s natural capital The Secretary of State for the UK s Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs Owen Paterson described his ambition for the natural environment and how the work of the Committee fits into this at an NCC event in November 2012 I do not however just want to maintain our natural assets I want to improve them I want us to derive the greatest possible benefit from them while ensuring that they are available for generations to come This is what the NCC s innovative work is geared towards 119 Traditional ecological knowledge editTraditional ecological knowledge TEK from Indigenous Peoples demonstrates how restoration ecology is a historical field lived out by humans for thousands of years 120 Indigenous people have acquired ecological knowledge through observation experience and management of the natural resources and the environment around them In the past they managed their environment and changed the structure of the vegetation to not only meet their basic needs food water shelter medicines but also to improve desired characteristics and even increasing the populations and biodiversity In that way they achieved a close relationship with the environment and learned lessons that indigenous people keep in their culture 99 This means there is much that could be learned from local people indigenous to the ecosystem being restored 121 because of the deep connection and biocultural and linguistic diversity of place 122 The use of natural resources by indigenous people considers many cultural social and environmental aspects since they have always had an intimate connection with the animals and plants around them over centuries since they obtained their livelihood from the environment around them 123 Restoration ecologists must consider that TEK is place dependent due to intimate connection 124 and thus when engaging Indigenous Peoples to include knowledge for restoration purposes respect and care must be taken to avoid appropriation of the TEK 125 Successful ecological restoration which includes Indigenous Peoples must be led by Indigenous Peoples 125 to ensure non indigenous people acknowledge the unequal relationship of power 126 For example the California Indians have a rigid and complex harvesting management and production practice largely typical horticultural techniques and concentrated forest burning The California Indians had a rich knowledge of ecology and natural techniques to understand burn patterns plant material cultivation pruning digging what was edible vs what was not This knowledge extends into wildlife management how abundant where the distribution was and how diverse the large mammal population was 127 While the United States has counteracted the degradation fragmentation and loss of habitat through land set aside from all human influence indigenous practices could inform ecosystem restoration and wildlife management 127 Related journals editRestoration Ecology journal of the Society for Ecological Restoration SER 128 Ecological Management amp Restoration published by the Ecological Society of Australia ESA 129 Ecological Restoration published by the University of Wisconsin Press 130 See also editApplied ecology sub field within ecology that considers the application of the science of ecology to real world usually management questionsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Bioremediation Process used to treat contaminated media such as water and soil Bush regeneration Type of ecological restoration in Australia Conservation biology Study of threats to biological diversity Desert greening Process of man made reclamation of deserts Ecological design Design approach sensitive to environmental impacts Ecological engineering Environmental engineering Ecological triage Ecologically based invasive plant management EU Nature Restoration Law Plan to transform the EU into a climate neutral economy by 2050Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Floodplain restoration Forest restoration actions to reinstate forest healthPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Groundwater remediation Process used to treat polluted groundwater Island restoration application of the principles of ecological restoration to islands and island groupsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Land rehabilitation Part of environmental remediation Reconciliation ecology Study of maintaining biodiversity in human dominated ecosystems Restoration economy Riparian zone restoration Ecological restoration of river banks and floodplainsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Stream restoration work to improve the environmental health of a river or streamPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallbackReferences editNotes edit a b Restoration Resource Center What is Ecological Restoration ser rrc org Retrieved November 22 2023 Restoration Resource Center What is Ecological Restoration ser rrc org Retrieved February 4 2024 Martin Laura 2022 Wild by Design The Rise of Ecological Restoration Harvard University Press p 5 ISBN 9780674979420 UNEP WCMC April 30 2020 10 years to boost ecosystem restoration for people and planet UNEP WCMC Retrieved July 12 2023 UN Decade on Restoration UN Decade on Restoration Retrieved November 22 2023 Pimm Stuart L Russell Gareth J Gittleman John L Brooks Thomas M July 21 1995 The Future 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Women Who Saved Wildflowers Sierra Club www sierraclub org Retrieved November 22 2023 Eloise Butler Wildflower Garden and Bird Sanctuary Public Gardens of Minnesota mngardens horticulture umn edu Retrieved November 22 2023 Martin Laura J 2022 Wild by design the rise of ecological restoration Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 97942 0 a b Court F E 2012 Pioneers of Ecological Restoration The People and Legacy of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum Madison University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 978 0299286637 OCLC 814694131 Curtis J T 1971 The Vegetation of Wisconsin An Ordination of Plant Communities Madison University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 9780299019433 OCLC 811410421 Fermilab History and Archives Site and Natural History history fnal gov Retrieved March 22 2023 Martin Laura J 2022 Wild by design the rise of ecological restoration Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 97942 0 Tribal Bison Restoration National Wildlife Federation Retrieved November 22 2023 Whyte Kyle 2017 Our Ancestors Dystopia Now Indigenous Conservation and the Anthropocene pp 222 231 doi 10 4324 9781315766355 32 ISBN 9781315766355 a b c Ardill Peter J 2021 Innovative Federation and Inter war Period repair of degraded natural areas and their ecosystems local government and community restoration of Coast Teatree Leptospermum laevigatum at Port Phillip Bay Victoria Australia The Repair Press Sydney February p 34 Ardill 2022 Ardill 2022 p 9 Ardill 2022 pp 32 34 a b Ardill Peter J 2017 Albert Morris and the Broken Hill regeneration area time landscape and renewal Australian Association of Bush Regenerators AABR Sydney http www aabr org au morris broken hill Ardill 2022 54 McDonald T in Jordan William R amp Lubick George M 2012 Making Nature Whole A History of Ecological Restoration Washington D C Island Press p 73 ISBN 9781597265126 Paterson Owen November 27 2012 Owen Paterson s speech to Royal Society on Natural Capital Committee gov uk Retrieved June 4 2018 Stocker Laura Collard Leonard Rooney Angela July 2 2016 Aboriginal world views and colonisation implications for coastal sustainability Local Environment 21 7 844 865 Bibcode 2016LoEnv 21 844S doi 10 1080 13549839 2015 1036414 ISSN 1354 9839 S2CID 143198003 Douterlungne David Levy Tacher Samuel I Golicher Duncan J Danobeytia Francisco Roman October 29 2008 Applying Indigenous Knowledge to the Restoration of Degraded Tropical Rain Forest Clearings Dominated by Bracken Fern Restoration Ecology 18 3 322 329 doi 10 1111 j 1526 100x 2008 00459 x ISSN 1061 2971 S2CID 85960569 Maffi Luisa September 16 2005 Linguistic cultural and biological diversity Annual Review of Anthropology 34 1 599 617 doi 10 1146 annurev anthro 34 081804 120437 ISSN 0084 6570 Anderson M Kat June 14 2005 Tending the Wild University of California Press doi 10 1525 9780520933101 ISBN 978 0 520 93310 1 Walker E T Wehi P M Nelson N J Beggs J R Whaanga H 2019 Kaitiakitanga place and the urban restoration agenda New Zealand Journal of Ecology 43 3 doi 10 20417 nzjecol 43 34 a b Hall Monique Mae Wehi Priscilla M Whaanga Hemi Walker Erana T Koia Jonni Hazeline Wallace Kiri Joy 2021 Promoting social and environmental justice to support Indigenous partnerships in urban ecosystem restoration Restoration Ecology 29 1 e13305 Bibcode 2021ResEc 2913305H doi 10 1111 rec 13305 hdl 10289 15955 ISSN 1526 100X S2CID 228960211 Broughton D Te Aitanga a Hauiti Taranaki Nga McBreen K Waitaha Kati Mamoe Ngai Tahu April 3 2015 Matauranga Maori tino rangatiratanga and the future of New Zealand science Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 45 2 83 88 Bibcode 2015JRSNZ 45 83B doi 10 1080 03036758 2015 1011171 ISSN 0303 6758 S2CID 129384221 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Anderson M Kat 2005 Tending the Wild Native American Knowledge and the Management of California s Natural Resources Berkeley University of California Press pp 1 10 358 364 Restoration Ecology SER Accessed September 14 2015 Ecological Management amp Restoration John Wiley amp Sons Accessed September 14 2015 Ecological Restoration University of Wisconsin Press Accessed September 14 2015 Bibliography edit Allen M F Jasper D A amp Zak J C 2002 Micro organisms In Perrow M R amp Davy A J Eds Handbook of Ecological Restoration Volume 1 Principles of Restoration pp 257 278 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 79128 6 Anderson M K 2005 Tending the Wild Native American knowledge and the management of California s natural resources Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 0 520 23856 7 Ardill Peter J 2017 Albert Morris and the Broken Hill regeneration area time landscape and renewal Australian Association of Bush Regenerators AABR Sydney http www aabr org au morris broken hill Ardill Peter J 2021 Innovative Federation and Inter war Period repair of degraded natural areas and their ecosystems local government and community restoration of Coast Teatree Leptospermum laevigatum at Port Phillip Bay Victoria Australia The Repair Press Sydney February https ecologicalrestorationhistory org articles Ardill Peter J 2022 Rekindling memory of environmental repair responses to the Australian wind erosion crisis of 1930 45 ecologically aligned restoration of degraded arid zone pastoral lands and the resultant shaping of state soil conservation policies PDF Ecological Restoration History The Repair Press Sydney Baer S G Collins S L Blair J M Knapp A K amp Fiedler A K 2005 Soil heterogeneity effects on tallgrass prairie community heterogeneity an application of ecological theory to restoration ecology Restoration Ecology 13 2 413 424 Bradshaw A D 1987 Restoration the acid test for ecology In Jordan W R Gilpin M E amp Aber J D Eds Restoration Ecology A Synthetic Approach to Ecological Research pp 23 29 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 33728 3 Bradshaw A D 1997 What do we mean by restoration Restoration ecology and sustainable development eds Krystyna M Urbanska Nigel R Webb Edwards P University Press Cambridge Court Franklin E 2012 Pioneers of ecological restoration the people and legacy of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum Madison University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 9780299286644 Daily G C Alexander S Ehrlich P R Goulder L Lubchenco J Matson P A Mooney H A Postel S Schneider S H Tilman D amp Woodwell G M 1997 Ecosystem Services Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems Issues in Ecology 1 2 1 18 Harris J A 2003 Measurements of the soil microbial community for estimating the success of restoration European Journal of Soil Science 54 801 808 Harris J A Hobbs R J Higgs E and Aronson J 2006 Ecological restoration and global climate change Restoration Ecology 14 2 170 176 Hilderbrand et al 2005 The myths of restoration ecology Ecology and Society 10 2 19 Full Article Holl K 2006 Professor of environmental studies at the university of California santa cruz Personal Communication Jordan William R amp Lubick George M 2012 Making nature whole a history of ecological restoration Washington D C Island Press ISBN 9781597265126 Klotzi F amp Gootjans A P 2001 Restoration of natural and semi natural wetland systems in Central Europe progress and predictability of developments Restoration Ecology 9 2 209 219 Liu John D 2011 Finding Sustainability in Ecosystem Restoration Kosmos Fall Winter 2011 Full Article Luken J O 1990 Directing Ecological Succession New York Chapman and Hall ISBN 0 412 34450 5 MacDonald et al 2002 The ecological context a species population perspective Cambridge University Press Cambridge Novacek M J amp Cleland E E 2001 The current biodiversity extinction event Scenarios for mitigation and recovery Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 10 5466 5470 Seabloom E W Harpole W S Reichman O J amp Tilman D 2003 Invasion competitive dominance and resource use by exotic and native California grassland species Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 23 13384 13389 SER 2004 The SER Primer on Ecological Restoration Version 2 Society for Ecological Restoration Science and Policy Working Group https web archive org web 20060207050251 http www ser org reading resources asp Shears N T 2007 Biogeography community structure and biological habitat types of subtidal reefs on the South Island West Coast New Zealand Science for Conservation 281 p 53 Department of Conservation New Zealand 1 Speth J G 2004 Red Sky at Morning America and the Crisis of the Global Environment Yale University Press Connecticut van Andel J amp Grootjans A P 2006 Restoration Ecology The New Frontier In van Andel J amp Aronson J Eds Restoration Ecology pp 16 28 Massachusetts Blackwell ISBN 0 632 05834 X White P S amp Jentsch A 2004 Disturbance succession and community assembly in terrestrial plant communities In Temperton V K Hobbs R J Nuttle T amp Halle S Eds Assembly Rules and Restoration Ecology Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice pp 342 366 Washington DC Island Press ISBN 1 55963 375 1 Wilson E O 1988 Biodiversity Washington DC National Academy ISBN 0 309 03739 5 Young T P 2000 Restoration ecology and conservation biology Biological Conservation 92 73 83 Young T P Chase J M amp Huddleston R T 2001 Succession and assembly as conceptual bases in community ecology and ecological restoration Ecological Restoration 19 5 19 Young T P Petersen D A amp Clary J J 2005 The ecology of restoration historical links emerging issues and unexplored realms Ecology Letters 8 662 673 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ecological restoration Restoration Ecology The Journal of the Society for Ecological Restoration Australian Ecological Restoration History Society for Ecological Restoration Restoration ecology working group at restoration ecology eu Nature Revive Service Nature Education Knowledge entry on Restoration Ecology peer reviewed at nature com Green Infrastructure Resource Guide at asla org Conservation Effects Assessment Project bibliographies at nal usda gov Seagrass Restoration Information at seagrassli org Back to Natives Restoration non profit org at backtonatives org A Guide to Prairie and Wetland Restoration In Eastern Nebraska EEMP a non profit 501 c 3 organization dedicated to communicate the lessons of restoration through media around the world Hope in a Changing Climate awarded documentary film on the potential of global ecosystem restoration Massachusetts Division of Ecological Restoration Portals nbsp Biology nbsp Ecology nbsp Environment Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Restoration ecology amp oldid 1204873932, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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