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Restoration Movement

January 07, 2023

This article is about the Stone–Campbell Restoration Movement and Christian churches that have a historical and/or theological connection to it. For other uses, see Restorationism (disambiguation).

The Restoration Movement (also known as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone–Campbell Movement, and pejoratively as Campbellism) is a Christian movement that began on the United States frontier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840) of the early 19th century. The pioneers of this movement were seeking to reform the church from within[1] and sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."[2]: 54 

Early leaders of the Restoration Movement (clockwise, from top): Thomas Campbell, Barton W. Stone, Alexander Campbell, and Walter Scott

The Restoration Movement developed from several independent strands of religious revival that idealized early Christianity. Two groups, which independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith, were particularly important.[3] The first, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, and identified as "Christians". The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell, both educated in Scotland; they eventually used the name "Disciples of Christ". Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church based on visible patterns set forth in the New Testament, and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided. In 1832 they joined in fellowship with a handshake.

Among other things, they were united in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should celebrate the Lord's Supper on the first day of each week; and that baptism of adult believers was necessarily by immersion in water.[4]: 147–148  Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus.[4]: 27  Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the 1st-century churches as described in the New Testament. One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.[5]: 8 

The Restoration Movement has since divided into multiple separate groups. The three main groups are: the Churches of Christ, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and the independent Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations. Additionally, there are the International Churches of Christ, the International Christian Church, the Churches of Christ in Europe, and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada,[6][7][8] and the Churches of Christ in Australia. Some characterize the divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism: the Churches of Christ and unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations resolved the tension by stressing restoration, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.[5]: 383 

Name of the movement

Because the Restoration Movement lacks any centralized structure, having originated in a variety of places with different leaders, there is no consistent nomenclature for the movement as a whole.[9] The term "Restoration Movement" became popular during the 19th century;[10] this appears to be due to the influence of Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things" in the Christian Baptist.[10] The term "Stone-Campbell Movement" emerged towards the end of the 19th century as a way to avoid the difficulties associated with some of the other names that have been used, and to maintain a sense of the collective history of the movement.[10]

Key principles

The Restoration Movement has been characterized by several key principles:

  • Christianity should not be divided, Christ intended the creation of one church.[3]: 38 [11]
  • Creeds divide, but Christians should be able to find agreement by standing on the Bible itself (from which they believe all creeds are but human expansions or constrictions)[12]
  • Ecclesiastical traditions divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by following the practice (as best as it can be determined) of the early church.[13]: 104–6 
  • Names of human origin divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by using biblical names for the church (i.e., "Christian Church", "Church of God" or "Church of Christ" as opposed to "Methodist" or "Lutheran", etc.).[4]: 27 

Thus, the church "should stress only what all Christians hold in common and should suppress all divisive doctrines and practices".[14]

A number of slogans have been used in the Restoration Movement, which are intended to express some of the distinctive themes of the Movement.[15] These include:

  • "Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent."[16]
  • "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one."[16]
  • "We are Christians only, but not the only Christians."[16]
  • "In essentials, unity; in opinions, liberty; in all things love."[15]: 688 
  • "No creed but Christ, no book but the Bible, no law but love, no name but the divine."[15]: 688 
  • "Do Bible things in Bible ways."[15]: 688 
  • "Call Bible things by Bible names."[15]: 688 

Background influences

 
Huldrych Zwingli (oil, 1531) by Hans Asper (housed at Kunstmuseum).

During the late Middle Ages, dissenters such as John Wycliff and John Huss called for a restoration of a primitive form of Christianity, but they were driven underground. As a result, it is difficult to find any direct links between such early dissenters and the restoration movement.[13]: 13 

Beginning with the Renaissance, intellectual roots become easier to discern.[17] At the heart of the Reformation was an emphasis on the principle of "Scripture alone" (sola scriptura).[18] This, along with the related insistence on the right of individuals to read and interpret the Bible for themselves and a movement to reduce ritual in worship, formed part of the intellectual background of early Restoration Movement leaders. [19] The branch of the Reformation movement represented by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin contributed an emphasis on "restoring biblical forms and patterns."[20]

 
John Locke by Herman Verelst.

The rationalism of John Locke provided another influence.[21] Reacting to the deism of Lord Herbert, Locke sought a way to address religious division and persecution without abandoning Scripture.[21] To do this, Locke argued against the right of government to enforce religious orthodoxy and turned to the Bible to supply a set of beliefs that all Christians could agree upon.[22] The core teachings which he viewed as essential were the messiahship of Jesus and Jesus' direct commands.[22] Christians could be devoutly committed to other Biblical teachings but, in Locke's view, these were non-essentials over which Christians should never fight or try to coerce each other.[23] Unlike the Puritans and the later Restoration Movement, Locke did not call for a systematic restoration of the early church.[23]

One of the basic goals of the English Puritans was to restore a pure, "primitive" church that would be a true apostolic community.[24] This conception was a critical influence in the development of the Puritans in Colonial America.[25]

It has been described as the "oldest ecumenical movement in America":[26]

Both the great founding documents of the movement are authentically ecumenical. In The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery (1804), Barton Stone and his fellow revivalists dissolved their exclusive presbyterial relationship, desiring to "sink into union with the Body of Christ at large." Five years later Thomas Campbell wrote in The Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington [PA] (1809) "The church of Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally and constitutionally one."[1]

During the First Great Awakening, a movement developed among those Baptists known as Separate Baptists. Two themes of this movement were the rejection of creeds and "freedom in the Spirit."[27] The Separate Baptists saw Scripture as the "perfect rule" for the church.[28] However, while they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern for the church, they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern. [29] This group originated in New England, but was especially strong in the South where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew stronger.[29] In the last half of the 18th century, Separate Baptists became more numerous on the western frontier of Kentucky and Tennessee, where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root.[30] The development of the Separate Baptists in the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for the Restoration Movement. The membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from the ranks of the Separate Baptists. [29]

Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of the Landmark Baptists in the same region as the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement and at about the same time. Under the leadership of James Robinson Graves, this group wanted to define a precise blueprint for the primitive church, believing that any deviation from that blueprint would prevent a person from being part of the true church.[30]

 
1839 Methodist camp meeting, watercolor from the Second Great Awakening.

The ideal of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the US after the American Revolution.[31] This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity played a role in the development of many groups during this period, known as the Second Great Awakening.[32] These included the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Baptists and Shakers.[32]

The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, this second Awakening.[33] While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.[34]

James O'Kelly was an early advocate of seeking unity through a return to New Testament Christianity.[35]: 216  In 1792, dissatisfied with the role of bishops in the Methodist Episcopal Church, he separated from that body. O'Kelly's movement, centering in Virginia and North Carolina, was originally called Republican Methodists. In 1794 they adopted the name Christian Church.[36]

During the same period, Elias Smith of Vermont and Abner Jones of New Hampshire led a movement espousing views similar to those of O'Kelly.[30][37] They believed that members could, by looking to scripture alone, simply be Christians without being bound to human traditions and the denominations brought by immigrants from Europe.[30][37]: 190 

Stone movement

Main article: Christians (Stone Movement)
 
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery

Barton W. Stone was born to John and Mary Warren Stone near Port Tobacco, Maryland on December 24, 1772.[38]: 702  His immediate family was upper middle class, with connections to Maryland's upper class.[38]: 702  Barton's father died in 1775, and his mother moved the family to Pittsylvania County, Virginia in 1779.[38]: 702  Mary Stone was a member of the Church of England and Barton was christened by a priest named Thomas Thornton; after the move to Virginia she joined the Methodists.[39]: 52  Barton was not himself notably religious as a young man; he found the competing claims of the Episcopalians, Baptists and Methodists confusing, and was much more interested in politics.[39]: 52–53  (After the American Revolution the Church of England was disestablished and the Episcopal Church was organized.)

Barton entered the Guilford Academy in North Carolina in 1790.[5]: 71  While there, Stone heard James McGready (a Presbyterian minister) speak.[5]: 72  A few years later, he was ordained as a Presbyterian minister.[5]: 72  But, as Stone looked more deeply into the beliefs of the Presbyterians, especially the Westminster Confession of Faith, he doubted that some of the church beliefs were truly Bible-based.[5]: 72–3  He was unable to accept the Calvinist doctrines of total depravity, unconditional election, and predestination.[5]: 72–3  He also believed that "Calvinism's alleged theological sophistication had... been bought at the price of fomenting division" and "blamed it... for producing ten different sects within the Presbyterian tradition alone."[40]: 110 

Cane Ridge revival

 
Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky

In 1801, the Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky planted the seed for a movement in Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to disassociate from denominationalism. In 1803 Stone and others withdrew from the Kentucky Presbytery and formed the Springfield Presbytery. The defining event of the Stone wing of the movement was the publication of Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery, at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1804. The Last Will is a brief document in which Stone and five others announced their withdrawal from Presbyterianism and their intention to be solely part of the body of Christ.[41] The writers appealed for the unity of all who follow Jesus, suggested the value of congregational self-governance, and lifted the Bible as the source for understanding the will of God. They denounced the 'divisive' use of the Westminster Confession of Faith,[4]: 79  and adopted the name "Christian" to identify their group.[4]: 80 

 
Bust of Barton W. Stone, in cemetery, at Cane Ridge

Christian Connection

By 1804 Elias Smith had heard of the Stone movement, and the O'Kelly movement by 1808.[37]: 190  The three groups merged by 1810.[37]: 190  At that time the combined movement had a membership of approximately 20,000.[37]: 190  This loose fellowship of churches was called by the names "Christian Connection/Connexion" or "Christian Church."[13]: 68 [37]: 190 

Characteristics of the Stone movement

The cornerstone for the Stone movement was Christian freedom.[13]: 104  This ideal of freedom led them to reject all the historical creeds, traditions and theological systems that had developed over time and to focus instead on a primitive Christianity based on the Bible.[13]: 104–5 

While restoring primitive Christianity was central to the Stone movement, they believed that restoring the lifestyle of members of the early church is essential. During the early years, they "focused more... on holy and righteous living than on the forms and structures of the early church.[13]: 103  The group also worked to restore the primitive church.[13]: 104  Due to concern that emphasizing particular practices could undermine Christian freedom, this effort tended to take the form of rejecting tradition rather than an explicit program of reconstructing New Testament practices.[13]: 104  The emphasis on freedom was so strong that the movement avoided developing any ecclesiastical traditions; it was "largely without dogma, form, or structure."[13]: 104–5  What held "the movement together was a commitment to primitive Christianity."[13]: 105 

Another theme was that of hastening the millennium.[13]: 104  Many Americans of the period believed that the millennium was near and based their hopes for the millennium on their new nation, the United States.[13]: 104  Members of the Stone movement believed that only a unified Christianity based on the apostolic church, rather than a country or any of the existing denominations, could lead to the coming of the millennium.[13]: 104  Stone's millennialism has been described as more "apocalyptic" than that of Alexander Campbell, in that he believed people were too flawed to usher in a millennial age through human progress.[42]: 6, 7  Rather, he believed that it depended on the power of God, and that while waiting for God to establish His kingdom, one should live as if the rule of God were already fully established.[42]: 6 

For the Stone movement, this millennial emphasis had less to do with eschatological theories and more about a countercultural commitment to live as if the kingdom of God were already established on earth.[42]: 6, 7  This apocalyptic perspective or world view led many in the Stone movement to adopt pacifism, avoid participating in civil government, and reject violence, militarism, greed, materialism and slavery.[42]: 6 

Campbell movement

Main article: Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement)
 
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington

The Campbell wing of the movement was launched when Thomas Campbell published the Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington in 1809.[4]: 108–11  The Presbyterian Synod had suspended his ministerial credentials. In The Declaration and Address, he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ. He organized the Christian Association of Washington, in Washington County, Pennsylvania on the western frontier of the state, not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith.[4]: 108–11  On May 4, 1811, the Christian Association reconstituted itself as a congregationally governed church. With the building it constructed at Brush Run, Pennsylvania, it became known as Brush Run Church.[4]: 117 

When their study of the New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice baptism by immersion, the nearby Redstone Baptist Association invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the purpose of fellowship. The reformers agreed, provided that they would be "allowed to preach and to teach whatever they learned from the Scriptures."[43]: 86 

Thomas' son Alexander came to the US to join him in 1809.[13]: 106  Before long, he assumed the leading role in the movement.[13]: 106 

The Campbells worked within the Redstone Baptist Association during the period 1815 through 1824. While both the Campbells and the Baptists shared practices of baptism by immersion and congregational polity, it quickly became clear the Campbells and their associates were not traditional Baptists. Within the Redstone Association, some of the Baptist leaders considered the differences intolerable when Alexander Campbell began publishing a journal, The Christian Baptist, which promoted reform. Campbell anticipated the conflict and moved his membership to a congregation of the Mahoning Baptist Association in 1824.[4]: 131 

Alexander used The Christian Baptist to address what he saw as the key issue of reconstructing the apostolic Christian community in a systematic and rational manner.[13]: 106  He wanted to clearly distinguish between essential and non-essential aspects of primitive Christianity.[13]: 106  Among what he identified as essential were "congregational autonomy, a plurality of elders in each congregation, weekly communion and immersion for the remission of sins."[13]: 106  Among practices he rejected as non-essential were "the holy kiss, deaconesses, communal living, footwashing and charismatic exercises."[13]: 106 

In 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed Walter Scott as an evangelist. Through Scott's efforts, the Mahoning Association grew rapidly. In 1828, Thomas Campbell visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach. Campbell believed that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his approach to evangelism.[4]: 132–3 

Several Baptist associations began disassociating congregations that refused to subscribe to the Philadelphia Confession.[44] The Mahoning Association came under attack. In 1830, The Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded. The younger Campbell ceased publication of the Christian Baptist. In January 1831, he began publication of the Millennial Harbinger.[4]: 144–5 

Influence of the Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment had a significant influence on the Campbell movement.[13]: 80–6  Thomas Campbell was a student of the Enlightenment philosopher John Locke.[13]: 82  While he did not explicitly use the term "essentials" in the Declaration and Address, Thomas proposed the same solution to religious division as had been advanced earlier by Herbert and Locke: "[R]educe religion to a set of essentials upon which all reasonable persons might agree."[13]: 80  The essentials he identified were those practices for which the Bible provided: "a 'Thus saith the Lord,' either in express terms or by approved precedent."[13]: 81  Unlike Locke, who considered the earlier efforts by Puritans to be inherently divisive, Thomas argued for "a complete restoration of apostolic Christianity."[13]: 82  Thomas believed that creeds served to divide Christians. He also believed that the Bible was clear enough that anyone could understand it and, thus, creeds were unnecessary.[45]: 114 

Alexander Campbell was also deeply influenced by Enlightenment thinking, in particular the Scottish School of Common Sense of Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart.[13]: 84  This group believed that the Bible related concrete facts rather than abstract truths, and advocated a scientific or "Baconian" approach to interpreting the Bible. It would begin with those facts, arrange the ones applicable to a given topic, and draw conclusions from them in a way that has been described as "nothing less than the scientific method applied to the Bible."[13]: 84  Alexander reflected this Baconian approach when he repeatedly argued that "the Bible is a book of facts, not of opinions, theories, abstract generalities, nor of verbal definitions."[13]: 84  Just as a reliance on facts provides the basis for agreement among scientists, Alexander believed that if Christians limited themselves to the facts found in the Bible they would necessarily come to agreement.[13]: 84  He believed that those facts, approached in a rational and scientific manner, provided a blueprint or constitution for the church.[13]: 85  Alexander was attracted to this scientific approach to the Bible because it offered a reliable basis for Christian unity.[13]: 84 

Characteristics of the Campbell movement

Thomas Campbell combined the Enlightenment approach to unity with the Reformed and Puritan traditions of restoration.[13]: 82, 106  The Enlightenment affected the Campbell movement in two ways. First, it provided the idea that Christian unity could be achieved by finding a set of essentials that all reasonable people could agree on. Second, it also provided the concept of a rational faith that was formulated and defended based on facts derived from the Bible.[13]: 85, 86  Campbell's solution to achieve Christian unity combined forsaking the creeds and traditions, which he believed had divided Christians, and recovering the primitive Christianity, found in scripture, that was common for all Christians.[13]: 106 

Alexander Campbell's millennialism was more optimistic than Stone's.[42]: 6  He had more confidence in the potential for human progress and believed that Christians could unite to transform the world and initiate a millennial age.[42]: 6  Campbell's conceptions were postmillennial, as he anticipated that the progress of the church and society would lead to an age of peace and righteousness before the return of Christ.[42]: 6  This optimistic approach meant that, in addition to his commitment to primitivism, he had a progressive strand in his thinking.[42]: 7 

Merger of the Stone and Campbell movements

The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement, which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.[46] Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.[47] Both saw restoring apostolic Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium.[47] Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom.[47] And both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model.[47] The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.[42]: 8, 9 

The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832.[3]: 28 [43]: 116–20 [48]: 212 [49] This was formalized at the Hill Street Meeting House in Lexington, Kentucky with a handshake between Barton W Stone and "Raccoon" John Smith.[43]: 116–20  Smith had been chosen by attendees as spokesman for the followers of the Campbells.[43]: 116  A preliminary meeting of the two groups had been held in late December 1831, culminating with the merger on January 1, 1832.[43]: 116–20 [50]

Two representatives of the assembly were appointed to carry the news of the union to all the churches: John Rogers, for the Christians and "Raccoon" John Smith for the reformers. Despite some challenges, the merger succeeded.[4]: 153–4  Many believed the union held great promise for the future success of the combined movement, and greeted the news enthusiastically.[42]: 9 

When Stone and Alexander Campbell's Reformers (also known as Disciples and Christian Baptists) united in 1832, only a minority of Christians from the Smith/Jones and O'Kelly movements participated.[51] Those who did were from congregations west of the Appalachian Mountains that had come into contact with the Stone movement.[51] The eastern members had several key differences with the Stone and Campbell group: an emphasis on conversion experience, quarterly observance of communion, and nontrinitarianism.[51] Those who did not unite with Campbell merged with the Congregational Churches in 1931 to form the Congregational Christian Churches.[52] In 1957, the Congregational Christian Church merged with the Evangelical and Reformed Church to become the United Church of Christ.[52]

United movement (1832–1906)

The merger raised the question of what to call the new movement. Finding a biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians," while Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ".[4]: 27–8 [53] Stone advocated using the name "Christians" based on its use in Acts 11:26, while Campbell preferred the term "disciples" because he saw it as both a more humble and an older designation.[10] As a result, both names were used, and the confusion over names has continued ever since.[4]: 27–8 

After 1832, use of the term "Reformation" became frequent among leaders of the movement.[10] The Campbells had designated themselves as "Reformers," and other early leaders also saw themselves as reformers seeking Christian unity and restoring apostolic Christianity.[10] The movement's language at the time included phrases such as "religious reformation," the "present reformation," the "current reformation" and "the cause of reformation."[10] The term "Restoration Movement" became popular as the 19th century progressed.[10] It appears to have been inspired by Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things" in the Christian Baptist.[10]

The combined movement grew rapidly over the period from 1832 to 1906.[54]: 92–93 [55]: 25  According to the 1906 US Religious Census the combined membership of the movement made it the 6th largest Christian group in the country at that time.[55]: 27 

Estimated Membership
Year 1832 1860 1890 1900 1906
Membership 22,000[54]: 92  192,000[54]: 92  641,051[55]: 25  1,120,000[54]: 93  1,142,359[55]: 25 

Journals

The Disciples do not have bishops; they have elders

— early movement historian William Thomas Moore[56]

From the beginning of the movement, the free exchange of ideas among the people was fostered by the journals published by its leaders. Alexander Campbell published The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger. Stone published The Christian Messenger.[48]: 208  Both men routinely published the contributions of persons whose positions differed radically from their own.

Following Campbell's death in 1866, the journals were used to keep the discussions going. Between 1870 and 1900, two journals emerged as the most prominent. The Christian Standard was edited and published by Isaac Errett of Cincinnati, Ohio. The Christian Evangelist was edited and published by JH Garrison from St. Louis. The two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry, and kept the dialog going within the movement.[48]: 364 

The Gospel Advocate was founded by the Nashville-area preacher Tolbert Fanning in 1855.[57] Fanning's student, William Lipscomb, served as co-editor until the American Civil War forced them to suspend publication in 1861.[58] After the end of the Civil War, publication resumed in 1866 under the editorship of Fanning and William Lipscomb's younger brother David Lipscomb; Fanning soon retired and David Lipscomb became the sole editor.[59] While David Lipscomb was the editor, the focus was on seeking unity by following scripture exactly, and the Advocate's editorial position was to reject anything that is not explicitly allowed by scripture.[60]

The Christian Oracle began publication in 1884. It was later known as The Christian Century and offered an interdenominational appeal.[48]: 364  In 1914, Garrison's Christian Publishing company was purchased by R.A. Long. He established a non-profit corporation, "The Christian Board of Publication" as the Brotherhood publishing house.[48]: 426 

Anabaptism and materialism controversies

The Christadelphians, Church of the Blessed Hope, and Church of God (General Conference) also have roots in the restoration movement, but took their own direction about this time.

In 1832 Walter Scott baptised John Thomas, an English doctor who had emigrated to the United States. Thomas was a strong supporter of Alexander Campbell and the principles of the Disciples movement, and he quickly became a well-known leader and teacher. In 1834, however, Thomas took a contrary position to Alexander Campbell on the significance of baptism which led to a sharp conflict between the two men. While Campbell believed baptism by immersion to be very important, he recognised as Christians all who believed Jesus of Nazareth to be Messiah and Lord, and recognised any prior baptism. For this reason, members of Baptist churches who joined the Disciples movement were not required to be baptised again. Thomas, on the other hand, insisted that a baptism based on a different understanding of the gospel to that held in the Disciples movement was not a valid baptism, and called for rebaptism in his periodical, the Apostolic Advocate. Campbell viewed this as sectarianism, which cut across the fundamental commitment of the Disciples movement to "the union of all Christians," and rejected "anabaptism." The two men became estranged.

Thomas began to refuse to share prayer, worship, or communion with those he considered not to be validly baptised Christians. His theological views also continued to develop. By 1837 he was teaching annihilationism, and debated a Presbyterian clergymen, Isaac Watts. Campbell interpreted this as materialism, and believed that it undermined the biblical doctrine of the resurrection, and reacted strongly. In the Millennial Harbinger he announced that he could no longer consider Thomas a brother. Many congregations of Disciples took this as an indication that they should withhold fellowship from Thomas, and he found himself on the margins of the movement.

Thomas continued to have supporters among the Disciples, but moved further and further from Christian orthodoxy. In 1846 he published a "Confession and Abjuration" of the faith he held at his baptism, and arranged to be baptised again. Despite this, when he toured the United Kingdom to give prophetic lectures in 1848–1850 he played down his separation from the Disciples movement, in an endeavour to access congregations in Britain. But his true position was discovered by James Wallis and David King, and the movement closed ranks against him.

In 1864 he coined the name "Christadelphian" for those who shared his views and sought to register as conscientious objectors to military service. The new name was adopted by Robert Roberts, the Scottish protege of Thomas, for the periodical which he had just begun to publish in Birmingham; and the sect began to grow rapidly.

Benjamin Wilson left the Disciples about the same time as Thomas, but split with Thomas in 1863 over disagreements about eschatology, forming the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith. During the American Civil War his followers also sought to register as conscientious objectors. Some congregations were unable to register this name due to local regulations, and chose an alternative name, Church of the Blessed Hope; but the two names referred to the same sect. The sect divided in 1921, and the Church of God (General Conference) was formed by the larger grouping.

Missionary society controversy

In 1849, the first National Convention was held at Cincinnati, Ohio.[48]: 245  Alexander Campbell had concerns that holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism. He did not attend the gathering.[48]: 245  Among its actions, the convention elected Alexander Campbell its president and created the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS).[48]: 247  By the end of the century, the Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the Christian Woman's Board of Missions were also engaged in missionary activities. Forming the ACMS did not reflect a consensus of the entire movement, and these para-church organizations became a divisive issue. While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism, many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations.[61]

The ACMS was not as successful as proponents had hoped.[62] It was opposed by those who believed any extra-congregational organizations were inappropriate; hostility grew when the ACMS took a stand in 1863 favoring the Union side during the American Civil War.[62][63] A convention held in Louisville, Kentucky in 1869 adopted a plan intended to address "a perceived need to reorganize the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS) in a way that would be acceptable to more members of the Movement."[62] The "Louisville Plan," as it came to be known, attempted to build on existing local and regional conventions and to "promote the harmonious cooperation of all the state and District Boards and Conventions."[62][64] It established a General Christian Missionary Convention (GCMC).[64] Membership was congregational rather than individual.[62][64] Local congregations elected delegates to district meetings, which in turn elected delegates to state meetings.[62] States were given two delegates, plus an additional delegate for every 5,000 members.[62] The plan proved divisive, and faced immediate opposition.[62][64] Opponents continued to argue that any organizational structure above the local congregational level was not authorized by scripture, and there was a general concern that the Board had been given too much authority.[62] By 1872 the Louisville Plan had effectively failed.[62][64] Direct contributions from individuals were sought again in 1873, individual membership was reinstated in 1881, and the name was changed back to the American Christian Missionary Society in 1895.[62][64]

Use of musical instruments in worship

The use of musical instruments in worship was discussed in journal articles as early as 1849, but initial reactions were generally unfavorable.[65]: 414  Some congregations, however, are documented as having used musical instruments in the 1850s and 1860s.[65]: 414  An example is the church in Midway, Kentucky, which was using an instrument by 1860.[65]: 414  A member of the congregation, L. L. Pinkerton, brought a melodeon into the church building.[65]: 414 [66]: 95, 96 [67]: 597–598  The minister had been distressed to his "breaking point" by the poor quality of the congregation's singing.[66]: 96  At first, the instrument was used for singing practices held on Saturday night, but was soon used during the worship on Sunday.[66]: 96  One of the elders of that assembly removed the first melodeon, but it was soon replaced by another.[66]: 96 

Both acceptance of instruments and discussion of the issue grew after the American Civil War.[65]: 414  Opponents argued that the New Testament provided no authorization for their use in worship, while supporters argued on the basis of expediency and Christian liberty.[65]: 414  Affluent, urban congregations were more likely to adopt musical instruments, while poorer and more rural congregations tended to see them as "an accommodation to the ways of the world."[65]: 414 

The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement notes that Restoration Movement historians have tended to interpret the controversy over the use of musical instruments in worship in ways that "reflect their own attitudes on the issue."[65]: 414  Examples are given of historians from different branches of the movement interpreting it in relation to the statements of early Restoration Movement leaders, in terms of social and cultural factors, differing approaches to interpreting scripture, differing approaches to the authority of scripture, and "ecumenical progressivism" versus "sectarian primitivism."[65]: 414–5 

Role of clergy

The early 19th-century Restoration Movement encompassed very different views concerning the role of clergy: the Campbell branch was strongly anti-clergy, believing there was no justification for a clergy/lay distinction, while the Stone branch believed that only an ordained minister could officiate at communion.[54]

Biblical interpretation

Early leaders of the movement had a high view of scripture, and believed that it was both inspired and infallible.[68] Dissenting views developed during the 19th century.[68] As early as 1849, LL Pinkerton denied the inerrancy of the Bible.[67][68] According to the Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement Pinkerton is "sometimes labeled the first 'liberal' of the Stone-Campbell Movement."[67] In addition to rejecting the plenary inspiration of the Bible and supporting the use of instruments in worship, Pinkerton also supported "open membership" (recognizing as members individuals who have not been baptized by immersion)[69] and was a strong supporter of the temperance and abolition movements.[67] As the 19th century progressed, the denial of the inerrancy of the Bible slowly spread.[68] In 1883 the editor of the Christian Standard, Isaac Errett, said "Admitting the fact of inspiration, have we in the inspired Scriptures an infallible guide?... I do not see how we can answer this question affirmatively."[68] Others, including JW McGarvey, fiercely opposed these new liberal views.[68]

Separation of the Churches of Christ and Christian Churches

 
David Lipscomb

Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved

— David Lipscomb, 1899[70]

Factors leading to the separation

Disagreement over centralized organizations above the local congregational level, such as missionary societies and conventions, was one important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[61] After the American Civil War more congregations began using instruments, which led to growing controversy.[65]: 414  The greatest acceptance was among urban congregations in the Northern states; very few congregations in the Southern United States used instruments in worship.[65]: 414–415 

While music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues, there were also some deeper ones, such as basic differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered.[4]: 242–7  The American Civil War exacerbated the cultural tensions between the two groups.[71]

As the 19th century progressed, a division gradually developed between those whose primary commitment was to unity, and those whose primary commitment was to the restoration of the primitive church.[42]: 5, 6  Those whose primary focus was unity gradually took on "an explicitly ecumenical agenda" and "sloughed off the restorationist vision."[42]: 6  This group increasingly used the terms "Disciples of Christ" and "Christian Churches" rather than "Churches of Christ."[42]: 6  At the same time, those whose primary focus was restoration of the primitive church increasingly used the term "Churches of Christ" rather than "Disciples of Christ."[42]: 6  Reports on the changes and increasing separation among the groups were published as early as 1883.[4]: 252 

The rise of women leaders in the temperance[72]: 728–729  and missionary movements, primarily in the North, also contributed to the separation of the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations. In the Christian Churches, many women spoke in public on behalf of the new Christian Woman's Board of Missions (CWBM) and Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). In contrast, the Churches of Christ largely discouraged women from joining activist women's organizations such as the WCTU and speaking in public about any issue.[73]: 292–316  In 1889 the Erie Christian Church confirmed the leadership role of women by ordaining Clara Babcock as the first known woman Disciple preacher.[74]: 47–60 

Formal recognition in 1906

The United States Census Bureau began a religious census in 1906.[75][76] Special Agents were used to collect information on those groups which had little or no formal organizational structure, such as the churches associated with the Restoration Movement.[75][76] Officials working on the census noticed signs that the movement was no longer unified: the Gospel Advocate appeared at times to distance itself from the Disciples of Christ, and the Bureau had received at least one letter claiming that some "churches of Christ" were no longer affiliated with the "Disciples of Christ."[75][76]

To resolve the question, the Census Director, Simon Newton Dexter North, wrote a letter to David Lipscomb, the editor of the Advocate.[75][76] He asked:

I would like to know: 1. Whether there is a religious body called "Church of Christ," not identified with the Disciples of Christ, or any other Baptist body? 2. If there is such a body, has it any general organization, with headquarters, officers, district or general conventions, associations or conferences? 3. How did it originate, and what are its distinctive principles? 4. How best can there be secured a complete list of the churches?[76]

Lipscomb summarized the early history of the movement, described the "general organization of the churches under a missionary society with a moneyed membership" and the "adoption of instrumental music in the worship" as "a subversion of the fundamental principles on which the churches were based," and then continued:[76]

There is a distinct people taking the word of God as their only and sufficient rule of faith, calling their churches "churches of Christ" or "churches of God," distinct and separate in name, work, and rule of faith from all other bodies of people.[75][76]

The 1906 U.S. Religious Census for the first time listed the "Churches of Christ" and the "Disciples of Christ" as separate and distinct groups.[4]: 251  This, however, was simply the recognition of a division that had been growing for years, with published reports as early as 1883.[4]: 252  The process that led to this separation had begun prior to the American Civil War.[77]: 17–8 

For Lipscomb, an underlying theological concern was the adoption of German liberal theology by many among the Disciples wing of the Restoration Movement.[78] He saw them as taking a direction very different from the principles enunciated by Thomas and Alexander Campbell.[78] Lipscomb's response to the Census Bureau, and its official listing of the two groups in 1906, became another source of friction between the groups.[75][76] James Harvey Garrison, editor of the "Disciples" journal, The Christian-Evangelist, accused Lipscomb of "sectarianism." Lipscomb said that he had "done nothing to bring about the present condition of affairs," the Census Bureau had started the discussion, and he had simply answered the question they brought to him.[75][76]

Movement historian Douglas Foster has summarized the events this way:

The data reflected what had already happened (and what continued to happen for at least another decade). The Census Bureau itself had noticed a rift between Churches of Christ and Disciples of Christ, and in the interest of reliable data collection tried to ascertain if that was true. Lipscomb agreed that it was accurate to list the two separately; Garrison did not. The division did not begin or happen in 1906 — it was nearing its end. The government did not declare the division; the Census Bureau simply published data it received.[75]

Aftermath

When the 1906 U.S. Religious Census was published in 1910 it reported combined totals for the "Disciples or Christians" for comparison to the 1890 statistics on the movement, as well as separate statistics for the "Disciples of Christ" and the "Churches of Christ."[55] The Disciples were by far the larger of the two groups at the time.[55]: 28, 514 

Relative Size of Disciples of Christ and Churches of Christ in 1906
Congregations[55]: 514  Members[55]: 28 
"Disciples of Christ" 8,293 (75.8%) 982,701 (86.0%)
"Churches of Christ" 2,649 (24.2%) 159,658 (14.0%)
Total "Disciples or Christians" 10,942 1,142,359

Generally speaking, the Disciples of Christ congregations tended to be predominantly urban and Northern, while the Churches of Christ were predominantly rural and Southern. The Disciples favored college-educated clergy, while the Churches of Christ discouraged formal theological education because they opposed the creation of a professional clergy. Disciples congregations tended to be wealthier and constructed larger, more expensive church buildings. Churches of Christ congregations built more modest structures, and criticized the wearing of expensive clothing at worship.[54]: 109  One commentator has described the Disciples "ideal" as reflecting the "businessman," and the Church of Christ "ideal" as reflecting "the simple and austere yeoman farmer."[54]: 109 

Churches of Christ have maintained an ongoing commitment to purely congregational structure, rather than a denominational one, and have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.[79]: 214 [5]: 449 [45]: 124 [80]: 238 [81]: 103 [82] The Disciples developed in a different direction. After a number of discussions throughout the 1950s, the 1960 International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to "restructure" the entire organization.[83] The Disciples restructured in a way that has been described as an "overt recognition of the body's denominational status,"[84]: 268  resulting in what has been described as "a Reformed North American Mainstream Moderate Denomination."[85]

After the separation from the Churches of Christ, tensions remained among the Disciples of Christ over theological liberalism, the nascent ecumenical movement and "open membership."[86]: 185  While the process was lengthy, the more conservative unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations eventually emerged as a separately identifiable religious body from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[86]: 185 

Some commentators believe divisions in the movement have resulted from the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, and see the Churches of Christ and unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolve the tension by stressing ecumenism.[79]: 210 [5]: 383 

All of the three major U.S. branches of the Movement share the following characteristics:

  • A high view, compared to other Christian traditions, of the office of the elder; and[87]: 532 
  • A "commitment to the priesthood of all believers".[87]: 532 

The term "restoration movement" has remained popular among the Churches of Christ and the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations.[9]: 551  Because of the emphasis it places on the theme of restoration, it has been a less comfortable fit for those whose primary focus has been on the theme of unity.[9]: 551  Historically, the term "Disciples of Christ" has also been used by some as a collective designation for the movement.[9]: 551  It has evolved, however, into a designation for a particular branch of the movement – the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) – as a result of the divisions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[9]: 551 

The movement as a whole grew significantly over the course of the 20th century, and the relative size of the different groups associated with the movement shifted as well.[88]

Relative Size of Restoration Movement Groups in 2000[88]
Congregations Members
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 3,625 785,776
Unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations 5,293 1,453,160
Churches of Christ 12,584 1,584,162
International Churches of Christ 450 120 000

Subsequent development of the Christian Churches

Main article: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)

Following the 1906 separation of the Churches of Christ, controversy still existed within the movement over whether the missionary efforts should be cooperative or independently sponsored by congregations. Questions on the role of the methods of Biblical Criticism to the study and interpretation of the Bible were also among the issues in conflict.[48]: 418–20  An awareness of historical criticism began developing in the 1880s, and by the 1920s many Disciples accepted the work of the higher critics.[89]: 178  By that time the question of "open membership," or "admission of the pious unimmersed to membership" had arisen as an additional source of tension.[89]: 182 [90]: 63 

During the first half of the 20th century the opposing factions among the Christian Churches coexisted, but with discomfort. The three Missionary Societies were merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920.[48]: 428, 429  Human service ministries grew through the National Benevolent Association providing assistance to orphans, the elderly and the disabled. By mid century, the cooperative Christian Churches and the independent Christian Churches were following different paths.

By 1926 a split began to form within the Disciples over the future direction of the church. Conservatives within the group began to have problems with the perceived liberalism of the leadership, upon the same grounds described earlier in the accepting of instrumental music in worship. In 1927 they held the first North American Christian Convention, and the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations began to emerge as a distinct group from the Disciples, although the break was not totally formalized until the late 1960s. By this time the decennial religious census was a thing of the past and it is impossible to use it as a delineation as it was in 1906.

Following World War II, it was believed that the organizations that had been developed in previous decades no longer effectively met the needs of the postwar era.[4]: 419  After a number discussions throughout the 1950s, the 1960 International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to plan the "restructure" of the entire organization.[4]: 421  The Commission on Restructure, chaired by Granville T. Walker, held its first meeting October 30 & November 1, 1962.[4]: 436–37  In 1968, at the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), those Christian Churches that favored cooperative mission work adopted a new "provisional design" for their work together, becoming the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[5]: 495  Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization went their own way as the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations, completing a separation that had begun decades before.[5]: 407–9 

The Disciples of Christ still have their own internal conservative-liberal tension. In 1985, a movement of conservative congregations and individuals among the Disciples formed the "Disciple Renewal."[91]: 272  They thought that others in the Disciples fellowship had increasingly liberal views on issues such as the lordship of Christ, the authority of the Bible, and tolerance of homosexuality.[91]: 272  In 1985 the Disciples General Assembly rejected a resolution on the inspiration of scripture; afterward, the Disciple Renewal planned to encourage renewal from within the fellowship through founding a journal entitled Disciple Renewal.[91]: 272  Conservative members were concerned that the Disciples had abandoned the fundamental principles of the Restoration Movement.[91]: 272 

In 1995 the Disciple Heritage Fellowship[92] was established. It is a fellowship of autonomous congregations, about half of which are formally associated with the Disciples of Christ.[91]: 272  As of 2002 the Disciples Heritage Fellowship included 60 congregations and 100 "supporting" churches.[91]: 272 

Restructuring and development of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)

In 1968, the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) adopted the commission's proposed "Provisional Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)."[4]: 442–43  The restructuring was implemented in 1969 by the first General Assembly, and the name officially changed to the "Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)".[93]: 645  This restructuring has been described as an "overt recognition of the body's denominational status,"[84]: 268  and the modern Disciples have been described as "a Reformed North American Mainstream Moderate Denomination."[85]

Membership trends

The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) has experienced a significant loss of membership since the middle of the 20th century. Membership peaked in 1958 at just under 2 million.[94] In 1993, membership dropped below 1 million. In 2009, the denomination reported 658,869 members in 3,691 congregations.[94] As of 2010, the five states with the highest adherence rates were Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kentucky and Oklahoma.[95] The states with the largest absolute number of adherents were Missouri, Texas, Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio.[96]

Subsequent development of the unaffiliated congregations

Main article: Unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations

Independent Christian churches and churches of Christ have both organizational and hermeneutic differences with the churches of Christ.[79]: 186  For example, they have a loosely organized convention, and they view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively.[79]: 186  Nonetheless, they are much more closely related to the churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[79]: 186 

The development of the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations as a separately identifiable religious body from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) (DoC) was a lengthy process.[86]: 185  The roots of the separation can be found in the polarization resulting from three major controversies that arose during the early 20th century.[86]: 185  One, which was a source of division in other religious groups, was "the theological development of modernism and liberalism."[86]: 185  The early stages of the ecumenical movement, which led in 1908 to the Federal Council of Churches, provide a second source of controversy.[86]: 185  The third was the practice of open membership, in which individuals who had not been baptized by immersion were granted full membership in the church.[86]: 185  Those who supported one of these points of view tended to support the others as well.[86]: 185 

The Disciples of Christ were, in 1910, a united, growing community with common goals.[97] Support by the United Christian Missionary Society of missionaries who advocated open membership became a source of contention in 1920.[86]: 185  Efforts to recall support for these missionaries failed in a 1925 convention in Oklahoma City and a 1926 convention in Memphis, Tennessee.[86]: 185  Many congregations withdrew from the missionary society as a result.[86]: 185 

A new convention, the North American Christian Convention, was organized by the more conservative congregations in 1927.[86]: 185  An existing brotherhood journal, the Christian Standard, also served as a source of cohesion for these congregations.[86]: 185  From the 1960s on, newer unaffiliated missionary organizations like the Christian Missionary Fellowship (today, Christian Missionary Fellowship International) were working more on a national scale in the United States to rally Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations in international missions.[86]: 9  By this time the division between liberals and conservatives was well established.[97]

The official separation between the independent Christian churches and churches of Christ and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is difficult to date.[5]: 407  Suggestions range from 1926 to 1971 based on the events outlined below:

  • 1926: The first North American Christian Convention (NACC) in 1927[5]: 407  was the result of disillusionment at the DoC Memphis Convention.
  • 1944: International Convention of Disciples elects as president a proponent of open membership[5]: 408 
  • 1948: The Commission on Restudy, appointed to help avoid a split, disbands[5]: 409 
  • 1955: The Directory of the Ministry was first published listing only the "Independents" on a voluntary basis.[5]: 408 
  • 1968: Final redaction of the Disciples Year Book removing Independent churches[5]: 408 
  • 1971: Independent churches listed separately in the Yearbook of American Churches.[5]: 408 

Because of this separation, many independent Christian churches and churches of Christ are not only non-denominational, they can be anti-denominational, avoiding even the appearance or language associated with denominationalism holding true to their Restoration roots.

Subsequent development of the Churches of Christ

Main article: Churches of Christ

One of the issues leading to the 1906 separation was the question of organizational structures above the level of the local congregation. Since then, Churches of Christ have maintained an ongoing commitment to church governance that is congregational only, rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.[79]: 214 [45]: 124 [80]: 238 [81]: 103 [98] Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations (see Sponsoring church (Churches of Christ)).[45]: 124 [99][100][101] Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.[81]: 106 [99]

Since Churches of Christ are autonomous and purposefully do not maintain an ecclesiastical hierarchy or doctrinal council, it is not unusual to find variations from congregation to congregation. There are many notable consistencies, however; for example, very few Church of Christ buildings display a cross, a practice common in other Christian churches. The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on "methods and procedures" such as church organization, the form of worship, and how the church should function. As a result, most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of "methodological" disputes. These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of "restoring the form and structure of the primitive church."[79]: 212 

Three quarters of the congregations and 87% of the membership are described by The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement as "mainstream", sharing a consensus on practice and theology.[102]: 213  The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories which generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices, rather than in theological perspectives, and tend to have smaller congregations on average.[102]: 213 

The largest of these four categories is the "non-institutional" churches of Christ. This group is notable for opposing congregational support of institutions such as orphans homes and Bible colleges. Approximately 2,055 congregations fall in this category.[102]: 213 [103]

The remaining three groups, whose congregations are generally considerably smaller than those of the mainstream or "non-institutional" groups, also oppose institutional support but differ from the "non-institutional" group by other beliefs and practices:[102]: 213 [103]

  • One group opposes separate "Sunday School" classes; this group consists of approximately 1,100 congregations.
  • Another group opposes the use of multiple communion cups (the term "one-cupper" is often used, sometimes pejoratively, to describe this group); there approximately 550 congregations in this group and this group overlaps somewhat with those congregations that oppose separate Sunday School classes.
  • The last and smallest group "emphasize[s] mutual edification by various leaders in the churches and oppose[s] one person doing most of the preaching." This group includes roughly 130 congregations.

While there are no official membership statistics for the Churches of Christ, growth appears to have been relatively steady through the 20th century.[42]: 4  One source estimates total US membership at 433,714 in 1926, 558,000 in 1936, 682,000 in 1946, 835,000 in 1965 and 1,250,000 in 1994.[42]: 4 

Separation of the International Churches of Christ

Main article: International Churches of Christ

The International Churches of Christ (ICOC) had their roots in a "discipling" movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s.[104]: 418  This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas.[104]: 418 

In 1967, Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville, Florida (later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ). That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance (based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement). Centered on the University of Florida, the program called for a strong evangelistic outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners. Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members. Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction. Both procedures led to "in-depth involvement of each member in one another's lives", and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism.[105]

The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ. One of Lucas' converts, Kip McKean, moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with the Lexington Church of Christ.[104]: 418  He asked them to "redefine their commitment to Christ," and introduced the use of discipling partners. The congregation grew rapidly, and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ.[104]: 418  In the early 1980s, the focus of the movement moved to Boston, Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend. With the national leadership located in Boston, during the 1980s it commonly became known as the "Boston movement."[104]: 418 

In 1990 the Crossroads Church of Christ broke with the Boston movement and, through a letter written to The Christian Chronicle, attempted to restore relations with the mainline Churches of Christ.[104]: 419  By the early 1990s some first-generation leaders had become disillusioned by the movement and left.[104]: 419  The movement was first recognized as an independent religious group in 1992 when John Vaughn, a church growth specialist at Fuller Theological Seminary, listed them as a separate entity.[106] TIME magazine ran a full-page story on the movement in 1992 calling them "one of the world's fastest-growing and most innovative bands of Bible thumpers" that had grown into "a global empire of 103 congregations from California to Cairo with total Sunday attendance of 50,000".[107]

A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 when the movement organized under the name "International Churches of Christ."[104]: 418  This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads/Boston Movement and "mainline" Churches of Christ.[5][104]: 418  Other names that have been used for this movement include the "Crossroads movement," "Multiplying Ministries," and the "Discipling Movement".[105]

Reunion efforts

Efforts have been made to restore unity among the various branches of the Restoration Movement. In 1984 a "Restoration Summit" was held at the Ozark Christian College, with fifty representatives of both the Churches of Christ and the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations.[108]: 642  Later meetings were open to all, and were known as "Restoration Forums."[108]: 642  Beginning in 1986 they have been held annually, generally in October or November, with the hosting venue alternating between the Churches of Christ and the Christian churches and churches of Christ.[108]: 642  Topics discussed have included issues such as instrumental music, the nature of the church, and practical steps for promoting unity.[108]: 642  Efforts have been made in the early 21st century to include representatives of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[108]: 642  These efforts followed the "Stone-Campbell Dialogue," which was a series of meetings beginning in 1999 that included representatives of all three major US branches of the Restoration Movement.[108]: 642 [109]: 720  The first full meeting in 1999 included six representatives from each of the three traditions.[109]: 720  Meetings were held twice annually, and in 2001 were expanded to include anyone associated with the Restoration Movement who was interested in attending.[109]: 720  Also, special efforts were made in 2006 to create more intentional fellowship between the various branches of the Movement.[110][111] This was in conjunction with the one hundredth anniversary of the "official" recognition of the split between the Christian Church and the Churches of Christ by the U.S. Census in 1906.[110][111] One example of this was the hosting by Abilene Christian University (ACU) of the annual Restoration Unity Forum for 2006 as part of the university's annual Bible Lectureship.[112] During the program Don Jeanes, president of Milligan College and Royce Money, president of ACU, jointly gave a presentation on the first chapter of the Gospel of John.[113]

Timeline

Churches outside North America

Restoration Movement churches are found around the world and the World Convention of Churches of Christ provides many national profiles.[114]

Their genealogies are representative of developments in North America. Their theological orientation ranges from fundamentalist to liberal to ecumenical. In some places they have joined with churches of other traditions to form united churches at local, regional or national level.[citation needed]

Africa

There are believed to be 1,000,000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa.[102]: 212  The total number of congregations is approximately 14,000.[115]: 7  The most significant concentrations are in "Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, South Africa and Kenya".[115]: 7 

Asia

India has historically been a target for missionary efforts; estimates are that there are 2,000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India,[116]: 37, 38  with a membership of approximately 1,000,000.[102]: 212  More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines.[116]: 38  Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant.[116]: 38 

Australia and New Zealand

See also: Churches of Christ in Australia

Historically, Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia.[117]: 47  Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations.[117]: 47 

While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive, towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing "summary statements of belief" as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups.[117]: 50  The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship, Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools. Ultimately, all three found general acceptance in the movement.[117]: 51 

Currently, the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States.[117]: 53  There have been strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations instead.[117]: 53  Others have sought support from non-instrumental Churches of Christ, particularly those who felt that "conference" congregations had "departed from the restoration ideal."[117]: 53 

Great Britain

A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ.[118]: 369  James Wallis, a member of that group, founded a magazine named The British Millennial Harbinger in 1837.[118]: 369  In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh.[118]: 369  Approximately 50 congregations were involved, representing a membership of 1,600.[118]: 369  The name "Churches of Christ" was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870.[118]: 369  Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings; he visited the Britain for several months in 1847, and "presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester."[118]: 369  At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2,300.[118]: 369  Annual meetings were held after 1847.[118]: 369 

The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war.[118]: 371  A conference for "Old Paths" congregations was first held in 1924.[118]: 371  The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as "an all-sufficient rule of faith and practice."[118]: 371  Two "Old Paths" congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931; an additional two withdrew in 1934, and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947.[118]: 371 

Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War.[118]: 372 [118]: 372 [119]: 312  The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980.[118]: 372 [119]: 312  Most Association congregations (approximately 40) united with the United Reformed Church in 1981.[118]: 372 [119]: 312  In the same year, twenty-four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ.[118]: 372  The Fellowship developed ties with the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations during the 1980s.[118]: 372 [119]: 312 

The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a "missional" emphasis with an ideal of "Five Fold Leadership." Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches. The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine. A history of the Association of Churches of Christ, Let Sects and Parties Fall, was written by David M Thompson.[120]

Key figures

 
Early leaders of the Restoration Movement: Barton W. Stone, Thomas and Alexander Campbell, and Walter Scott

Although Barton W. Stone, Thomas and Alexander Campbell, and Walter Scott were to become the best-known and most influential early leaders of the movement, others preceded them and laid the foundation for their work.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Fife 1999, p. 212.
  2. ^ Rubel Shelly, I Just Want to Be a Christian, 20th Century Christian, Nashville, TN 1984, ISBN 0-89098-021-7
  3. ^ a b c Hawley, Monroe E (1976), Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Abilene, TX: Quality, pp. 27–32, ISBN 0-89137-513-9
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v McAlister, Lester G; Tucker, William E (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), St Louis: Chalice Press, ISBN 978-0-8272-1703-4.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-89900-909-4, 573 pp.
  6. ^ Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (2004)
  7. ^ Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)
  8. ^ Restoration Movement, Kentaurus, 2011.
  9. ^ a b c d e Foster et al. 2004, p. 551, 'Names of the Movement'.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i Foster et al. 2004, p. 551, 'Names of the Movement'
  11. ^ Foster et al. 2004, p. 755, 'Unity, Christian'.
  12. ^ Foster et al. 2004, pp. 252–54, 'Creeds and Confessions'.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Allen & Hughes 1988
  14. ^ The Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, 'Restoration Movement: History, Beliefs, and Practices', p. 2
  15. ^ a b c d e Foster et al. 2004, p. 688, 'Slogans'.
  16. ^ a b c Foster et al. 2004, p. 688, 'Slogans'
  17. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 11.
  18. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, pp. 22–3.
  19. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, pp. 32–3.
  20. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 33.
  21. ^ a b Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 78.
  22. ^ a b Allen & Hughes 1988, pp. 78–79.
  23. ^ a b Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 79.
  24. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, pp. 40–41.
  25. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, pp. 50–6.
  26. ^ JD Murch, 'Christians Only' (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2004), p. 360
  27. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 65.
  28. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 66.
  29. ^ a b c Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 67.
  30. ^ a b c d Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 68.
  31. ^ Allen & Hughes 1988, pp. 89–94.
  32. ^ a b Allen & Hughes 1988, p. 89.
  33. ^ Foster et al. 2004, p. 368, 'Great Awakenings'.
  34. ^ Foster et al. 2004, p. 368, 'Great Awakenings'
  35. ^ McFadden, Jeff (2006), One Baptism, Lulu, ISBN 978-1-84728-381-8, 248 pp.
  36. ^ Olbricht, Thomas H, , CA: Mun, archived from the original on 2012-01-11.
  37. ^ a b c d e f Foster et al. 2004, p. 190, Christian Connection.
  38. ^ a b c Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on "Stone, Barton Warren"
  39. ^ a b Dr. Adron Doran, Restoring New Testament Christianity: Featuring Alexander Campbell, Thomas Campbell, Barton W. Stone, and Hall L. Calhoun, 21st Century Christian, 1997
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  98. ^ "Churches of Christ from the beginning have maintained no formal organization structures larger than the local congregations and no official journals or vehicles declaring sanctioned positions. Consensus views do, however, often emerge through the influence of opinion leaders who express themselves in journals, at lectureships, or at area preacher meetings and other gatherings" page 213, Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages
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  101. ^ "It is nothing less than phenomenal that the Churches of Christ get so much done without any centralized planning or structure. Everything is ad hoc. Most programs emerge from the inspiration and commitment of a single congregation or even a single person. Worthwhile projects survive and prosper by the voluntary cooperation of other individuals and congregations." Page 449, Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, ISBN 978-0-89900-909-4, 573 pages
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Bibliography

  • Allen, C Leonard; Hughes, Richard T (1988), Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of Churches of Christ, Abilene, TX: ACU Press.
  • Fife, Robert Oldham (Fall 1999), "The Restoration Movement and the Ecumenical Movement", Leaven, vol. 7, no. 4.
  • Foster, Douglas Allen; Dunnavant, Anthony L; Blowers, Paul M; et al., eds. (2004), The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Grand Rapids, MI: William B Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pp.
  • Foster, Douglas Allen; Reese, Jack; Childers, Jeff W (2000), The Crux of the Matter: Crisis, Tradition, and the Future of Churches of Christ, ACU Press, ISBN 0-89112-035-1.
  • Garrett, Leroy (2002), The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, p. 104, ISBN 978-0-89900-909-4, 573 pp.
  • Garrison, Winfred Earnest; DeGroot, Alfred T (1948), The Disciples of Christ, A History, St Louis, MO: The Bethany Press.
  • Jones, Jerry (1991–93), What Does the Boston Movement Teach?, vol. 1–3, Bridgeton, MO: Jerry Jones, 12880 Bittick.
  • Jennings, Walter Wilson (1919), Origin and Early History of the Disciples of Christ, Cincinnati: Standard.
  • Morrill, Milo True (1912), History of the Christian Denomination in America, Dayton: The Christian Publishing Association.
  • Murch, James DeForest (1962), Christians Only, Cincinnati: Standard.
  • North, James B (1994), Union in Truth: An Interpretive History of the Restoration Movement, Cincinnati, OH: The Standard, ISBN 0-7847-0197-0.
  • West, Earl Irvin (2002), The Search for the Ancient Order, vol. 1, Gospel Light, ISBN 0-89225-154-9.
  • Wooten, Martin Edward (1990), The Boston Movement as a 'Revitalization Movement' (D.Min. thesis), Harding Graduate School of Religion.
  • Yeakley, Flavil R, ed. (1988), The Discipling Dilemma: A Study of the Discipling Movement Among Churches of Christ, Nashville: Gospel Advocate.
  • Zuber, Glenn (1993), "The Gospel of Temperance: Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU", Discipliana, 53: 47–60.
  • ——— (2002), "Mainline Women Ministers: Women Missionary and Temperance Organizers Become 'Disciples of Christ' Ministers, 1888–1908", in Casey, Michael; Foster, Douglas A (eds.), The Stone-Campbell Movement: An International Religious Tradition, pp. 292–316.
  • ——— (2004), "Temperance", in Foster, Douglas Allen; Dunnavant, Anthony L; Blowers, Paul M; Williams, D Newell (eds.), The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Grand Rapids, MI: William B Eerdmans, pp. 728–9, ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8.
  • Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census, ed. (1910), Religious Bodies, 1906, United States: United States Printing Office, p. 236.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Restoration movement.
  • Humble, William 'Bill', (documentary), Cyril church, archived from the original on 2011-07-08.
  • Restoration History (historical texts and recordings).
  • at the Wayback Machine (archived June 15, 2012)
  • The Restoration Movement Pages (historical texts, images, biographies and other resources), Abilene Christian University
  • Disciples of Christ Historical Society. Holds artifacts and records relating to the Restoration Movement.

January 07, 2023
restoration, movement, this, article, about, stone, campbell, christian, churches, that, have, historical, theological, connection, other, uses, restorationism, disambiguation, also, known, american, stone, campbell, movement, pejoratively, campbellism, christ. This article is about the Stone Campbell Restoration Movement and Christian churches that have a historical and or theological connection to it For other uses see Restorationism disambiguation The Restoration Movement also known as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone Campbell Movement and pejoratively as Campbellism is a Christian movement that began on the United States frontier during the Second Great Awakening 1790 1840 of the early 19th century The pioneers of this movement were seeking to reform the church from within 1 and sought the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament 2 54 Early leaders of the Restoration Movement clockwise from top Thomas Campbell Barton W Stone Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott The Restoration Movement developed from several independent strands of religious revival that idealized early Christianity Two groups which independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith were particularly important 3 The first led by Barton W Stone began at Cane Ridge Kentucky and identified as Christians The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia now West Virginia and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son Alexander Campbell both educated in Scotland they eventually used the name Disciples of Christ Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church based on visible patterns set forth in the New Testament and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided In 1832 they joined in fellowship with a handshake Among other things they were united in the belief that Jesus is the Christ the Son of God that Christians should celebrate the Lord s Supper on the first day of each week and that baptism of adult believers was necessarily by immersion in water 4 147 148 Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus 4 27 Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the 1st century churches as described in the New Testament One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity movement with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role 5 8 The Restoration Movement has since divided into multiple separate groups The three main groups are the Churches of Christ the Christian Church Disciples of Christ and the independent Christian Church Church of Christ congregations Additionally there are the International Churches of Christ the International Christian Church the Churches of Christ in Europe and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada 6 7 8 and the Churches of Christ in Australia Some characterize the divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism the Churches of Christ and unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations resolved the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church Disciples of Christ resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism 5 383 Contents 1 Name of the movement 2 Key principles 3 Background influences 4 Stone movement 4 1 Cane Ridge revival 4 2 Christian Connection 4 3 Characteristics of the Stone movement 5 Campbell movement 5 1 Influence of the Enlightenment 5 2 Characteristics of the Campbell movement 6 Merger of the Stone and Campbell movements 7 United movement 1832 1906 7 1 Journals 7 2 Anabaptism and materialism controversies 7 3 Missionary society controversy 7 4 Use of musical instruments in worship 7 5 Role of clergy 7 6 Biblical interpretation 8 Separation of the Churches of Christ and Christian Churches 8 1 Factors leading to the separation 8 2 Formal recognition in 1906 8 3 Aftermath 9 Subsequent development of the Christian Churches 9 1 Restructuring and development of the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 9 2 Membership trends 10 Subsequent development of the unaffiliated congregations 11 Subsequent development of the Churches of Christ 11 1 Separation of the International Churches of Christ 12 Reunion efforts 13 Timeline 14 Churches outside North America 14 1 Africa 14 2 Asia 14 3 Australia and New Zealand 14 4 Great Britain 15 Key figures 16 See also 17 References 18 Bibliography 19 External linksName of the movement EditBecause the Restoration Movement lacks any centralized structure having originated in a variety of places with different leaders there is no consistent nomenclature for the movement as a whole 9 The term Restoration Movement became popular during the 19th century 10 this appears to be due to the influence of Alexander Campbell s essays on A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things in the Christian Baptist 10 The term Stone Campbell Movement emerged towards the end of the 19th century as a way to avoid the difficulties associated with some of the other names that have been used and to maintain a sense of the collective history of the movement 10 Key principles EditThe Restoration Movement has been characterized by several key principles Christianity should not be divided Christ intended the creation of one church 3 38 11 Creeds divide but Christians should be able to find agreement by standing on the Bible itself from which they believe all creeds are but human expansions or constrictions 12 Ecclesiastical traditions divide but Christians should be able to find common ground by following the practice as best as it can be determined of the early church 13 104 6 Names of human origin divide but Christians should be able to find common ground by using biblical names for the church i e Christian Church Church of God or Church of Christ as opposed to Methodist or Lutheran etc 4 27 Thus the church should stress only what all Christians hold in common and should suppress all divisive doctrines and practices 14 A number of slogans have been used in the Restoration Movement which are intended to express some of the distinctive themes of the Movement 15 These include Where the Scriptures speak we speak where the Scriptures are silent we are silent 16 The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially intentionally and constitutionally one 16 We are Christians only but not the only Christians 16 In essentials unity in opinions liberty in all things love 15 688 No creed but Christ no book but the Bible no law but love no name but the divine 15 688 Do Bible things in Bible ways 15 688 Call Bible things by Bible names 15 688 Background influences Edit Huldrych Zwingli oil 1531 by Hans Asper housed at Kunstmuseum During the late Middle Ages dissenters such as John Wycliff and John Huss called for a restoration of a primitive form of Christianity but they were driven underground As a result it is difficult to find any direct links between such early dissenters and the restoration movement 13 13 Beginning with the Renaissance intellectual roots become easier to discern 17 At the heart of the Reformation was an emphasis on the principle of Scripture alone sola scriptura 18 This along with the related insistence on the right of individuals to read and interpret the Bible for themselves and a movement to reduce ritual in worship formed part of the intellectual background of early Restoration Movement leaders 19 The branch of the Reformation movement represented by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin contributed an emphasis on restoring biblical forms and patterns 20 John Locke by Herman Verelst The rationalism of John Locke provided another influence 21 Reacting to the deism of Lord Herbert Locke sought a way to address religious division and persecution without abandoning Scripture 21 To do this Locke argued against the right of government to enforce religious orthodoxy and turned to the Bible to supply a set of beliefs that all Christians could agree upon 22 The core teachings which he viewed as essential were the messiahship of Jesus and Jesus direct commands 22 Christians could be devoutly committed to other Biblical teachings but in Locke s view these were non essentials over which Christians should never fight or try to coerce each other 23 Unlike the Puritans and the later Restoration Movement Locke did not call for a systematic restoration of the early church 23 One of the basic goals of the English Puritans was to restore a pure primitive church that would be a true apostolic community 24 This conception was a critical influence in the development of the Puritans in Colonial America 25 It has been described as the oldest ecumenical movement in America 26 Both the great founding documents of the movement are authentically ecumenical In The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery 1804 Barton Stone and his fellow revivalists dissolved their exclusive presbyterial relationship desiring to sink into union with the Body of Christ at large Five years later Thomas Campbell wrote in The Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington PA 1809 The church of Christ on earth is essentially intentionally and constitutionally one 1 During the First Great Awakening a movement developed among those Baptists known as Separate Baptists Two themes of this movement were the rejection of creeds and freedom in the Spirit 27 The Separate Baptists saw Scripture as the perfect rule for the church 28 However while they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern for the church they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern 29 This group originated in New England but was especially strong in the South where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew stronger 29 In the last half of the 18th century Separate Baptists became more numerous on the western frontier of Kentucky and Tennessee where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root 30 The development of the Separate Baptists in the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for the Restoration Movement The membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from the ranks of the Separate Baptists 29 Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of the Landmark Baptists in the same region as the Stone Campbell Restoration Movement and at about the same time Under the leadership of James Robinson Graves this group wanted to define a precise blueprint for the primitive church believing that any deviation from that blueprint would prevent a person from being part of the true church 30 1839 Methodist camp meeting watercolor from the Second Great Awakening The ideal of restoring a primitive form of Christianity grew in popularity in the US after the American Revolution 31 This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity played a role in the development of many groups during this period known as the Second Great Awakening 32 These included the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Baptists and Shakers 32 The Restoration Movement began during and was greatly influenced by this second Awakening 33 While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings the Southern phase of the Awakening was an important matrix of Barton Stone s reform movement and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells 34 James O Kelly was an early advocate of seeking unity through a return to New Testament Christianity 35 216 In 1792 dissatisfied with the role of bishops in the Methodist Episcopal Church he separated from that body O Kelly s movement centering in Virginia and North Carolina was originally called Republican Methodists In 1794 they adopted the name Christian Church 36 During the same period Elias Smith of Vermont and Abner Jones of New Hampshire led a movement espousing views similar to those of O Kelly 30 37 They believed that members could by looking to scripture alone simply be Christians without being bound to human traditions and the denominations brought by immigrants from Europe 30 37 190 Stone movement EditMain article Christians Stone Movement Barton W Stone Wikisource has original text related to this article Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery Barton W Stone was born to John and Mary Warren Stone near Port Tobacco Maryland on December 24 1772 38 702 His immediate family was upper middle class with connections to Maryland s upper class 38 702 Barton s father died in 1775 and his mother moved the family to Pittsylvania County Virginia in 1779 38 702 Mary Stone was a member of the Church of England and Barton was christened by a priest named Thomas Thornton after the move to Virginia she joined the Methodists 39 52 Barton was not himself notably religious as a young man he found the competing claims of the Episcopalians Baptists and Methodists confusing and was much more interested in politics 39 52 53 After the American Revolution the Church of England was disestablished and the Episcopal Church was organized Barton entered the Guilford Academy in North Carolina in 1790 5 71 While there Stone heard James McGready a Presbyterian minister speak 5 72 A few years later he was ordained as a Presbyterian minister 5 72 But as Stone looked more deeply into the beliefs of the Presbyterians especially the Westminster Confession of Faith he doubted that some of the church beliefs were truly Bible based 5 72 3 He was unable to accept the Calvinist doctrines of total depravity unconditional election and predestination 5 72 3 He also believed that Calvinism s alleged theological sophistication had been bought at the price of fomenting division and blamed it for producing ten different sects within the Presbyterian tradition alone 40 110 Cane Ridge revival Edit Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge Kentucky In 1801 the Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky planted the seed for a movement in Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to disassociate from denominationalism In 1803 Stone and others withdrew from the Kentucky Presbytery and formed the Springfield Presbytery The defining event of the Stone wing of the movement was the publication of Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery at Cane Ridge Kentucky in 1804 The Last Will is a brief document in which Stone and five others announced their withdrawal from Presbyterianism and their intention to be solely part of the body of Christ 41 The writers appealed for the unity of all who follow Jesus suggested the value of congregational self governance and lifted the Bible as the source for understanding the will of God They denounced the divisive use of the Westminster Confession of Faith 4 79 and adopted the name Christian to identify their group 4 80 Bust of Barton W Stone in cemetery at Cane Ridge Christian Connection Edit By 1804 Elias Smith had heard of the Stone movement and the O Kelly movement by 1808 37 190 The three groups merged by 1810 37 190 At that time the combined movement had a membership of approximately 20 000 37 190 This loose fellowship of churches was called by the names Christian Connection Connexion or Christian Church 13 68 37 190 Characteristics of the Stone movement Edit The cornerstone for the Stone movement was Christian freedom 13 104 This ideal of freedom led them to reject all the historical creeds traditions and theological systems that had developed over time and to focus instead on a primitive Christianity based on the Bible 13 104 5 While restoring primitive Christianity was central to the Stone movement they believed that restoring the lifestyle of members of the early church is essential During the early years they focused more on holy and righteous living than on the forms and structures of the early church 13 103 The group also worked to restore the primitive church 13 104 Due to concern that emphasizing particular practices could undermine Christian freedom this effort tended to take the form of rejecting tradition rather than an explicit program of reconstructing New Testament practices 13 104 The emphasis on freedom was so strong that the movement avoided developing any ecclesiastical traditions it was largely without dogma form or structure 13 104 5 What held the movement together was a commitment to primitive Christianity 13 105 Another theme was that of hastening the millennium 13 104 Many Americans of the period believed that the millennium was near and based their hopes for the millennium on their new nation the United States 13 104 Members of the Stone movement believed that only a unified Christianity based on the apostolic church rather than a country or any of the existing denominations could lead to the coming of the millennium 13 104 Stone s millennialism has been described as more apocalyptic than that of Alexander Campbell in that he believed people were too flawed to usher in a millennial age through human progress 42 6 7 Rather he believed that it depended on the power of God and that while waiting for God to establish His kingdom one should live as if the rule of God were already fully established 42 6 For the Stone movement this millennial emphasis had less to do with eschatological theories and more about a countercultural commitment to live as if the kingdom of God were already established on earth 42 6 7 This apocalyptic perspective or world view led many in the Stone movement to adopt pacifism avoid participating in civil government and reject violence militarism greed materialism and slavery 42 6 Campbell movement EditMain article Disciples of Christ Campbell Movement Wikisource has original text related to this article Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington Thomas CampbellThe Campbell wing of the movement was launched when Thomas Campbell published the Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington in 1809 4 108 11 The Presbyterian Synod had suspended his ministerial credentials In The Declaration and Address he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ He organized the Christian Association of Washington in Washington County Pennsylvania on the western frontier of the state not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith 4 108 11 On May 4 1811 the Christian Association reconstituted itself as a congregationally governed church With the building it constructed at Brush Run Pennsylvania it became known as Brush Run Church 4 117 When their study of the New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice baptism by immersion the nearby Redstone Baptist Association invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the purpose of fellowship The reformers agreed provided that they would be allowed to preach and to teach whatever they learned from the Scriptures 43 86 Alexander Campbell Thomas son Alexander came to the US to join him in 1809 13 106 Before long he assumed the leading role in the movement 13 106 The Campbells worked within the Redstone Baptist Association during the period 1815 through 1824 While both the Campbells and the Baptists shared practices of baptism by immersion and congregational polity it quickly became clear the Campbells and their associates were not traditional Baptists Within the Redstone Association some of the Baptist leaders considered the differences intolerable when Alexander Campbell began publishing a journal The Christian Baptist which promoted reform Campbell anticipated the conflict and moved his membership to a congregation of the Mahoning Baptist Association in 1824 4 131 Alexander used The Christian Baptist to address what he saw as the key issue of reconstructing the apostolic Christian community in a systematic and rational manner 13 106 He wanted to clearly distinguish between essential and non essential aspects of primitive Christianity 13 106 Among what he identified as essential were congregational autonomy a plurality of elders in each congregation weekly communion and immersion for the remission of sins 13 106 Among practices he rejected as non essential were the holy kiss deaconesses communal living footwashing and charismatic exercises 13 106 Walter Scott In 1827 the Mahoning Association appointed Walter Scott as an evangelist Through Scott s efforts the Mahoning Association grew rapidly In 1828 Thomas Campbell visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach Campbell believed that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his approach to evangelism 4 132 3 Several Baptist associations began disassociating congregations that refused to subscribe to the Philadelphia Confession 44 The Mahoning Association came under attack In 1830 The Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded The younger Campbell ceased publication of the Christian Baptist In January 1831 he began publication of the Millennial Harbinger 4 144 5 Influence of the Enlightenment Edit The Age of Enlightenment had a significant influence on the Campbell movement 13 80 6 Thomas Campbell was a student of the Enlightenment philosopher John Locke 13 82 While he did not explicitly use the term essentials in the Declaration and Address Thomas proposed the same solution to religious division as had been advanced earlier by Herbert and Locke R educe religion to a set of essentials upon which all reasonable persons might agree 13 80 The essentials he identified were those practices for which the Bible provided a Thus saith the Lord either in express terms or by approved precedent 13 81 Unlike Locke who considered the earlier efforts by Puritans to be inherently divisive Thomas argued for a complete restoration of apostolic Christianity 13 82 Thomas believed that creeds served to divide Christians He also believed that the Bible was clear enough that anyone could understand it and thus creeds were unnecessary 45 114 Alexander Campbell was also deeply influenced by Enlightenment thinking in particular the Scottish School of Common Sense of Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart 13 84 This group believed that the Bible related concrete facts rather than abstract truths and advocated a scientific or Baconian approach to interpreting the Bible It would begin with those facts arrange the ones applicable to a given topic and draw conclusions from them in a way that has been described as nothing less than the scientific method applied to the Bible 13 84 Alexander reflected this Baconian approach when he repeatedly argued that the Bible is a book of facts not of opinions theories abstract generalities nor of verbal definitions 13 84 Just as a reliance on facts provides the basis for agreement among scientists Alexander believed that if Christians limited themselves to the facts found in the Bible they would necessarily come to agreement 13 84 He believed that those facts approached in a rational and scientific manner provided a blueprint or constitution for the church 13 85 Alexander was attracted to this scientific approach to the Bible because it offered a reliable basis for Christian unity 13 84 Characteristics of the Campbell movement Edit Thomas Campbell combined the Enlightenment approach to unity with the Reformed and Puritan traditions of restoration 13 82 106 The Enlightenment affected the Campbell movement in two ways First it provided the idea that Christian unity could be achieved by finding a set of essentials that all reasonable people could agree on Second it also provided the concept of a rational faith that was formulated and defended based on facts derived from the Bible 13 85 86 Campbell s solution to achieve Christian unity combined forsaking the creeds and traditions which he believed had divided Christians and recovering the primitive Christianity found in scripture that was common for all Christians 13 106 Alexander Campbell s millennialism was more optimistic than Stone s 42 6 He had more confidence in the potential for human progress and believed that Christians could unite to transform the world and initiate a millennial age 42 6 Campbell s conceptions were postmillennial as he anticipated that the progress of the church and society would lead to an age of peace and righteousness before the return of Christ 42 6 This optimistic approach meant that in addition to his commitment to primitivism he had a progressive strand in his thinking 42 7 Merger of the Stone and Campbell movements EditThe Campbell movement was characterized by a systematic and rational reconstruction of the early church in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma 46 Despite their differences the two movements agreed on several critical issues 47 Both saw restoring apostolic Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium 47 Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom 47 And both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model 47 The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements 42 8 9 Raccoon John Smith The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832 3 28 43 116 20 48 212 49 This was formalized at the Hill Street Meeting House in Lexington Kentucky with a handshake between Barton W Stone and Raccoon John Smith 43 116 20 Smith had been chosen by attendees as spokesman for the followers of the Campbells 43 116 A preliminary meeting of the two groups had been held in late December 1831 culminating with the merger on January 1 1832 43 116 20 50 Two representatives of the assembly were appointed to carry the news of the union to all the churches John Rogers for the Christians and Raccoon John Smith for the reformers Despite some challenges the merger succeeded 4 153 4 Many believed the union held great promise for the future success of the combined movement and greeted the news enthusiastically 42 9 When Stone and Alexander Campbell s Reformers also known as Disciples and Christian Baptists united in 1832 only a minority of Christians from the Smith Jones and O Kelly movements participated 51 Those who did were from congregations west of the Appalachian Mountains that had come into contact with the Stone movement 51 The eastern members had several key differences with the Stone and Campbell group an emphasis on conversion experience quarterly observance of communion and nontrinitarianism 51 Those who did not unite with Campbell merged with the Congregational Churches in 1931 to form the Congregational Christian Churches 52 In 1957 the Congregational Christian Church merged with the Evangelical and Reformed Church to become the United Church of Christ 52 United movement 1832 1906 EditThe merger raised the question of what to call the new movement Finding a biblical non sectarian name was important Stone wanted to continue to use the name Christians while Alexander Campbell insisted upon Disciples of Christ 4 27 8 53 Stone advocated using the name Christians based on its use in Acts 11 26 while Campbell preferred the term disciples because he saw it as both a more humble and an older designation 10 As a result both names were used and the confusion over names has continued ever since 4 27 8 After 1832 use of the term Reformation became frequent among leaders of the movement 10 The Campbells had designated themselves as Reformers and other early leaders also saw themselves as reformers seeking Christian unity and restoring apostolic Christianity 10 The movement s language at the time included phrases such as religious reformation the present reformation the current reformation and the cause of reformation 10 The term Restoration Movement became popular as the 19th century progressed 10 It appears to have been inspired by Alexander Campbell s essays on A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things in the Christian Baptist 10 The combined movement grew rapidly over the period from 1832 to 1906 54 92 93 55 25 According to the 1906 US Religious Census the combined membership of the movement made it the 6th largest Christian group in the country at that time 55 27 Estimated Membership Year 1832 1860 1890 1900 1906Membership 22 000 54 92 192 000 54 92 641 051 55 25 1 120 000 54 93 1 142 359 55 25 Journals Edit The Disciples do not have bishops they have elders early movement historian William Thomas Moore 56 From the beginning of the movement the free exchange of ideas among the people was fostered by the journals published by its leaders Alexander Campbell published The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger Stone published The Christian Messenger 48 208 Both men routinely published the contributions of persons whose positions differed radically from their own Following Campbell s death in 1866 the journals were used to keep the discussions going Between 1870 and 1900 two journals emerged as the most prominent The Christian Standard was edited and published by Isaac Errett of Cincinnati Ohio The Christian Evangelist was edited and published by JH Garrison from St Louis The two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry and kept the dialog going within the movement 48 364 The Gospel Advocate was founded by the Nashville area preacher Tolbert Fanning in 1855 57 Fanning s student William Lipscomb served as co editor until the American Civil War forced them to suspend publication in 1861 58 After the end of the Civil War publication resumed in 1866 under the editorship of Fanning and William Lipscomb s younger brother David Lipscomb Fanning soon retired and David Lipscomb became the sole editor 59 While David Lipscomb was the editor the focus was on seeking unity by following scripture exactly and the Advocate s editorial position was to reject anything that is not explicitly allowed by scripture 60 The Christian Oracle began publication in 1884 It was later known as The Christian Century and offered an interdenominational appeal 48 364 In 1914 Garrison s Christian Publishing company was purchased by R A Long He established a non profit corporation The Christian Board of Publication as the Brotherhood publishing house 48 426 Anabaptism and materialism controversies Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message The Christadelphians Church of the Blessed Hope and Church of God General Conference also have roots in the restoration movement but took their own direction about this time In 1832 Walter Scott baptised John Thomas an English doctor who had emigrated to the United States Thomas was a strong supporter of Alexander Campbell and the principles of the Disciples movement and he quickly became a well known leader and teacher In 1834 however Thomas took a contrary position to Alexander Campbell on the significance of baptism which led to a sharp conflict between the two men While Campbell believed baptism by immersion to be very important he recognised as Christians all who believed Jesus of Nazareth to be Messiah and Lord and recognised any prior baptism For this reason members of Baptist churches who joined the Disciples movement were not required to be baptised again Thomas on the other hand insisted that a baptism based on a different understanding of the gospel to that held in the Disciples movement was not a valid baptism and called for rebaptism in his periodical the Apostolic Advocate Campbell viewed this as sectarianism which cut across the fundamental commitment of the Disciples movement to the union of all Christians and rejected anabaptism The two men became estranged Thomas began to refuse to share prayer worship or communion with those he considered not to be validly baptised Christians His theological views also continued to develop By 1837 he was teaching annihilationism and debated a Presbyterian clergymen Isaac Watts Campbell interpreted this as materialism and believed that it undermined the biblical doctrine of the resurrection and reacted strongly In the Millennial Harbinger he announced that he could no longer consider Thomas a brother Many congregations of Disciples took this as an indication that they should withhold fellowship from Thomas and he found himself on the margins of the movement Thomas continued to have supporters among the Disciples but moved further and further from Christian orthodoxy In 1846 he published a Confession and Abjuration of the faith he held at his baptism and arranged to be baptised again Despite this when he toured the United Kingdom to give prophetic lectures in 1848 1850 he played down his separation from the Disciples movement in an endeavour to access congregations in Britain But his true position was discovered by James Wallis and David King and the movement closed ranks against him In 1864 he coined the name Christadelphian for those who shared his views and sought to register as conscientious objectors to military service The new name was adopted by Robert Roberts the Scottish protege of Thomas for the periodical which he had just begun to publish in Birmingham and the sect began to grow rapidly Benjamin Wilson left the Disciples about the same time as Thomas but split with Thomas in 1863 over disagreements about eschatology forming the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith During the American Civil War his followers also sought to register as conscientious objectors Some congregations were unable to register this name due to local regulations and chose an alternative name Church of the Blessed Hope but the two names referred to the same sect The sect divided in 1921 and the Church of God General Conference was formed by the larger grouping Missionary society controversy Edit In 1849 the first National Convention was held at Cincinnati Ohio 48 245 Alexander Campbell had concerns that holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism He did not attend the gathering 48 245 Among its actions the convention elected Alexander Campbell its president and created the American Christian Missionary Society ACMS 48 247 By the end of the century the Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the Christian Woman s Board of Missions were also engaged in missionary activities Forming the ACMS did not reflect a consensus of the entire movement and these para church organizations became a divisive issue While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations 61 The ACMS was not as successful as proponents had hoped 62 It was opposed by those who believed any extra congregational organizations were inappropriate hostility grew when the ACMS took a stand in 1863 favoring the Union side during the American Civil War 62 63 A convention held in Louisville Kentucky in 1869 adopted a plan intended to address a perceived need to reorganize the American Christian Missionary Society ACMS in a way that would be acceptable to more members of the Movement 62 The Louisville Plan as it came to be known attempted to build on existing local and regional conventions and to promote the harmonious cooperation of all the state and District Boards and Conventions 62 64 It established a General Christian Missionary Convention GCMC 64 Membership was congregational rather than individual 62 64 Local congregations elected delegates to district meetings which in turn elected delegates to state meetings 62 States were given two delegates plus an additional delegate for every 5 000 members 62 The plan proved divisive and faced immediate opposition 62 64 Opponents continued to argue that any organizational structure above the local congregational level was not authorized by scripture and there was a general concern that the Board had been given too much authority 62 By 1872 the Louisville Plan had effectively failed 62 64 Direct contributions from individuals were sought again in 1873 individual membership was reinstated in 1881 and the name was changed back to the American Christian Missionary Society in 1895 62 64 Use of musical instruments in worship Edit Melodeon The use of musical instruments in worship was discussed in journal articles as early as 1849 but initial reactions were generally unfavorable 65 414 Some congregations however are documented as having used musical instruments in the 1850s and 1860s 65 414 An example is the church in Midway Kentucky which was using an instrument by 1860 65 414 A member of the congregation L L Pinkerton brought a melodeon into the church building 65 414 66 95 96 67 597 598 The minister had been distressed to his breaking point by the poor quality of the congregation s singing 66 96 At first the instrument was used for singing practices held on Saturday night but was soon used during the worship on Sunday 66 96 One of the elders of that assembly removed the first melodeon but it was soon replaced by another 66 96 Both acceptance of instruments and discussion of the issue grew after the American Civil War 65 414 Opponents argued that the New Testament provided no authorization for their use in worship while supporters argued on the basis of expediency and Christian liberty 65 414 Affluent urban congregations were more likely to adopt musical instruments while poorer and more rural congregations tended to see them as an accommodation to the ways of the world 65 414 The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement notes that Restoration Movement historians have tended to interpret the controversy over the use of musical instruments in worship in ways that reflect their own attitudes on the issue 65 414 Examples are given of historians from different branches of the movement interpreting it in relation to the statements of early Restoration Movement leaders in terms of social and cultural factors differing approaches to interpreting scripture differing approaches to the authority of scripture and ecumenical progressivism versus sectarian primitivism 65 414 5 Role of clergy Edit The early 19th century Restoration Movement encompassed very different views concerning the role of clergy the Campbell branch was strongly anti clergy believing there was no justification for a clergy lay distinction while the Stone branch believed that only an ordained minister could officiate at communion 54 Biblical interpretation Edit Early leaders of the movement had a high view of scripture and believed that it was both inspired and infallible 68 Dissenting views developed during the 19th century 68 As early as 1849 LL Pinkerton denied the inerrancy of the Bible 67 68 According to the Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Pinkerton is sometimes labeled the first liberal of the Stone Campbell Movement 67 In addition to rejecting the plenary inspiration of the Bible and supporting the use of instruments in worship Pinkerton also supported open membership recognizing as members individuals who have not been baptized by immersion 69 and was a strong supporter of the temperance and abolition movements 67 As the 19th century progressed the denial of the inerrancy of the Bible slowly spread 68 In 1883 the editor of the Christian Standard Isaac Errett said Admitting the fact of inspiration have we in the inspired Scriptures an infallible guide I do not see how we can answer this question affirmatively 68 Others including JW McGarvey fiercely opposed these new liberal views 68 Separation of the Churches of Christ and Christian Churches Edit David LipscombNothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved David Lipscomb 1899 70 Factors leading to the separation Edit Disagreement over centralized organizations above the local congregational level such as missionary societies and conventions was one important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 61 After the American Civil War more congregations began using instruments which led to growing controversy 65 414 The greatest acceptance was among urban congregations in the Northern states very few congregations in the Southern United States used instruments in worship 65 414 415 While music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues there were also some deeper ones such as basic differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation For the Churches of Christ any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship For the Christian Churches any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered 4 242 7 The American Civil War exacerbated the cultural tensions between the two groups 71 As the 19th century progressed a division gradually developed between those whose primary commitment was to unity and those whose primary commitment was to the restoration of the primitive church 42 5 6 Those whose primary focus was unity gradually took on an explicitly ecumenical agenda and sloughed off the restorationist vision 42 6 This group increasingly used the terms Disciples of Christ and Christian Churches rather than Churches of Christ 42 6 At the same time those whose primary focus was restoration of the primitive church increasingly used the term Churches of Christ rather than Disciples of Christ 42 6 Reports on the changes and increasing separation among the groups were published as early as 1883 4 252 The rise of women leaders in the temperance 72 728 729 and missionary movements primarily in the North also contributed to the separation of the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations In the Christian Churches many women spoke in public on behalf of the new Christian Woman s Board of Missions CWBM and Woman s Christian Temperance Union WCTU In contrast the Churches of Christ largely discouraged women from joining activist women s organizations such as the WCTU and speaking in public about any issue 73 292 316 In 1889 the Erie Christian Church confirmed the leadership role of women by ordaining Clara Babcock as the first known woman Disciple preacher 74 47 60 Formal recognition in 1906 Edit The United States Census Bureau began a religious census in 1906 75 76 Special Agents were used to collect information on those groups which had little or no formal organizational structure such as the churches associated with the Restoration Movement 75 76 Officials working on the census noticed signs that the movement was no longer unified the Gospel Advocate appeared at times to distance itself from the Disciples of Christ and the Bureau had received at least one letter claiming that some churches of Christ were no longer affiliated with the Disciples of Christ 75 76 To resolve the question the Census Director Simon Newton Dexter North wrote a letter to David Lipscomb the editor of the Advocate 75 76 He asked I would like to know 1 Whether there is a religious body called Church of Christ not identified with the Disciples of Christ or any other Baptist body 2 If there is such a body has it any general organization with headquarters officers district or general conventions associations or conferences 3 How did it originate and what are its distinctive principles 4 How best can there be secured a complete list of the churches 76 Lipscomb summarized the early history of the movement described the general organization of the churches under a missionary society with a moneyed membership and the adoption of instrumental music in the worship as a subversion of the fundamental principles on which the churches were based and then continued 76 There is a distinct people taking the word of God as their only and sufficient rule of faith calling their churches churches of Christ or churches of God distinct and separate in name work and rule of faith from all other bodies of people 75 76 The 1906 U S Religious Census for the first time listed the Churches of Christ and the Disciples of Christ as separate and distinct groups 4 251 This however was simply the recognition of a division that had been growing for years with published reports as early as 1883 4 252 The process that led to this separation had begun prior to the American Civil War 77 17 8 For Lipscomb an underlying theological concern was the adoption of German liberal theology by many among the Disciples wing of the Restoration Movement 78 He saw them as taking a direction very different from the principles enunciated by Thomas and Alexander Campbell 78 Lipscomb s response to the Census Bureau and its official listing of the two groups in 1906 became another source of friction between the groups 75 76 James Harvey Garrison editor of the Disciples journal The Christian Evangelist accused Lipscomb of sectarianism Lipscomb said that he had done nothing to bring about the present condition of affairs the Census Bureau had started the discussion and he had simply answered the question they brought to him 75 76 Movement historian Douglas Foster has summarized the events this way The data reflected what had already happened and what continued to happen for at least another decade The Census Bureau itself had noticed a rift between Churches of Christ and Disciples of Christ and in the interest of reliable data collection tried to ascertain if that was true Lipscomb agreed that it was accurate to list the two separately Garrison did not The division did not begin or happen in 1906 it was nearing its end The government did not declare the division the Census Bureau simply published data it received 75 Aftermath Edit When the 1906 U S Religious Census was published in 1910 it reported combined totals for the Disciples or Christians for comparison to the 1890 statistics on the movement as well as separate statistics for the Disciples of Christ and the Churches of Christ 55 The Disciples were by far the larger of the two groups at the time 55 28 514 Relative Size of Disciples of Christ and Churches of Christ in 1906 Congregations 55 514 Members 55 28 Disciples of Christ 8 293 75 8 982 701 86 0 Churches of Christ 2 649 24 2 159 658 14 0 Total Disciples or Christians 10 942 1 142 359Generally speaking the Disciples of Christ congregations tended to be predominantly urban and Northern while the Churches of Christ were predominantly rural and Southern The Disciples favored college educated clergy while the Churches of Christ discouraged formal theological education because they opposed the creation of a professional clergy Disciples congregations tended to be wealthier and constructed larger more expensive church buildings Churches of Christ congregations built more modest structures and criticized the wearing of expensive clothing at worship 54 109 One commentator has described the Disciples ideal as reflecting the businessman and the Church of Christ ideal as reflecting the simple and austere yeoman farmer 54 109 Churches of Christ have maintained an ongoing commitment to purely congregational structure rather than a denominational one and have no central headquarters councils or other organizational structure above the local church level 79 214 5 449 45 124 80 238 81 103 82 The Disciples developed in a different direction After a number of discussions throughout the 1950s the 1960 International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to restructure the entire organization 83 The Disciples restructured in a way that has been described as an overt recognition of the body s denominational status 84 268 resulting in what has been described as a Reformed North American Mainstream Moderate Denomination 85 After the separation from the Churches of Christ tensions remained among the Disciples of Christ over theological liberalism the nascent ecumenical movement and open membership 86 185 While the process was lengthy the more conservative unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations eventually emerged as a separately identifiable religious body from the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 86 185 Some commentators believe divisions in the movement have resulted from the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism and see the Churches of Christ and unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church Disciples of Christ resolve the tension by stressing ecumenism 79 210 5 383 All of the three major U S branches of the Movement share the following characteristics A high view compared to other Christian traditions of the office of the elder and 87 532 A commitment to the priesthood of all believers 87 532 The term restoration movement has remained popular among the Churches of Christ and the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations 9 551 Because of the emphasis it places on the theme of restoration it has been a less comfortable fit for those whose primary focus has been on the theme of unity 9 551 Historically the term Disciples of Christ has also been used by some as a collective designation for the movement 9 551 It has evolved however into a designation for a particular branch of the movement the Christian Church Disciples of Christ as a result of the divisions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries 9 551 The movement as a whole grew significantly over the course of the 20th century and the relative size of the different groups associated with the movement shifted as well 88 Relative Size of Restoration Movement Groups in 2000 88 Congregations MembersChristian Church Disciples of Christ 3 625 785 776Unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations 5 293 1 453 160Churches of Christ 12 584 1 584 162International Churches of Christ 450 120 000Subsequent development of the Christian Churches EditMain article Christian Church Disciples of Christ Following the 1906 separation of the Churches of Christ controversy still existed within the movement over whether the missionary efforts should be cooperative or independently sponsored by congregations Questions on the role of the methods of Biblical Criticism to the study and interpretation of the Bible were also among the issues in conflict 48 418 20 An awareness of historical criticism began developing in the 1880s and by the 1920s many Disciples accepted the work of the higher critics 89 178 By that time the question of open membership or admission of the pious unimmersed to membership had arisen as an additional source of tension 89 182 90 63 During the first half of the 20th century the opposing factions among the Christian Churches coexisted but with discomfort The three Missionary Societies were merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920 48 428 429 Human service ministries grew through the National Benevolent Association providing assistance to orphans the elderly and the disabled By mid century the cooperative Christian Churches and the independent Christian Churches were following different paths By 1926 a split began to form within the Disciples over the future direction of the church Conservatives within the group began to have problems with the perceived liberalism of the leadership upon the same grounds described earlier in the accepting of instrumental music in worship In 1927 they held the first North American Christian Convention and the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations began to emerge as a distinct group from the Disciples although the break was not totally formalized until the late 1960s By this time the decennial religious census was a thing of the past and it is impossible to use it as a delineation as it was in 1906 Following World War II it was believed that the organizations that had been developed in previous decades no longer effectively met the needs of the postwar era 4 419 After a number discussions throughout the 1950s the 1960 International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to plan the restructure of the entire organization 4 421 The Commission on Restructure chaired by Granville T Walker held its first meeting October 30 amp November 1 1962 4 436 37 In 1968 at the International Convention of Christian Churches Disciples of Christ those Christian Churches that favored cooperative mission work adopted a new provisional design for their work together becoming the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 5 495 Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization went their own way as the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations completing a separation that had begun decades before 5 407 9 The Disciples of Christ still have their own internal conservative liberal tension In 1985 a movement of conservative congregations and individuals among the Disciples formed the Disciple Renewal 91 272 They thought that others in the Disciples fellowship had increasingly liberal views on issues such as the lordship of Christ the authority of the Bible and tolerance of homosexuality 91 272 In 1985 the Disciples General Assembly rejected a resolution on the inspiration of scripture afterward the Disciple Renewal planned to encourage renewal from within the fellowship through founding a journal entitled Disciple Renewal 91 272 Conservative members were concerned that the Disciples had abandoned the fundamental principles of the Restoration Movement 91 272 In 1995 the Disciple Heritage Fellowship 92 was established It is a fellowship of autonomous congregations about half of which are formally associated with the Disciples of Christ 91 272 As of 2002 update the Disciples Heritage Fellowship included 60 congregations and 100 supporting churches 91 272 Restructuring and development of the Christian Church Disciples of Christ Edit In 1968 the International Convention of Christian Churches Disciples of Christ adopted the commission s proposed Provisional Design of the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 4 442 43 The restructuring was implemented in 1969 by the first General Assembly and the name officially changed to the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 93 645 This restructuring has been described as an overt recognition of the body s denominational status 84 268 and the modern Disciples have been described as a Reformed North American Mainstream Moderate Denomination 85 Membership trends Edit The Christian Church Disciples of Christ has experienced a significant loss of membership since the middle of the 20th century Membership peaked in 1958 at just under 2 million 94 In 1993 membership dropped below 1 million In 2009 the denomination reported 658 869 members in 3 691 congregations 94 As of 2010 the five states with the highest adherence rates were Kansas Missouri Iowa Kentucky and Oklahoma 95 The states with the largest absolute number of adherents were Missouri Texas Indiana Kentucky and Ohio 96 Subsequent development of the unaffiliated congregations EditMain article Unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations Independent Christian churches and churches of Christ have both organizational and hermeneutic differences with the churches of Christ 79 186 For example they have a loosely organized convention and they view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively 79 186 Nonetheless they are much more closely related to the churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 79 186 The development of the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations as a separately identifiable religious body from the Christian Church Disciples of Christ DoC was a lengthy process 86 185 The roots of the separation can be found in the polarization resulting from three major controversies that arose during the early 20th century 86 185 One which was a source of division in other religious groups was the theological development of modernism and liberalism 86 185 The early stages of the ecumenical movement which led in 1908 to the Federal Council of Churches provide a second source of controversy 86 185 The third was the practice of open membership in which individuals who had not been baptized by immersion were granted full membership in the church 86 185 Those who supported one of these points of view tended to support the others as well 86 185 The Disciples of Christ were in 1910 a united growing community with common goals 97 Support by the United Christian Missionary Society of missionaries who advocated open membership became a source of contention in 1920 86 185 Efforts to recall support for these missionaries failed in a 1925 convention in Oklahoma City and a 1926 convention in Memphis Tennessee 86 185 Many congregations withdrew from the missionary society as a result 86 185 A new convention the North American Christian Convention was organized by the more conservative congregations in 1927 86 185 An existing brotherhood journal the Christian Standard also served as a source of cohesion for these congregations 86 185 From the 1960s on newer unaffiliated missionary organizations like the Christian Missionary Fellowship today Christian Missionary Fellowship International were working more on a national scale in the United States to rally Christian Church Church of Christ congregations in international missions 86 9 By this time the division between liberals and conservatives was well established 97 The official separation between the independent Christian churches and churches of Christ and the Christian Church Disciples of Christ is difficult to date 5 407 Suggestions range from 1926 to 1971 based on the events outlined below 1926 The first North American Christian Convention NACC in 1927 5 407 was the result of disillusionment at the DoC Memphis Convention 1944 International Convention of Disciples elects as president a proponent of open membership 5 408 1948 The Commission on Restudy appointed to help avoid a split disbands 5 409 1955 The Directory of the Ministry was first published listing only the Independents on a voluntary basis 5 408 1968 Final redaction of the Disciples Year Book removing Independent churches 5 408 1971 Independent churches listed separately in the Yearbook of American Churches 5 408 Because of this separation many independent Christian churches and churches of Christ are not only non denominational they can be anti denominational avoiding even the appearance or language associated with denominationalism holding true to their Restoration roots Subsequent development of the Churches of Christ EditMain article Churches of Christ One of the issues leading to the 1906 separation was the question of organizational structures above the level of the local congregation Since then Churches of Christ have maintained an ongoing commitment to church governance that is congregational only rather than denominational Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters councils or other organizational structure above the local church level 79 214 45 124 80 238 81 103 98 Rather the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations see Sponsoring church Churches of Christ 45 124 99 100 101 Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles 81 106 99 Since Churches of Christ are autonomous and purposefully do not maintain an ecclesiastical hierarchy or doctrinal council it is not unusual to find variations from congregation to congregation There are many notable consistencies however for example very few Church of Christ buildings display a cross a practice common in other Christian churches The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on methods and procedures such as church organization the form of worship and how the church should function As a result most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of methodological disputes These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of restoring the form and structure of the primitive church 79 212 Three quarters of the congregations and 87 of the membership are described by The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement as mainstream sharing a consensus on practice and theology 102 213 The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories which generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices rather than in theological perspectives and tend to have smaller congregations on average 102 213 The largest of these four categories is the non institutional churches of Christ This group is notable for opposing congregational support of institutions such as orphans homes and Bible colleges Approximately 2 055 congregations fall in this category 102 213 103 The remaining three groups whose congregations are generally considerably smaller than those of the mainstream or non institutional groups also oppose institutional support but differ from the non institutional group by other beliefs and practices 102 213 103 One group opposes separate Sunday School classes this group consists of approximately 1 100 congregations Another group opposes the use of multiple communion cups the term one cupper is often used sometimes pejoratively to describe this group there approximately 550 congregations in this group and this group overlaps somewhat with those congregations that oppose separate Sunday School classes The last and smallest group emphasize s mutual edification by various leaders in the churches and oppose s one person doing most of the preaching This group includes roughly 130 congregations While there are no official membership statistics for the Churches of Christ growth appears to have been relatively steady through the 20th century 42 4 One source estimates total US membership at 433 714 in 1926 558 000 in 1936 682 000 in 1946 835 000 in 1965 and 1 250 000 in 1994 42 4 Separation of the International Churches of Christ Edit Main article International Churches of Christ The International Churches of Christ ICOC had their roots in a discipling movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s 104 418 This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas 104 418 In 1967 Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville Florida later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement Centered on the University of Florida the program called for a strong evangelistic outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction Both procedures led to in depth involvement of each member in one another s lives and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism 105 The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ One of Lucas converts Kip McKean moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with the Lexington Church of Christ 104 418 He asked them to redefine their commitment to Christ and introduced the use of discipling partners The congregation grew rapidly and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ 104 418 In the early 1980s the focus of the movement moved to Boston Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend With the national leadership located in Boston during the 1980s it commonly became known as the Boston movement 104 418 In 1990 the Crossroads Church of Christ broke with the Boston movement and through a letter written to The Christian Chronicle attempted to restore relations with the mainline Churches of Christ 104 419 By the early 1990s some first generation leaders had become disillusioned by the movement and left 104 419 The movement was first recognized as an independent religious group in 1992 when John Vaughn a church growth specialist at Fuller Theological Seminary listed them as a separate entity 106 TIME magazine ran a full page story on the movement in 1992 calling them one of the world s fastest growing and most innovative bands of Bible thumpers that had grown into a global empire of 103 congregations from California to Cairo with total Sunday attendance of 50 000 107 A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 when the movement organized under the name International Churches of Christ 104 418 This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads Boston Movement and mainline Churches of Christ 5 104 418 Other names that have been used for this movement include the Crossroads movement Multiplying Ministries and the Discipling Movement 105 Reunion efforts EditEfforts have been made to restore unity among the various branches of the Restoration Movement In 1984 a Restoration Summit was held at the Ozark Christian College with fifty representatives of both the Churches of Christ and the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations 108 642 Later meetings were open to all and were known as Restoration Forums 108 642 Beginning in 1986 they have been held annually generally in October or November with the hosting venue alternating between the Churches of Christ and the Christian churches and churches of Christ 108 642 Topics discussed have included issues such as instrumental music the nature of the church and practical steps for promoting unity 108 642 Efforts have been made in the early 21st century to include representatives of the Christian Church Disciples of Christ 108 642 These efforts followed the Stone Campbell Dialogue which was a series of meetings beginning in 1999 that included representatives of all three major US branches of the Restoration Movement 108 642 109 720 The first full meeting in 1999 included six representatives from each of the three traditions 109 720 Meetings were held twice annually and in 2001 were expanded to include anyone associated with the Restoration Movement who was interested in attending 109 720 Also special efforts were made in 2006 to create more intentional fellowship between the various branches of the Movement 110 111 This was in conjunction with the one hundredth anniversary of the official recognition of the split between the Christian Church and the Churches of Christ by the U S Census in 1906 110 111 One example of this was the hosting by Abilene Christian University ACU of the annual Restoration Unity Forum for 2006 as part of the university s annual Bible Lectureship 112 During the program Don Jeanes president of Milligan College and Royce Money president of ACU jointly gave a presentation on the first chapter of the Gospel of John 113 Timeline EditChurches outside North America EditRestoration Movement churches are found around the world and the World Convention of Churches of Christ provides many national profiles 114 Their genealogies are representative of developments in North America Their theological orientation ranges from fundamentalist to liberal to ecumenical In some places they have joined with churches of other traditions to form united churches at local regional or national level citation needed Africa Edit There are believed to be 1 000 000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa 102 212 The total number of congregations is approximately 14 000 115 7 The most significant concentrations are in Nigeria Malawi Ghana Zambia Zimbabwe Ethiopia South Africa and Kenya 115 7 Asia Edit India has historically been a target for missionary efforts estimates are that there are 2 000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India 116 37 38 with a membership of approximately 1 000 000 102 212 More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines 116 38 Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant 116 38 Australia and New Zealand Edit See also Churches of Christ in Australia Historically Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia 117 47 Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations 117 47 While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing summary statements of belief as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups 117 50 The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools Ultimately all three found general acceptance in the movement 117 51 Currently the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States 117 53 There have been strong ties with the Christian Church Disciples of Christ but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations instead 117 53 Others have sought support from non instrumental Churches of Christ particularly those who felt that conference congregations had departed from the restoration ideal 117 53 Great Britain Edit A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ 118 369 James Wallis a member of that group founded a magazine named The British Millennial Harbinger in 1837 118 369 In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh 118 369 Approximately 50 congregations were involved representing a membership of 1 600 118 369 The name Churches of Christ was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870 118 369 Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings he visited the Britain for several months in 1847 and presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester 118 369 At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2 300 118 369 Annual meetings were held after 1847 118 369 The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I More significant was the issue of pacifism a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war 118 371 A conference for Old Paths congregations was first held in 1924 118 371 The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as an all sufficient rule of faith and practice 118 371 Two Old Paths congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931 an additional two withdrew in 1934 and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947 118 371 Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War 118 372 118 372 119 312 The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980 118 372 119 312 Most Association congregations approximately 40 united with the United Reformed Church in 1981 118 372 119 312 In the same year twenty four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ 118 372 The Fellowship developed ties with the unaffiliated Christian Church Church of Christ congregations during the 1980s 118 372 119 312 The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a missional emphasis with an ideal of Five Fold Leadership Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine A history of the Association of Churches of Christ Let Sects and Parties Fall was written by David M Thompson 120 Key figures Edit Early leaders of the Restoration Movement Barton W Stone Thomas and Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott Although Barton W Stone Thomas and Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott were to become the best known and most influential early leaders of the movement others preceded them and laid the foundation for their work Rice Haggard 1769 1819 121 James O Kelly 1735 1826 Durham North Carolina 122 Abner Jones 1772 1841 123 Barton W Stone 1772 1844 124 Elias Smith 1764 1846 125 Thomas Campbell 1763 1854 126 Walter Scott 1796 1861 a successful evangelist who helped to stabilize the Campbell movement as it was separating from the Baptists 127 128 Alexander Campbell 1788 1866 129 Raccoon John Smith 1784 1868 instrumental in bringing the Stone and Campbell movements together 130 Elijah Martindale 1793 1874 active in Indiana 131 132 Amos Sutton Hayden 1813 1880 133 James A Garfield 1831 1881 first Restoration Movement member to be elected United States President the others being Lyndon B Johnson 1908 1973 and Ronald Reagan 1911 2004 Marshall Keeble 1878 1968 His successful preaching career notably bridged a racial divide in the Restoration Movement prior to the American Civil Rights Movement 134 135 Kip McKean born 1954 founder of the International Churches of Christ ICOC a twentieth century offshoot of this movement List of Notable Women of the Restoration MovementSee also Edit Christianity portalChristianity in the 18th century Christianity in the 19th century Churches of Christ Congregationalist polity History of Christianity Restorationism Second Great Awakening Non denominational Christianity Caroline Neville Pearre John Oakes apologist References Edit a b Fife 1999 p 212 Rubel Shelly I Just Want to Be a Christian 20th Century Christian Nashville TN 1984 ISBN 0 89098 021 7 a b c Hawley Monroe E 1976 Redigging the Wells Seeking Undenominational Christianity Abilene TX Quality pp 27 32 ISBN 0 89137 513 9 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v McAlister Lester G Tucker William E 1975 Journey in Faith A History of the Christian Church Disciples of Christ St Louis Chalice Press ISBN 978 0 8272 1703 4 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Leroy Garrett The Stone Campbell Movement The Story of the American Restoration Movement College Press 2002 ISBN 978 0 89900 909 4 573 pp Sydney E Ahlstrom A Religious History of the American People 2004 Melton s Encyclopedia of American Religions 2009 Restoration Movement Kentaurus 2011 a b c d e Foster et al 2004 p 551 Names of the Movement a b c d e f g h i Foster et al 2004 p 551 Names of the Movement Foster et al 2004 p 755 Unity Christian Foster et al 2004 pp 252 54 Creeds and Confessions a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Allen amp Hughes 1988 The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod Restoration Movement History Beliefs and Practices p 2 a b c d e Foster et al 2004 p 688 Slogans a b c Foster et al 2004 p 688 Slogans Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 11 Allen amp Hughes 1988 pp 22 3 Allen amp Hughes 1988 pp 32 3 Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 33 a b Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 78 a b Allen amp Hughes 1988 pp 78 79 a b Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 79 Allen amp Hughes 1988 pp 40 41 Allen amp Hughes 1988 pp 50 6 JD Murch Christians Only Eugene Wipf amp Stock 2004 p 360 Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 65 Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 66 a b c Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 67 a b c d Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 68 Allen amp Hughes 1988 pp 89 94 a b Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 89 Foster et al 2004 p 368 Great Awakenings Foster et al 2004 p 368 Great Awakenings McFadden Jeff 2006 One Baptism Lulu ISBN 978 1 84728 381 8 248 pp Olbricht Thomas H Who Are the Churches of Christ CA Mun archived from the original on 2012 01 11 a b c d e f Foster et al 2004 p 190 Christian Connection a b c Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Stone Barton Warren a b Dr Adron Doran Restoring New Testament Christianity Featuring Alexander Campbell Thomas Campbell Barton W Stone and Hall L Calhoun 21st Century Christian 1997 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Calvinism Marshall Robert Dunlavy John M nemar Richard Stone BW Thompson John Purviance David 1804 The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery CA MUN a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Hughes Richard Thomas Roberts RL 2001 The Churches of Christ 2nd ed Greenwood p 345 ISBN 978 0 313 23312 8 a b c d e Davis M M 1915 How the Disciples Began and Grew A Short History of the Christian Church Cincinnati The Standard Publishing Company Philadelphia Confession Reformed reader a b c d Rhodes Ron 2005 The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations Harvest House ISBN 0 7369 1289 4 Allen amp Hughes 1988 pp 106 8 a b c d Allen amp Hughes 1988 p 108 a b c d e f g h i j Garrison Winfred Earnest DeGroot Alfred T 1948 The Disciples of Christ A History St Louis MO The Bethany Press Foster et al 2004 pp xxi xxxvii Stone Campbell History Over Three Centuries A Survey and Analysis Introductory Chronology Foster et al 2004 p xxxvii Introductory Chronology a b c Foster et al 2004 p 190 Christian Connection a b Foster et al 2004 p 191 Christian Connection Foster et al 2004 Alexander Campbell a b c d e f g Tristano Richard M December 1998 Origins of the Restoration Movement An Intellectual History PDF Glenmary Research Center ISBN 0 914422 17 0 a b c d e f g h Hunt William C 1910 Religions Bodies 1906 vol Part 1 Summary and General Tables Washington DC Bureau of the Census Government Printing Office Foster et al 2004 pp 543 44 Moore William Thomas Foster et al 2004 p 361 Gospel Advocate Foster et al 2004 p 361 Gospel Advocate Foster et al 2004 pp 361 62 Gospel Advocate Foster et al 2004 p 362 Gospel Advocate a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Missionary Societies Controversy Over pp 534 537 a b c d e f g h i j k Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Louisville Plan The pp 496 497 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on American Christian Missionary Society pages 24 26 a b c d e f Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Conventions pp 237 240 a b c d e f g h i j k Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Instrumental Music a b c d Brewster Ben 2006 Torn Asunder The Civil War and the 1906 Division of the Disciples College Press ISBN 978 0 89900 951 3 135 pp a b c d Foster amp Dunnavant 2004 p 597 Pinkerton Lewis Letig harvnb error no target CITEREFFosterDunnavant2004 help a b c d e f Foster amp Dunnavant 2004 p 77 Bible Authority and Inspiration of the harvnb error no target CITEREFFosterDunnavant2004 help Foster amp Dunnavant p 576 Open Membership harvnb error no target CITEREFFosterDunnavant help David Lipscomb 1899 as quoted by Leroy Garrett on page 104 of The Stone Campbell Movement The Story of the American Restoration Movement College Press 2002 ISBN 0 89900 909 3 ISBN 978 0 89900 909 4 573 pages Reid DG Linder RD Shelley BL Stout HS 1990 Churches of Christ Non Instrumental Dictionary of Christianity in America Downers Grove IL InterVarsity Press Zuber Glenn 2004 Temperance The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement edited by Douglas A Foster Paul Blowers and D Newell Williams Grand Rapids Erdmans Publishing 728 729 Zuber Glenn 2002 Mainline Women Ministers Women Missionary and Temperance Organizers Become Disciples of Christ Ministers 1888 1908 In The Stone Campbell Movement An International Religious Tradition ed Michael Casey and Douglas A Foster 292 316 Zuber Glenn 1993 The Gospel of Temperance Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU Discipliana 53 47 60 a b c d e f g h Douglas A Foster What really happened in 1906 A trek through history reveals role of Census The Christian Chronicle April 2006 accessed November 20 2013 a b c d e f g h i Douglas A Foster 1906 The True Story The Christian Standard June 25 2006 accessed November 20 2013 Cartwright Colbert S 1987 People of the Chalice Disciples of Christ in Faith and Practice St Louis MO Chalice Press ISBN 978 0 8272 2938 9 a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Lipscomb David a b c d e f g Samuel S Hill Charles H Lippy Charles Reagan Wilson Encyclopedia of Religion in the South Mercer University Press 2005 ISBN 978 0 86554 758 2 pp 854 a b Berry Carmen Renee 2003 The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church Brazos Press ISBN 1 58743 036 3 a b c Matlins Stuart M Magida Arthur J Magida J 1999 6 Churches of Christ How to Be a Perfect Stranger A Guide to Etiquette in Other People s Religious Ceremonies Wood Lake ISBN 978 1 896836 28 7 426 pp Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 page 206 entry on Church Doctrine of the McAlister amp Tucker 1975 page 421 a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Denominationalism a b Williams D Newell March 27 2008 The Christian Church Disciples of Christ A Reformed North American Mainstream Moderate Denomination The Christian Church Disciples of Christ Consultation on Becoming a Multicultural and Inclusive Church PDF presentation archived from the original PDF on September 27 2011 retrieved January 4 2010 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Christian Churches Churches of Christ a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Ministry a b The Association of Religion Data Archives ARDA Year 2000 Report ARDA 2000 Retrieved November 26 2013 Churches were asked for their membership numbers a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Christian Church Disciples of Christ Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Baptism a b c d e f Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Disciple Heritage Fellowship Disciple heritage Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Restructure a b Christian Church Disciples of Christ Denominational Profile Association of Religion Data Archives website accessed November 27 2013 Christian Church Disciples of Christ Distribution Association of Religion Data Archives website accessed November 27 2013 Christian Church Disciples of Christ Map by Number of Adherents Association of Religion Data Archives website accessed November 27 2013 a b Kragenbrink Kevin R 2000 The Modernist Fundamentalist Controversy and the Emergence of the Independent Christian Churches Churches of Christ Restoration Quarterly 42 1 1 17 archived from the original on 2013 11 10 Churches of Christ from the beginning have maintained no formal organization structures larger than the local congregations and no official journals or vehicles declaring sanctioned positions Consensus views do however often emerge through the influence of opinion leaders who express themselves in journals at lectureships or at area preacher meetings and other gatherings page 213 Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages a b Baxter Batsell Barrett Who are the churches of Christ and what do they believe in Woodson chapel archived from the original on 2008 05 02 Churches of Christ adhere to a strict congregationalism that cooperates in various projects overseen by one congregation or organized as parachurch enterprises but many congregations hold themselves apart from such cooperative projects Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 page 206 entry on Church Doctrine of the It is nothing less than phenomenal that the Churches of Christ get so much done without any centralized planning or structure Everything is ad hoc Most programs emerge from the inspiration and commitment of a single congregation or even a single person Worthwhile projects survive and prosper by the voluntary cooperation of other individuals and congregations Page 449 Leroy Garrett The Stone Campbell Movement The Story of the American Restoration Movement College Press 2002 ISBN 0 89900 909 3 ISBN 978 0 89900 909 4 573 pages a b c d e f Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Churches of Christ a b Ross Bobby Jr Who are we Features The Christian Chronicle Retrieved 2007 10 29 a b c d e f g h i Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on International Churches of Christ a b Paden Russell July 1995 The Boston Church of Christ In Miller Timothy ed America s Alternative Religions Albany State University of New York Press pp 133 36 ISBN 978 0 7914 2397 4 Retrieved 2007 08 07 Stanback C Foster Into All Nations A History of the International Churches of Christ IPI 2005 Ostling Richard N Keepers of the Flock Time Magazine May 18 1992 a b c d e f Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Restoration Forums a b c Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Stone Campbell Dialogue a b Tryggestad Erik Ross Bobby jr February 1 2006 1906 2006 100 years later can we converse across the keyboard Christian Chronicle retrieved November 27 2009 dead link a b Faust David May 24 2009 The 2006 Unity Efforts Three Years Later Christian Standard retrieved November 27 2009 permanent dead link ACU Bible Lectureship to focus on truth this spring lectures moving to fall News Abilene Christian University February 16 2006 archived from the original on August 8 2007 retrieved January 21 2009 Jonathan Smith Forum aims to restore unity among churches After a century since their split was recognized leaders from the Church of Christ and Christian Church meet at Lectureship for the Restoration Unity Forum Archived 2015 06 14 at the Wayback Machine The Optimist Abilene Christian University February 20 2006 accessed December 3 2013 Profiles Resources World convention a b Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Africa Missions in a b c Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Asia Missions in a b c d e f g Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Australia The Movement in a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Great Britain and Ireland Churches of Christ in a b c d Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L Dunnavant The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 2004 ISBN 0 8028 3898 7 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pages entry on Europe Missions in Thompson David M Jan 1980 Let Sects and Parties Fall A Short History of the Association of Churches of Christ in Great Britain and Ireland Berean Publishing Trust ISBN 978 0 85050 012 7 160 pp Haggard Rice Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland O Kelly James Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Jones Abner Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Stone Barton W Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Smith Elias Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Campbell Thomas Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Foster et al 2004 p 673 Scott Walter Scott Walter Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Campbell Alexander Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Foster et al 2004 pp 690 91 Smith Raccoon John Elijah Martindale biography The Henry County Genealogical Services Elijah Martindale biography The Restoration Movement archived from the original on 2011 09 27 Hayden Amos Sutton Texts CA Memorial University of Newfoundland Articles Appearing In The Gospel Advocate After The April 20 1968 Death of Marshall Keeble The restoration movement archived from the original on April 16 2009 Keeble Marshall Texts amp recording Memorial University of Newfoundland Bibliography EditAllen C Leonard Hughes Richard T 1988 Discovering Our Roots The Ancestry of Churches of Christ Abilene TX ACU Press Fife Robert Oldham Fall 1999 The Restoration Movement and the Ecumenical Movement Leaven vol 7 no 4 Foster Douglas Allen Dunnavant Anthony L Blowers Paul M et al eds 2004 The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Grand Rapids MI William B Eerdmans ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 854 pp Foster Douglas Allen Reese Jack Childers Jeff W 2000 The Crux of the Matter Crisis Tradition and the Future of Churches of Christ ACU Press ISBN 0 89112 035 1 Garrett Leroy 2002 The Stone Campbell Movement The Story of the American Restoration Movement College Press p 104 ISBN 978 0 89900 909 4 573 pp Garrison Winfred Earnest DeGroot Alfred T 1948 The Disciples of Christ A History St Louis MO The Bethany Press Jones Jerry 1991 93 What Does the Boston Movement Teach vol 1 3 Bridgeton MO Jerry Jones 12880 Bittick Jennings Walter Wilson 1919 Origin and Early History of the Disciples of Christ Cincinnati Standard Morrill Milo True 1912 History of the Christian Denomination in America Dayton The Christian Publishing Association Murch James DeForest 1962 Christians Only Cincinnati Standard North James B 1994 Union in Truth An Interpretive History of the Restoration Movement Cincinnati OH The Standard ISBN 0 7847 0197 0 West Earl Irvin 2002 The Search for the Ancient Order vol 1 Gospel Light ISBN 0 89225 154 9 Wooten Martin Edward 1990 The Boston Movement as a Revitalization Movement D Min thesis Harding Graduate School of Religion Yeakley Flavil R ed 1988 The Discipling Dilemma A Study of the Discipling Movement Among Churches of Christ Nashville Gospel Advocate Zuber Glenn 1993 The Gospel of Temperance Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU Discipliana 53 47 60 2002 Mainline Women Ministers Women Missionary and Temperance Organizers Become Disciples of Christ Ministers 1888 1908 in Casey Michael Foster Douglas A eds The Stone Campbell Movement An International Religious Tradition pp 292 316 2004 Temperance in Foster Douglas Allen Dunnavant Anthony L Blowers Paul M Williams D Newell eds The Encyclopedia of the Stone Campbell Movement Christian Church Disciples of Christ Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Grand Rapids MI William B Eerdmans pp 728 9 ISBN 978 0 8028 3898 8 Department of Commerce and Labor Bureau of the Census ed 1910 Religious Bodies 1906 United States United States Printing Office p 236 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Restoration movement Humble William Bill Our Restoration Heritage documentary Cyril church archived from the original on 2011 07 08 Restoration History historical texts and recordings Restoration Movement Texts at the Wayback Machine archived June 15 2012 The Restoration Movement Pages historical texts images biographies and other resources Abilene Christian University Disciples of Christ Historical Society Holds artifacts and records relating to the Restoration Movement Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Restoration Movement amp oldid 1110822237, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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