fbpx
Wikipedia

Unmanned aerial vehicle

January 20, 2023

"UAV" redirects here. For other uses, see UAV (disambiguation).

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which includes adding a ground-based controller and a system of communications with the UAV.[1] The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by a human operator, as remotely-piloted aircraft (RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy, such as autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention.[2][3]

Elbit Systems Hermes-450 taking off
Northrop Grumman Bat carrying EO/IR and SAR sensors, laser range finders, laser designators, infra-red cameras
A DJI Phantom quadcopter UAV for commercial and recreational aerial photography
A General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper, a hunter-killer surveillance UAV
Although most military UAVs are fixed-wing aircraft, rotorcraft designs (i.e., RUAVs) such as this MQ-8B Fire Scout are also used.
Prototype of Sukhoi S-70 Okhotnik-B, a heavy UCAV

UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions too "dull, dirty or dangerous"[4] for humans, and by the twenty-first, they had become essential assets to most militaries. As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military applications.[5][6] These include aerial photography, precision agriculture, forest fire monitoring,[1] river monitoring,[7][8] environmental monitoring,[9][10][11][12] policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections, smuggling,[13] product deliveries, entertainment, and drone racing.

Terminology

Many terms are used for aircraft which fly without any persons on board.

The term drone has been used from the early days of aviation, being applied to remotely-flown target aircraft used for practice firing of a battleship's guns, such as the 1920s Fairey Queen and 1930s de Havilland Queen Bee. Later examples included the Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles Queen Martinet, before ultimate replacement by the GAF Jindivik.[14] The term remains in common use. In addition to the software, autonomous drones also employ a host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention, such as cloud computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and thermal sensors.[15] For recreational uses, an aerial photography drone (as opposed to a UAV) is an aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both.[16]

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload".[17] UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases.[18] However missiles with warheads are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition. Also, the relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear,[citation needed] UAVs may or may not include remote-controlled model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight; however, the US FAA defines any uncrewed flying craft as a UAV regardless of size.[citation needed]

The term unmanned aircraft system (UAS) was adopted by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030.[19] The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the British Civil Aviation Authority adopted this term, also used in the European Union's Single-European-Sky (SES) Air-Traffic-Management (ATM) Research (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020.[20] This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. A similar term is an unmanned-aircraft vehicle system (UAVS), remotely piloted aerial vehicle (RPAV), remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS).[21] Many similar terms are in use. "Unoccupied" and "uninhabited" are occasionally used as alternatives to "unmanned".[22] Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019, the term RPAS (Remotely Piloted Aircraft System) has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean "a set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation".[23]

Classification types

UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft, according to design configuration such as weight or engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy, operational role, etc. According to the United States Department of Defense, UAVs are classified into five categories below:[24][25]

Group: Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5
Size Small Medium Large Larger Largest
Max take-off wt < 20 lb
(9.1 kg) 		> 20 & < 55 > 55 & < 1320 >1,320 lb
(600 kg) 		>1,320 lb
(600 kg)
Operating altitude < 1,200 ft
(370 m) 		< 3,500 ft
(1,100 m) 		< 18,000 ft
(5,500 m) 		< 18,000 ft
(5,500 m) 		> 18,000 ft
(5,500 m)
Speed < 100 kn
(190 km/h) 		< 250 kn
(460 km/h) 		< 250 kn
(460 km/h) 		Any speed Any speed

Other classifications of UAVs include:[24]

Range and endurance

There are usually five categories when UAVs are classified by range and endurance:[24]

Category: Very close range UAVs Close range UAVs Short range UAVs Medium range UAVs Long range UAVs
Range (km): < 5 > 5 & < 50 > 50 & < 150 > 150 & < 650 > 650
Endurance (hr): 0.5 – 0.75 1–6 8–12 12 – 36 or 48 > 36 or 48

Size

There are usually four categories when UAVs are classified by size, with at least one of the dimensions (length or wingspan) meet the following respective limits:[24]

Category: Micro/Very small UAVs Mini/Small UAVs Medium UAVs Large UAVs
Length/Wingspan: < 50 cm > 50 cm & < 2 m 5 –10 m > 10 m

Weight

Based on their weight, drones can be classified into 5 categories—

Category: Nano Micro air vehicles (MAV) Miniature UAV or Small (SUAV) Medium UAVs Large UAVs
Weight: < 250 gm >= 250 gm & <02  Kg >= 02  Kg & <25  Kg >= 25 kg & <150  Kg >=150 kg

.[26]

Degree of autonomy

Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight operations. ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous.[27] Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. For example, a vehicle may be remotely piloted in most contexts but have an autonomous return-to-base operation. Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned aircraft transformed into uncrewed or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs).

Altitude

Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry events such as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:

  • Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range
  • Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range
  • NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range
  • Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range
  • MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over 200 km
  • HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) and indefinite range
  • Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft (15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km
  • Orbital low Earth orbit (Mach 25+)
  • CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
  • Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs

Composite criteria

An example of classification based on the composite criteria is U.S. Military's unmanned aerial systems (UAS) classification of UAVs based on weight, maximum altitude and speed of the UAV component.

History

Main article: History of unmanned aerial vehicles
 
Winston Churchill and others waiting to watch the launch of a de Havilland Queen Bee target drone, 6 June 1941
 
A Ryan Firebee, one of a series of target drones/unpiloted aerial vehicles that first flew in 1951. Israeli Air Force Museum, Hatzerim airbase, Israel, 2006
 
Last preparations before the first tactical UAV mission across the Suez canal (1969). Standing: Major Shabtai Brill from the Israeli intelligence corps, the innovator of the tactical UAV.
 
The Israeli Tadiran Mastiff, which first flew in 1975, is seen by many as the first modern battlefield UAV, due to its data-link system, endurance-loitering, and live video-streaming.[28]

Early drones

The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849,[29] with a balloon carrier (the precursor to the aircraft carrier)[30] in the first offensive use of air power in naval aviation.[31][32][33] Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 incendiary balloons at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the Austrian ship SMS Vulcano. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano.[34][35][36]

The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the "Telekino" at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives.[37][38]

Significant development of drones started in the 1900s, and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" in 1916.[39] Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system.[40] Following this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches D.C.B.s with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he also assisted Wing Commander Brock in preparations for the Zeebrugge Raid. Other British unmanned developments followed, leading to the fleet of over 400 de Havilland 82 Queen Bee aerial targets that went into service in 1935.

Nikola Tesla described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat vehicles in 1915.[41] These developments also inspired the construction of the Kettering Bug by Charles Kettering from Dayton, Ohio and the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane – initially meant as an uncrewed plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target. Development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time.[42]

The film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny developed the first scaled remote piloted vehicle in 1935.[39]

Soviet researchers experimented with controlling Tupolev TB-1 bombers remotely in the late 1930s.[43]

World War II

In 1940 Denny started the Radioplane Company and more models emerged during World War II – used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack-missions. Nazi Germany produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like the Argus As 292 and the V-1 flying bomb with a jet engine.

Postwar period

After World War II development continued in vehicles such as the American JB-4 (using television/radio-command guidance), the Australian GAF Jindivik and Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for the U.S. Navy in 1955.[39] Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam War. In 1959 the U.S. Air Force, concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft.[44] Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly-classified UAV program started under the code name of "Red Wagon".[45] The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between naval units of the U.S. and the North Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly classified UAVs (Ryan Model 147, Ryan AQM-91 Firefly, Lockheed D-21) into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War.[46] When the Chinese government[47] showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via Wide World Photos,[48] the official U.S. response was "no comment".

During the War of Attrition (1967–1970) in the Middle East, Israeli intelligence tested the first tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras, which successfully returned photos from across the Suez Canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle.[49]

In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles.[50] After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UAV.[51][pages needed]

In 1973 the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia (Vietnam).[52] Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were missing or captured. The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3,435 UAV missions during the war[53] at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF General George S. Brown, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, in 1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit."[54] Later that year, General John C. Meyer, Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command, stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying ... the loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them ...they save lives!"[54]

During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile-batteries in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets. As a result, Israel developed the IAI Scout as the first UAV with real-time surveillance.[55][56][57] The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed.[58] In Israel in 1987, UAVs were first used as proof-of-concept of super-agility, post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations that involved tailless, stealth-technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight-control, and jet-steering.[59]

Modern UAVs

 
The STM Kargu was the first lethal autonomous weapon to attack enemy combatants in warfare.

With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the 1991 Gulf War. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft, but some carried armaments, such as the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles.

CAPECON, a European Union project to develop UAVs,[60] ran from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005.[61]

As of 2012 the United States Air Force (USAF) employed 7,494 UAVs – almost one in three USAF aircraft.[62][63] The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs.[64] By 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others[which?] designed and built their own varieties. The use of drones has continued to increase.[65] Due to their wide proliferation, no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists.[63][66]

The development of smart technologies and improved electrical-power systems led to a parallel increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities. As of 2021, quadcopter drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby radio-controlled aircraft and toys, however the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is limited by a lack of autonomy[clarification needed] and by new regulatory environments which require line-of-sight contact with the pilot.[citation needed]

In 2020 a Kargu 2 drone hunted down and attacked a human target in Libya, according to a report from the UN Security Council's Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have been the first time an autonomous killer-robot armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings.[67][68]

Superior drone technology, specifically the Bayraktar TB2, played a role in Azerbaijan's successes in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war against Armenia.[69]

 
Artist's concept of Dragonfly landing on Titan

UAVs are also used in NASA missions. The Dragonfly spacecraft is being developed, and is aiming to reach and examine Saturn's moon Titan. Its primary goal is to roam around the surface, expanding the amount of area to be researched previously seen by Landers. As a UAV, Dragonfly allows examination of potentially diverse types of soil. The drone is set to launch in 2027, and is estimated to take a seven more years to reach the Saturnian system.

Miniaturisation is also supporting the development of small-UAV which can be used as individual system or in a fleet offering the possibility to survey large areas. in relatively small time.[70]

Design

 
General physical structure of an UAV

Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life support systems. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments.

Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the quadcopter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.

Control systems for UAVs are often different than crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.

Aircraft configuration

UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no need for a cockpit and its windows, and there is no need to optimize for human comfort, although some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optionally-piloted modes. Air safety is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment. Instead, UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and their ground equipment. These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor configurations in UAVs.

For conventional flight the flying wing and blended wing body offer light weight combined with low drag and stealth, and are popular configurations for many use cases. Larger types which carry a variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct fuselage with a tail for stability, control and trim, although the wing configurations in use vary widely.

For uses that require vertical flight or hovering, the tailless quadcopter requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs. Multirotor designs with 6 or more rotors is more common with larger UAVs, where redundancy is prioritized.

Propulsion

Traditional internal combustion and jet engines remain in use for drones requiring long range. However, for shorter-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record.[71]

Besides the traditional piston engine, the Wankel rotary engine is used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.[citation needed]

Small drones mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted the a hydrogen fuel cell. The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-engine, multi-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, Battery elimination circuitry (BEC) may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under the control of a microcontroller unit (MCU).

Ornithopters – wing propulsion

Flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, have been flown as microUAVs. Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.

Sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on vertical surfaces.[72] Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.[73]

Computer control systems

 
A flight controller run on either CleanFlight or BaseFlight firmware for multirotor UAVs

UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board computers (SBC).

System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot. Common UAV-systems control hardware typically incorporate a primary microprocessor, a secondary or failsafe processor, and sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and barometers into a single module.

Architecture

Sensors

Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.[74]

Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.[75]

Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical inertial measurement unit – IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.[76]

In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as: RGB, multispectral, hyper-spectral cameras or LiDAR, which may allow providing specific measurements or observations.[77]

Actuators

UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM of the motors) linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.

Software

The software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning.[78]

UAVs are real-time systems that require high-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single-board computers include Raspberry Pis, Beagleboards, etc. shielded with NavIO, PXFMini, etc. or designed from scratch such as NuttX, preemptive-RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating System or DDS-ROS 2.0.

Flight stack overview
Layer Requirement Operations Example
Firmware Time-critical From machine code to processor execution, memory access ArduCopter-v1, PX4
Middleware Time-critical Flight control, navigation, radio management PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot
Operating system Computer-intensive Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision-making ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT

Due to the open-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.[79] This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked from.

Loop principles

 
Typical flight-control loops for a multirotor

UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures.

  • Open loop – This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.
  • Closed loop – This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The PID controller is common. Sometimes, feedforward is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.[80]

Communications

UAVs use a radio for control and exchange of video and other data. Early UAVs had only narrowband uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C&C) and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.

In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a broadband link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques and carry TCP/IP traffic that can be routed over the Internet.

The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:

  • Ground control – a human operating a radio transmitter/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a military ground control station (GCS).
  • Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some military powers. Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.[81]
  • Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station – military manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T).[82]

Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra-reliable and low-latency communications.[83]

Autonomy

Main article: Autonomous aircraft
 
UAV's degrees of autonomy

The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as:[84]

  • Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.
  • Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data.
  • Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using GNSS or inertial sensors.
  • Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicle's axes.
  • Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
  • Take-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground-based sensors and systems; see also "autoland")
  • Failsafe: automatic landing or return-to-home upon loss of control signal
  • Return-to-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).
  • Follow-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, image recognition or homing beacon.
  • GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.
  • Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow-me but continuously circle a target.
  • Pre-programmed aerobatics (such as rolls and loops)

One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on OODA terminology, as suggested by a 2002 US Air Force Research Laboratory report, and used in the table on the right.[85]

 
A Northrop Grumman X-47B unmanned combat aircraft demonstrator of the US Navy refuels in flight from a tanker aircraft.

Full autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as airborne refueling[86] or ground-based battery switching.

Other functions available or under development include; collective flight, real-time collision avoidance, wall following, corridor centring, simultaneous localization and mapping and swarming, cognitive radio and machine learning. In this context, computer vision can play an important role for automatically ensuring flight safety.[87]

Performance considerations

Flight envelope

UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined surfaces,[88] and then to climb toward better communication spots.[89] Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation,[90][91] such as VTOL designs.

UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.[92]

Endurance

 
UEL UAV-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations
 
Flight time against mass of small (less than 1 kg) drones[74]

UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.

Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, Wankel rotary engines are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.

Proper drone cooling is essential for long-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.[93]

Hydrogen fuel cells, using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.[94][95][96]

Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower Reynolds number.[74]

Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.

Solar-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than low Earth orbit satellites. Likely applications include weather drones for weather monitoring, disaster recovery, Earth imaging and communications.

Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.[97]

Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.

Lengthy endurance flights
UAV Flight time
hours:minutes		 Date Notes
Boeing Condor 58:11 1989 The aircraft is currently in the Hiller Aviation Museum.

[98]

General Atomics Gnat 40:00 1992 [99][100]
TAM-5 38:52 11 August 2003 Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic

[101]

QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric 54:00 September 2007 [102][103]
RQ-4 Global Hawk 33:06 22 March 2008 Set an endurance record for a full-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft.[104]
QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric 82:37 28–31 July 2008 [105]
QinetiQ Zephyr 7 336:22 9–23 July 2010 Solar electric powered. Remained aloft for 14 days. Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70,740 ft (21,561 m) [106]

Reliability

Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using resilience engineering and fault tolerance techniques.

Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight.[107] Besides, dynamic assessment of flight envelope allows damage-resilient UAVs, using non-linear analysis with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks.[108] UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of crewed avionics software.[109]

Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures.[110]

Applications

Main article: List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications

In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS)[111] while maximizing production, reducing costs and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance,[112] and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic.[113] They can also be used for consumer-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated by Amazon Prime Air, and critical deliveries of health supplies.

There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs.[6] These include:

General
Recreation, Disaster relief, archeology, conservation of biodiversity and habitat,[114] law enforcement, crime, and terrorism.
Commercial
Aerial surveillance, filmmaking,[115] journalism, scientific research, surveying, cargo transport, mining, manufacturing, Forestry, solar farming, thermal energy, ports and agriculture.

Warfare

Main articles: Unmanned combat aerial vehicle, Loitering munition, Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle, Miniature UAV, Micro air vehicle, and Target drone
 
A Baykar Bayraktar TB2 of the Ukrainian Air Force armed with MAM-L; two ground control stations in the background

As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity.[116] The global military UAV market is dominated by companies based in the United States, Turkey,[117][118] China,[119] Israel and Iran.[120] By sale numbers, the US held over 60% military-market share in 2017. Top military UAV manufactures are including General Atomics, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, Boeing, Baykar,[121][118] TAI, IAIO, CASC and CAIG.[120] China has established and expanded its presence in military UAV market[120] since 2010. Turkey also established and expanded its presence in military UAV market.[117][120][118][121]

Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 and 2019, the top 12 all purchased their drones from China.[120] According to a report of 2015, Israeli companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV systems and by quantity of drones, Israel exported 60.7% (2014) of UAV on the market while the United States export 23.9% (2014).[122] Between 2010 and 2014, there were 439 drones exchanged compared to 322 in the five years previous to that, among these only small fraction of overall trade – just 11 (2.5%) of the 439 are armed drones.[122] The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014; among them more than 7000 are RQ-11 Raven miniature UAVs.[123] General Atomics is the dominant manufacturer with the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems product-line.

For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of micro UAV flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them difficult targets to bring down.

UAVs are used for reconnaissance, attack, demining, and target practice.

Civil

See also: Delivery drone
 
Wing's aircraft delivering goods in Vuosaari, Helsinki

The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese drone manufacturer DJI alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%, and with $11 billion forecast global sales in 2020.[124] Following increased scrutiny of its activities, the US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign made UAVs.[125][126] DJI is followed by Chinese company Yuneec, US company 3D Robotics and French company Parrot with a significant gap in market share.[127] As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs have been registered with the US FAA, of which 42% are categorized as commercial drones and 58% as recreational drones.[128] 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and $1000+ market segments.[129]

The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early stage startups have received support and funding from investors as is the case in the United States and by government agencies as is the case in India.[130] Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees.[131] Private entities also provide online and in-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.[132]

Consumer drones are also widely used by military organizations worldwide because of the cost-effective nature of consumer product. In 2018, Israeli military started to use DJI Mavic and Matrice series of UAV for light reconnaissance mission since the civil drones are easier to use and have higher reliability. DJI drones is also the most widely used commercial unmanned aerial system that the US Army has employed.[133][134] DJI surveillance drones have also been used by Chinese police in Xinjiang since 2017.[135][136]

The global UAV market will reach US$21.47 billion, with the Indian market touching the US$885.7 million mark, by 2021.[137]

Lighted drones are beginning to be used in nighttime displays for artistic and advertising purposes.[138]

Aerial photography

See also: Drone journalism

Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are widely used for this purpose.[115] Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles. However, big drones with professional cine cameras, there is usually a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls camera angle and lens. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people.[139] Drones provide access to dangerous, remote or otherwise inaccessible sites.

Environmental Monitoring

UASs or UAVs offer the great advantage for environmental monitoring to generate a new generation of survey at very-high or ultra-high resolution both in space and time. This gives the opportunity to bridge the existing gap between satellite data and field monitoring. This has stimulated a huge number of activities in order to enhance the description of natural and agricultural ecosystems. Most common applications are:

  • Topographic surveys[140] for the production of orthomosaics, Digital Surface Model (DSM), 3D Models;
  • Monitoring of natural ecosystems for biodiversity monitoring,[141] habitat mapping,[142] and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive species or disturbances;
  • Precision Agricolture[143] which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to produce more with less (e.g., optimisation of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation);
  • River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields.[144]

These activities can be carried out with different approaches that include: photogrammetry, SfM, thermography, multispectral images, 3D field scanning, NDVI maps, etc.

Agriculture, forestry and environmental studies

Main article: Agricultural drone

As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress.[145] Agricultural drones have been used to help build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agricolture.[146] In this context, there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow precise descrition of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients or pesticides over a field.[7]

The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start backfires.[147]

UAVs are also now widely used to survey wildlife such as nesting seabirds, seals and even wombat burrows [148]

Law enforcement

Main article: Use of UAVs in law enforcement

Police can use drones for applications such as search and rescue and traffic monitoring.[149]

Safety and security

See also: List of UAV-related incidents
 
US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires

Threats

Nuisance

UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The first incident of a drone-airplane collision occurred in mid-October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada.[150] The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a hot air balloon occurred on 10 August 2018 in Driggs, Idaho, United States; although there was no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the National Transportation Safety Board, stating that "I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations".[151] Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial flights.[152]

Drones caused significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018, needing the deployment of the British Army.[153][154]

In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions, including at the Lake Fire[155] and the North Fire.[156][157] In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace.[158] The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.

Security vulnerabilities

By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.[159]

The interest in UAVs cyber security has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009,[160] where Islamic militants used cheap, off-the-shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight. Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks.[161] At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the Federal Trade Commission showed they were able to hack into three different consumer quadcopters and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi-Fi signal and adding password protection.[162]

Aggression

UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads, and crashed into vulnerable targets. Payloads could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non-lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Anti-UAV systems are being developed by states to counter this threat. This is, however, proving difficult. As Dr J. Rogers stated in an interview to A&T "There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor".[163]

Countermeasures

Counter unmanned air system

 
Italian Army soldiers of the 17th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment "Sforzesca" with a portable drone jammer in Rome
Further information: Electronic warfare

The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of counter unmanned air system (C-UAS) technologies. Automatic tracking and detection of UAVs from commercial cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of deep learning based machine learning algorithms.[164] It is also possible to automatically identify UAVs across different cameras with different view points and hardware specification with re-identification methods.[165] Commercial solutions such as the Aaronia AARTOS have been installed on major international airports.[166][167] Once a UAV is detected, it can be countered with kinetic force (missiles, projectiles or another UAV) or by non-kinetic force (laser, microwaves, communications jamming).[168] Anti-aircraft missile systems such as the Iron Dome are also being enhanced with C-UAS technologies. Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or more hostile UAVs is also proposed.[169]

Regulation

Main article: Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles

Regulatory bodies around the world are developing unmanned aircraft system traffic management solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace.[170]

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the civil aviation authorities of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report.[171] France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the FAA and the EASA quickly followed suit.[172] In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing 250g or more to participate in Remote ID, which makes drone locations, controller locations, and other information public from takeoff to shutdown; this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit RaceDayQuads v. FAA.[173][174]

Export controls

The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the Missile Technology Control Regime.

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b Hu, J.; Niu, H.; Carrasco, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F., "Fault-tolerant cooperative navigation of networked UAV swarms for forest fire monitoring" Aerospace Science and Technology, 2022.
  2. ^ Cary, Leslie; Coyne, James. "ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328". (PDF). Blyenburgh & Co. pp. 112–115. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  3. ^ Hu, J.; Lanzon, A. (2018). "An innovative tri-rotor drone and associated distributed aerial drone swarm control". Robotics and Autonomous Systems. 103: 162–174. doi:10.1016/j.robot.2018.02.019.
  4. ^ Tice, Brian P. (Spring 1991). . Airpower Journal. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2013. When used, UAVs should generally perform missions characterized by the three Ds: dull, dirty, and dangerous.
  5. ^ Hu, J.; Bhowmick, P.; Jang, I.; Arvin, F.; Lanzon, A., "A Decentralized Cluster Formation Containment Framework for Multirobot Systems" IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 2021.
  6. ^ a b Alvarado, Ed (3 May 2021). "237 Ways Drone Applications Revolutionize Business". Drone Industry Insights. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  7. ^ a b REMOTE SENSING OF THE ENVIRONMENT USING UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEMS (UAS). [S.l.]: ELSEVIER - HEALTH SCIENCE. 2023. ISBN 0-323-85283-1. OCLC 1329422815.
  8. ^ Perks, Matthew T.; Dal Sasso, Silvano Fortunato; Hauet, Alexandre; Jamieson, Elizabeth; Le Coz, Jérôme; Pearce, Sophie; Peña-Haro, Salvador; Pizarro, Alonso; Strelnikova, Dariia; Tauro, Flavia; Bomhof, James; Grimaldi, Salvatore; Goulet, Alain; Hortobágyi, Borbála; Jodeau, Magali (8 July 2020). "Towards harmonisation of image velocimetry techniques for river surface velocity observations". Earth System Science Data. 12 (3): 1545–1559. doi:10.5194/essd-12-1545-2020. ISSN 1866-3516.
  9. ^ Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, A. Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B. (March 2020). "Adaptive Water Sampling Device for Aerial Robots". Drones. 4 (1): 5. doi:10.3390/drones4010005.
  10. ^ Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, Ali Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B.; Sharp, Julia L. (May 2018). "Evaluation of a UAV-Assisted Autonomous Water Sampling". Water. 10 (5): 655. doi:10.3390/w10050655.
  11. ^ Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, Ali Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B. (March 2018). "In Situ Water Quality Measurements Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) System". Water. 10 (3): 264. doi:10.3390/w10030264.
  12. ^ Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, Ali Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B. (March 2019). "Autonomous In Situ Measurements of Noncontaminant Water Quality Indicators and Sample Collection with a UAV". Water. 11 (3): 604. doi:10.3390/w11030604.
  13. ^ "Drones smuggling porn, drugs to inmates around the world". Fox News. 17 April 2017.
  14. ^ Note; the term "drone" refers to the male bee that serves only to fertilize the queen bee, hence the use of the name in reference to the DH Queen Bee aerial target.
  15. ^ "Drones and Artificial Intelligence". Drone Industry Insights. 28 August 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  16. ^ . Drones Etc. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
  17. ^ "unmanned aerial vehicle". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  18. ^ Guilmartin, John F. "unmanned aerial vehicle". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  19. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008.
  20. ^ . www.sesarju.eu. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
  21. ^ "State government gears up for autonomous RPAS mapping". 23 January 2017.
  22. ^ Kucharczyk, Maja; Hugenholtz, Chris (2021). "Remote sensing of natural hazard-related disasters with small drones: Global trends, biases, and research opportunities". Remote Sensing of Environment. 264: 112577. Bibcode:2021RSEnv.264k2577K. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2021.112577. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
  23. ^ "Canadian Aviation Regulations". Government of Canada – Justice Laws Website. 1 June 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  24. ^ a b c d "UAV classification". Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  25. ^ "Eyes of the Army: U.S. Army Roadmap for UAS 2010–2035" (PDF). Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  26. ^ "Nano, micro, small: The different drone types in India & if Jammu-like strike can be averted", ThePrint, 29 June 2021.
  27. ^ Drones, Percepto (3 January 2019). "The Differences Between UAV, UAS, and Autonomous Drones". Percepto.
  28. ^ The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History: A Political, Social, and Military History, ABC-CLIO, 12 May 2008, by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts, pages 1054–55 ISBN
  29. ^ The Future of Drone Use: Opportunities and Threats from Ethical and Legal Perspectives, Asser Press – Springer, chapter by Alan McKenna, page 355
  30. ^ Kaplan, Philip (2013). Naval Aviation in the Second World War. Pen and Sword. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4738-2997-8.
  31. ^ Hallion, Richard P. (2003). Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First World War. Oxford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-19-028959-1.
  32. ^ Naval Aviation in the First World War: Its Impact and Influence, R. D. Layman, page 56
  33. ^ Renner, Stephen L. (2016). Broken Wings: The Hungarian Air Force, 1918–45. Indiana University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-253-02339-1.
  34. ^ Murphy, Justin D. (2005). Military Aircraft, Origins to 1918: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-1-85109-488-2.
  35. ^ Haydon, F. Stansbury (2000). Military Ballooning During the Early Civil War. JHU Press. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-0-8018-6442-1.
  36. ^ "Mikesh, Robert C. "Japan's World War II balloon bomb attacks on North America." (1973)" (PDF).
  37. ^ Sarkar 2006, page 97
  38. ^ H. R. Everett, Unmanned Systems of World Wars I and II, MIT Press – 2015, pages 91–95
  39. ^ a b c Taylor, John W. R.. Jane's Pocket Book of Remotely Piloted Vehicles.
  40. ^ Professor A. M. Low FLIGHT, 3 October 1952 page 436 "The First Guided Missile"
  41. ^ Dempsey, Martin E. (9 April 2010). (PDF). U.S. Army. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
  42. ^ Says, Robert Kanyike (21 May 2012). "History of U.S. Drones".
  43. ^ Andersson, Lennart (1994). Soviet Aircraft and Aviation, 1917–1941. The Putnam Aviation Series. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 249. ISBN 9781557507709. Retrieved 18 December 2021. Experiments with a pilotless drone version of the TB-1 controlled by radio from other aircraft started in 1935 and continued until 1939.
  44. ^ Wagner 1982, p. xi.
  45. ^ Wagner 1982, p. xi, xii.
  46. ^ Wagner 1982, p. xii.
  47. ^ Wagner 1982, p. 79.
  48. ^ Wagner 1982, p. 78, 79.
  49. ^ Dunstan, Simon (2013). Israeli Fortifications of the October War 1973. Osprey Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 9781782004318. Retrieved 25 October 2015. The War of Attrition was also notable for the first use of UAVs, or unmanned aerial vehicles, carrying reconnaissance cameras in combat.
  50. ^ Saxena, V. K. (2013). The Amazing Growth and Journey of UAV's and Ballistic Missile Defence Capabilities: Where the Technology is Leading to?. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 9789382573807. Retrieved 25 October 2015. During the Yom Kippur War the Israelis used Teledyne Ryan 124 R RPVs along with the home-grown Scout and Mastiff UAVs for reconnaissance, surveillance, and as decoys to draw fire from Arab SAMs. This resulted in Arab forces expending costly and scarce missiles on inappropriate targets [...].
  51. ^ Blum, Howard (2003). The eve of destruction: the untold story of the Yom Kippur War. HarperCollins. ISBN 9780060013998.
  52. ^ Wagner 1982, p. 202.
  53. ^ Wagner 1982, p. 200, 212.
  54. ^ a b Wagner 1982, p. 208.
  55. ^ "A Brief History of UAVs". Howstuffworks.com. 22 July 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  56. ^ "Russia Buys A Bunch of Israeli UAVs". Strategypage.com. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  57. ^ Azoulai, Yuval (24 October 2011). "Unmanned combat vehicles shaping future warfare". Globes. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  58. ^ Levinson, Charles (13 January 2010). "Israeli Robots Remake Battlefield". The Wall Street Journal. p. A10. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
  59. ^ Gal-Or, Benjamin (1990). Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneuverability & Robot Aircraft. Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-97161-0.
  60. ^ Z. Goraj; A. Frydrychewicz; R. Świtkiewicz; B. Hernik; J. Gadomski; T. Goetzendorf-Grabowski; M. Figat; St Suchodolski; W. Chajec. report (PDF). Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Technical Sciences, Volume 52. Number 3, 2004. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
  61. ^ Community Research and Development Information Service. Civil uav application and economic effectiveness of potential configuration solutions. published by the Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
  62. ^ Ackerman, Spencer; Shachtman, Noah (9 January 2012). "Almost 1 in 3 U.S. Warplanes Is a Robot". WIRED. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  63. ^ a b Singer, Peter W. "A Revolution Once More: Unmanned Systems and the Middle East" 6 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The Brookings Institution, November 2009.
  64. ^ Radsan, AJ; Murphy (2011). "Measure Twice, Shoot Once: Higher Care for Cia-Targeted Killing". Univ. Ill. Law Rev.:1201–1241.
  65. ^ Sayler (2015)
  66. ^ Franke, Ulrike Esther ["The global diffusion of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or 'drones'"], in Mike Aaronson (ed) Precision Strike Warfare and International Intervention, Routledge 2015.
  67. ^ Hambling, David. "Drones may have attacked humans fully autonomously for the first time". New Scientist. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  68. ^ "Killer drone 'hunted down a human target' without being told to". New York Post. 29 May 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  69. ^ Forestier-Walker, Robin (13 October 2020). "Nagorno-Karabakh: New weapons for an old conflict spell danger". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 18 December 2021. [...] battlefield videos and the known military capabilities of the two warring sides suggest Azerbaijan has the technological advantage, especially with its combat drones purchased from Israel and Turkey.
  70. ^ Bailon-Ruiz, Rafael; Lacroix, Simon; Bit-Monnot, Arthur (October 2018). "Planning to Monitor Wildfires with a Fleet of UAVs". 2018 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). Madrid: IEEE: 4729–4734. doi:10.1109/IROS.2018.8593859. ISBN 978-1-5386-8094-0.
  71. ^ "Model airplane history-maker Maynard Hill dies at the age of 85". Washington Post.
  72. ^ Chirarattananon, Pakpong; Ma, Kevin Y; Wood, J (22 May 2014), (PDF), Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 9 (2): 025004, Bibcode:2014BiBi....9b5004C, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.650.3728, doi:10.1088/1748-3182/9/2/025004, PMID 24855052, S2CID 12799012, archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2016
  73. ^ Sarah Knapton (29 March 2016). . The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016.
  74. ^ a b c Floreano, Dario; Wood, Robert J. (27 May 2015). "Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones". Nature. 521 (7553): 460–466. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..460F. doi:10.1038/nature14542. PMID 26017445. S2CID 4463263.
  75. ^ Fasano, Giancarmine; Accardo, Domenico; Tirri, Anna Elena; Moccia, Antonio; De Lellis, Ettore (1 October 2015). "Radar/electro-optical data fusion for non-cooperative UAS sense and avoid". Aerospace Science and Technology. 46: 436–450. doi:10.1016/j.ast.2015.08.010.
  76. ^ "Arduino Playground – WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF". playground.arduino.cc. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  77. ^ Manfreda, Salvatore; McCabe, Matthew; Miller, Pauline; Lucas, Richard; Pajuelo Madrigal, Victor; Mallinis, Giorgos; Ben Dor, Eyal; Helman, David; Estes, Lyndon; Ciraolo, Giuseppe; Müllerová, Jana; Tauro, Flavia; de Lima, M.; de Lima, João; Maltese, Antonino (20 April 2018). "On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring". Remote Sensing. 10 (4): 641. doi:10.3390/rs10040641. ISSN 2072-4292.
  78. ^ Carlson, Daniel F.; Rysgaard, Søren (1 January 2018). "Adapting open-source drone autopilots for real-time iceberg observations". MethodsX. 5: 1059–1072. doi:10.1016/j.mex.2018.09.003. ISSN 2215-0161. PMC 6139390. PMID 30225206.
  79. ^ Lesko, J.; Schreiner, M.; Megyesi, D.; Kovacs, Levente (November 2019). "Pixhawk PX-4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane". 2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation (MOSATT). Kosice, Slovakia: IEEE: 90–93. doi:10.1109/MOSATT48908.2019.8944101. ISBN 978-1-7281-5083-3. S2CID 209695691.
  80. ^ Pierre-Jean Bristeau; François Callou; David Vissière; Nicolas Petit (2011). "The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR.Drone micro UAV" (PDF). IFAC World Congress.
  81. ^ "Cellular enables safer drone deployments". Qualcomm. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
  82. ^ "Identifying Critical Manned-Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators" (PDF). U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. September 2012. (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2016.
  83. ^ "Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)". www.itu.int. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  84. ^ "Automated Vehicles for Safety | NHTSA". www.nhtsa.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  85. ^ Clough, Bruce (August 2002). "Metrics, Schmetrics! How The Heck Do You Determine A UAV's Autonomy Anyway?". US Air Force Research Laboratory. from the original on 24 September 2020.
  86. ^ Davenport, Christian (23 April 2015). "Watch a step in Navy history: an autonomous drone gets refueled mid-air". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
  87. ^ Kakaletsis, Efstratios; Symeonidis, Charalampos; Tzelepi, Maria; Mademlis, Ioannis; Tefas, Anastasios; Nikolaidis, Nikos; Pitas, Ioannis (2021). "Computer Vision for Autonomous UAV Flight Safety: An Overview and a Vision-based Safe Landing Pipeline Example". ACM Computing Surveys. New York, NY: ACM. 54 (9): 1–37. doi:10.1145/3472288. S2CID 241273504.
  88. ^ "Teaching tiny drones how to fly themselves". Ars Technica. 27 November 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  89. ^ "Biomimetics and Dextrous Manipulation Lab – MultiModalRobots". bdml.stanford.edu. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  90. ^ D'Andrea, Raffaello. "The astounding athletic power of quadcopters". www.ted.com. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  91. ^ Yanguo, Song; Huanjin, Wang (1 June 2009). "Design of Flight Control System for a Small Unmanned Tilt Rotor Aircraft". Chinese Journal of Aeronautics. 22 (3): 250–256. doi:10.1016/S1000-9361(08)60095-3.
  92. ^ "The device, designed for landing UAV helicopter type on a flat vertical surface". patents.google.com.
  93. ^ Inc., Pelonis Technologies. "The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance". Retrieved 22 June 2018. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  94. ^ "yeair! The quadcopter of the future. From 1399 €". Kickstarter. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  95. ^ "Flying on Hydrogen: Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle | Georgia Tech Research Institute". www.gtri.gatech.edu. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  96. ^ "Hydrogen-powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time". www.gizmag.com. 20 May 2015. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  97. ^ Gibbs, Yvonne (31 March 2015). "NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs". NASA. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
  98. ^ (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2013
  99. ^ "General Atomics Gnat". Designation-systems.net. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  100. ^ . Archived from the original on 30 July 2013.
  101. ^ "Trans atlantic Model". Tam.plannet21.com. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  102. ^ (Press release). QinetiQ. 10 September 2007. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011.
  103. ^ Simonite, Tom. . New Scientist. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  104. ^ "Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33-Hour Flight Endurance Record". Spacewar.com. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
  105. ^ (Press release). QinetiQ. 24 August 2008. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011.
  106. ^ . QinetiQ (Press release). Qinetiq. 24 August 2010. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010.
  107. ^ Boniol (December 2014). "Towards Modular and Certified Avionics for UAV" (PDF). Aerospacelab Journal.
  108. ^ D. Boskovic and Knoebel (2009). (PDF). AIAA Guidance, Navigation andControl Conference. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 February 2016.
  109. ^ Atkins. "Certifiable Autonomous Flight Management for Unmanned Aircraft Systems". University of Michigan.
  110. ^ Subhav Pradhan; William Otte; Abhishek Dubey; Aniruddha Gokhale; Gabor Karsai (2013). "Key Considerations for a Resilient and Autonomous Deployment and Configuration Infrastructure for Cyber-Physical Systems" (PDF). Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Vanderbilt University, Nashville.
  111. ^ "How Autonomous Drone Flights Will Go Beyond Line of Sight". Nanalyze. 31 December 2019.
  112. ^ McNabb, Miriam (28 February 2020). "Drones Get the Lights Back on Faster for Florida Communities". DRONELIFE.
  113. ^ Peck, Abe (19 March 2020). "Coronavirus Spurs Percepto's Drone-in-a-Box Surveillance Solution". Inside Unmanned Systems.
  114. ^ Valle, Roberto G. (January 2022). "Rapid drone semi‐automated counts of wintering Greater Flamingos ( Phoenicopterus roseus ) as a tool for amateur researchers". Ibis. 164 (1): 320–328. doi:10.1111/ibi.12993. ISSN 0019-1019. S2CID 237865267.
  115. ^ a b Mademlis, Ioannis; Nikolaidis, Nikos; Tefas, Anastasios; Pitas, Ioannis; Wagner, Tilman; Messina, Alberto. "Autonomous UAV Cinematography: A Tutorial and a Formalized Shot-Type Taxonomy". ACM.org. Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3347713. S2CID 202676119. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  116. ^ Horowitz, Michael C. (2020). "Do Emerging Military Technologies Matter for International Politics?". Annual Review of Political Science. 23: 385–400. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032725.
  117. ^ a b "Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports". Carnegie Endowment for International. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  118. ^ a b c "Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official". Hürriyet Daily News. 6 March 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  119. ^ "Combat drones in China are coming to a conflict near you". www.intelligent-aerospace.com.
  120. ^ a b c d e "Market for Military Drones will Surge". 27 October 2016.
  121. ^ a b "Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal". TRTWORLD. 23 January 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  122. ^ a b Arnett, George (16 March 2015). "The numbers behind the worldwide trade in UAVs". The Guardian.
  123. ^ . DoD Buzz. 2 January 2014. Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  124. ^ Bateman, Joshua (1 September 2017). "China drone maker DJI: Alone atop the unmanned skies". News Ledge.
  125. ^ Friedman, Lisa; McCabe, David (29 January 2020). "Interior Dept. Grounds Its Drones Over Chinese Spying Fears". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  126. ^ Miller, Maggie (8 October 2020). "DOJ bans use of grant funds for certain foreign-made drones". TheHill. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  127. ^ "DJI MARKET SHARE: HERE'S EXACTLY HOW RAPIDLY IT HAS GROWN IN JUST A FEW YEARS". Emberify Blog. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  128. ^ "UAS by the Numbers". www.faa.gov. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
  129. ^ "Consumer Drones By the Numbers in 2018 and Beyond | News Ledge". News Ledge. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  130. ^ "Skylark Drones set to raise its first round of funding to boost expansion". 14 September 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
  131. ^ Peterson, Andrea (19 August 2013). "States are competing to be the Silicon Valley of drones". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  132. ^ "Drone Training Courses – The Complete List". Drone Business Marketer. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  133. ^ . Jane's 360. Archived from the original on 11 December 2017.
  134. ^ The U.S. Military Shouldn't Use Commercial Drones – slate. August 2017
  135. ^ "DJI Won the Drone Wars, and Now It's Paying the Price". Bloomberg.com. 26 March 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
  136. ^ "大疆创新与新疆自治区公安厅结为警用无人机战略合作伙伴". YouUAV.com. 24 December 2017.
  137. ^ Flying High – pwc. November 2018
  138. ^ "Drone Light Shows Powered by Intel". Intel. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  139. ^ "AERIGON cinema drone (UAV) pioneering in film production".
  140. ^ Ferreira, Edgar; Chandler, Jim; Wackrow, Rene; Shiono, Koji (April 2017). "Automated extraction of free surface topography using SfM-MVS photogrammetry". Flow Measurement and Instrumentation. 54: 243–249. doi:10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2017.02.001.
  141. ^ Reddy, C. Sudhakar; Kurian, Ayushi; Srivastava, Gaurav; Singhal, Jayant; Varghese, A. O.; Padalia, Hitendra; Ayyappan, N.; Rajashekar, G.; Jha, C. S.; Rao, P. V. N. (January 2021). "Remote sensing enabled essential biodiversity variables for biodiversity assessment and monitoring: technological advancement and potentials". Biodiversity and Conservation. 30 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1007/s10531-020-02073-8. ISSN 0960-3115.
  142. ^ Gonçalves, João; Henriques, Renato; Alves, Paulo; Sousa-Silva, Rita; Monteiro, António T.; Lomba, Ângela; Marcos, Bruno; Honrado, João (January 2016). Rocchini, Duccio (ed.). "Evaluating an unmanned aerial vehicle-based approach for assessing habitat extent and condition in fine-scale early successional mountain mosaics". Applied Vegetation Science. 19 (1): 132–146. doi:10.1111/avsc.12204.
  143. ^ Zhang, Chunhua; Kovacs, John M. (December 2012). "The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: a review". Precision Agriculture. 13 (6): 693–712. doi:10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5. ISSN 1385-2256.
  144. ^ Perks, Matthew T.; Russell, Andrew J.; Large, Andrew R. G. (5 October 2016). "Technical Note: Advances in flash flood monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 20 (10): 4005–4015. doi:10.5194/hess-20-4005-2016. ISSN 1607-7938.
  145. ^ "Global Agriculture Drones and Robots Market Analysis & Forecast, 2018-2028 - ResearchAndMarkets.com". finance.yahoo.com. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  146. ^ "Africa Farming Problems Aided With Drone Technology". Drone Addicts. 12 March 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  147. ^ "Drones That Launch Flaming Balls Are Being Tested To Help Fight Wildfires". NPR.org.
  148. ^ Old JM, Lin S H, Franklin MJM (2019). Mapping out bare-nosed wombat (Vombatus ursinus) burrows with the use of a drone. BMC Ecology. 19:39. DOI: 10.1186/s12898-019-0257-5
  149. ^ Faust, Daniel R. (2015). Police Drones (1 ed.). New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 9781508145028. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  150. ^ Dent, Steve (16 October 2017). . Engadget. Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
  151. ^ Tellman, Julie (28 September 2018). "First-ever recorded drone-hot air balloon collision prompts safety conversation". Teton Valley News. Boise, Idaho, United States: Boise Post-Register. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
  152. ^ "Drones need to be encouraged, and people protected". The Economist. 26 January 2019. ProQuest 2171135630. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  153. ^ Halon, Eytan (21 December 2018). "Israeli anti-drone technology brings an end to Gatwick Airport chaos – International news – Jerusalem Post". jpost.com. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  154. ^ Matthew Weaver; Damien Gayle; Patrick Greenfield; Frances Perraudin (20 December 2018). "Military called in to help with Gatwick drone crisis". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  155. ^ "In The Heat of the Moment, Drones Are Getting in the Way of Firefighters". NPR.org.
  156. ^ Michael Martinez; Paul Vercammen; Ben Brumfield. "Drones visit California wildfire, angering firefighters". CNN.
  157. ^ Medina, Jennifer (19 July 2015). "Chasing Video With Drones, Hobbyists Imperil California Firefighting Efforts". from the original on 21 July 2015 – via NYTimes.com.
  158. ^ Rocha, Veronica (21 July 2015). "Attack on the drones: Legislation could allow California firefighters to take them down" – via LA Times.
  159. ^ "Prisons Work To Keep Out Drug-Smuggling Drones". NPR.org.
  160. ^ Mike Mount; Elaine Quijano. "Iraqi insurgents hacked Predator drone feeds, U.S. official indicates". CNN.com. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
  161. ^ Walters, Sander (29 October 2016). "How Can Drones Be Hacked? The updated list of vulnerable drones & attack tools". Medium. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
  162. ^ Glaser, April (4 January 2017). "The U.S. government showed just how easy it is to hack drones made by Parrot, DBPower and Cheerson". Recode. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
  163. ^ "Anti-drone technology to be test flown on UK base amid terror fears". 6 March 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
  164. ^ Isaac-Medina, Brian K. S.; Poyser, Matthew; Organisciak, Daniel; Willcocks, Chris G.; Breckon, Toby P.; Shum, Hubert P. H. (2021). Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Visual Detection and Tracking using Deep Neural Networks: A Performance Benchmark. pp. 1223–1232. arXiv:2103.13933.
  165. ^ Organisciak, Daniel; Poyser, Matthew; Alsehaim, Aishah; Hu, Shanfeng; Isaac-Medina, Brian K. S.; Breckon, Toby P.; Shum, Hubert P. H. (2022). "UAV-ReID: A Benchmark on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Re-identification in Video Imagery". Proceedings of the 17th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications. SciTePress. pp. 136–146. arXiv:2104.06219. doi:10.5220/0010836600003124. ISBN 978-989-758-555-5.
  166. ^ "Heathrow picks C-UAS to combat drone disruption". Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  167. ^ "Muscat International Airport to install USD10 million Aaronia counter-UAS system". Retrieved 21 January 2019.
  168. ^ Grand-Clément, Sarah; Bajon, Theò (19 October 2022). "Uncrewed Aerial Systems: A Primer". United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research.
  169. ^ Hartley, John; Shum, Hubert P. H.; Ho, Edmond S. L.; Wang, He; Ramamoorthy, Subramanian (2022). "Formation Control for UAVs Using a Flux Guided Approach". Expert Systems with Applications. Elsevier. 205: 117665. arXiv:2103.09184. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2022.117665. ISSN 0957-4174. S2CID 232240581.
  170. ^ "What is unmanned traffic management?". Airbus. Airbus. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  171. ^ Cary, Leslie; Coyne, James. "ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328". (PDF). Blyenburgh & Co. pp. 112–115. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  172. ^ Boedecker, Hendrik. "The 2021 Drone Regulation – What is new? What is planned?". Drone Industry Insights. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  173. ^ "UAS Remote Identification Overview". www.faa.gov. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
  174. ^ "FAA Legal Battle – Challenging Remote ID". RaceDayQuads. Retrieved 29 May 2021.

Bibliography

  • Axe, David. Drone War Vietnam. Pen & Sword, Military. Great Britain. (2021). ISBN 978 1 52677 026 4
  • Sayler, Kelley (June 2015). (PDF). Center for a New American Security. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016.
  • Wagner, William (1982), Lightning Bugs and other Reconnaissance Drones; The can-do story of Ryan's unmanned spy planes, Armed Forces Journal International : Aero Publishers, ISBN 978-0-8168-6654-0

Further reading

  • Javier Garcia-Bernardoa; Peter Sheridan Dodds; Neil F. Johnson (2016). (PDF). Science direct. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2016.
  • Hill, J., & Rogers, A. (2014). The rise of the drones: From The Great War to Gaza. Vancouver Island University Arts & Humanities Colloquium Series.
  • Rogers, A., & Hill, J. (2014). Unmanned: Drone warfare and global security. Between the Lines. ISBN 9781771131544

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Unmanned aerial vehicles.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Drones.
  • How Intelligent Drones Are Shaping the Future of Warfare, Rolling Stone Magazine

January 20, 2023
unmanned, aerial, vehicle, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, unmanned, aerial, vehicle, commonly, known, drone, aircraft, without, human, pilot, crew, passengers, board, uavs, component, unmanned, aircraft, system, which, includes, adding, ground, . UAV redirects here For other uses see UAV disambiguation An unmanned aerial vehicle UAV commonly known as a drone is an aircraft without any human pilot crew or passengers on board UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system UAS which includes adding a ground based controller and a system of communications with the UAV 1 The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by a human operator as remotely piloted aircraft RPA or with various degrees of autonomy such as autopilot assistance up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention 2 3 Elbit Systems Hermes 450 taking off Northrop Grumman Bat carrying EO IR and SAR sensors laser range finders laser designators infra red cameras A DJI Phantom quadcopter UAV for commercial and recreational aerial photography A General Atomics MQ 9 Reaper a hunter killer surveillance UAV Although most military UAVs are fixed wing aircraft rotorcraft designs i e RUAVs such as this MQ 8B Fire Scout are also used Prototype of Sukhoi S 70 Okhotnik B a heavy UCAV UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions too dull dirty or dangerous 4 for humans and by the twenty first they had become essential assets to most militaries As control technologies improved and costs fell their use expanded to many non military applications 5 6 These include aerial photography precision agriculture forest fire monitoring 1 river monitoring 7 8 environmental monitoring 9 10 11 12 policing and surveillance infrastructure inspections smuggling 13 product deliveries entertainment and drone racing Contents 1 Terminology 2 Classification types 2 1 Range and endurance 2 2 Size 2 3 Weight 2 4 Degree of autonomy 2 5 Altitude 2 6 Composite criteria 3 History 3 1 Early drones 3 2 World War II 3 3 Postwar period 3 4 Modern UAVs 4 Design 4 1 Aircraft configuration 4 2 Propulsion 4 3 Ornithopters wing propulsion 5 Computer control systems 5 1 Architecture 5 1 1 Sensors 5 1 2 Actuators 5 1 3 Software 5 1 4 Loop principles 5 1 5 Communications 5 2 Autonomy 6 Performance considerations 6 1 Flight envelope 6 2 Endurance 6 3 Reliability 7 Applications 7 1 Warfare 7 2 Civil 7 2 1 Aerial photography 7 2 2 Agriculture forestry and environmental studies 7 2 3 Law enforcement 8 Safety and security 8 1 Threats 8 1 1 Nuisance 8 1 2 Security vulnerabilities 8 1 3 Aggression 8 2 Countermeasures 8 2 1 Counter unmanned air system 8 2 2 Regulation 8 2 3 Export controls 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Citations 10 2 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External linksTerminology EditMany terms are used for aircraft which fly without any persons on board The term drone has been used from the early days of aviation being applied to remotely flown target aircraft used for practice firing of a battleship s guns such as the 1920s Fairey Queen and 1930s de Havilland Queen Bee Later examples included the Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles Queen Martinet before ultimate replacement by the GAF Jindivik 14 The term remains in common use In addition to the software autonomous drones also employ a host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention such as cloud computing computer vision artificial intelligence machine learning deep learning and thermal sensors 15 For recreational uses an aerial photography drone as opposed to a UAV is an aircraft that has first person video autonomous capabilities or both 16 An unmanned aerial vehicle UAV is defined as a powered aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely can be expendable or recoverable and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload 17 UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases 18 However missiles with warheads are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition Also the relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear citation needed UAVs may or may not include remote controlled model aircraft Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight however the US FAA defines any uncrewed flying craft as a UAV regardless of size citation needed The term unmanned aircraft system UAS was adopted by the United States Department of Defense DoD and the United States Federal Aviation Administration FAA in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005 2030 19 The International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO and the British Civil Aviation Authority adopted this term also used in the European Union s Single European Sky SES Air Traffic Management ATM Research SESAR Joint Undertaking roadmap for 2020 20 This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft It includes elements such as ground control stations data links and other support equipment A similar term is an unmanned aircraft vehicle system UAVS remotely piloted aerial vehicle RPAV remotely piloted aircraft system RPAS 21 Many similar terms are in use Unoccupied and uninhabited are occasionally used as alternatives to unmanned 22 Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019 the term RPAS Remotely Piloted Aircraft System has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean a set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft its control station the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation 23 Classification types EditUAVs may be classified like any other aircraft according to design configuration such as weight or engine type maximum flight altitude degree of operational autonomy operational role etc According to the United States Department of Defense UAVs are classified into five categories below 24 25 Group Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5Size Small Medium Large Larger LargestMax take off wt lt 20 lb 9 1 kg gt 20 amp lt 55 gt 55 amp lt 1320 gt 1 320 lb 600 kg gt 1 320 lb 600 kg Operating altitude lt 1 200 ft 370 m lt 3 500 ft 1 100 m lt 18 000 ft 5 500 m lt 18 000 ft 5 500 m gt 18 000 ft 5 500 m Speed lt 100 kn 190 km h lt 250 kn 460 km h lt 250 kn 460 km h Any speed Any speedOther classifications of UAVs include 24 Range and endurance Edit There are usually five categories when UAVs are classified by range and endurance 24 Category Very close range UAVs Close range UAVs Short range UAVs Medium range UAVs Long range UAVsRange km lt 5 gt 5 amp lt 50 gt 50 amp lt 150 gt 150 amp lt 650 gt 650Endurance hr 0 5 0 75 1 6 8 12 12 36 or 48 gt 36 or 48Size Edit There are usually four categories when UAVs are classified by size with at least one of the dimensions length or wingspan meet the following respective limits 24 Category Micro Very small UAVs Mini Small UAVs Medium UAVs Large UAVsLength Wingspan lt 50 cm gt 50 cm amp lt 2 m 5 10 m gt 10 mWeight Edit Based on their weight drones can be classified into 5 categories Category Nano Micro air vehicles MAV Miniature UAV or Small SUAV Medium UAVs Large UAVsWeight lt 250 gm gt 250 gm amp lt 02 Kg gt 02 Kg amp lt 25 Kg gt 25 kg amp lt 150 Kg gt 150 kg 26 Degree of autonomy Edit Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight operations ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous 27 Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy For example a vehicle may be remotely piloted in most contexts but have an autonomous return to base operation Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs which may include manned aircraft transformed into uncrewed or Optionally Piloted UAVs OPVs Altitude Edit Based on the altitude the following UAV classifications have been used at industry events such as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum Hand held 2 000 ft 600 m altitude about 2 km range Close 5 000 ft 1 500 m altitude up to 10 km range NATO type 10 000 ft 3 000 m altitude up to 50 km range Tactical 18 000 ft 5 500 m altitude about 160 km range MALE medium altitude long endurance up to 30 000 ft 9 000 m and range over 200 km HALE high altitude long endurance over 30 000 ft 9 100 m and indefinite range Hypersonic high speed supersonic Mach 1 5 or hypersonic Mach 5 50 000 ft 15 200 m or suborbital altitude range over 200 km Orbital low Earth orbit Mach 25 CIS Lunar Earth Moon transfer Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System CACGS for UAVsComposite criteria Edit An example of classification based on the composite criteria is U S Military s unmanned aerial systems UAS classification of UAVs based on weight maximum altitude and speed of the UAV component History EditMain article History of unmanned aerial vehicles Winston Churchill and others waiting to watch the launch of a de Havilland Queen Bee target drone 6 June 1941 A Ryan Firebee one of a series of target drones unpiloted aerial vehicles that first flew in 1951 Israeli Air Force Museum Hatzerim airbase Israel 2006 Last preparations before the first tactical UAV mission across the Suez canal 1969 Standing Major Shabtai Brill from the Israeli intelligence corps the innovator of the tactical UAV The Israeli Tadiran Mastiff which first flew in 1975 is seen by many as the first modern battlefield UAV due to its data link system endurance loitering and live video streaming 28 Early drones Edit The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849 29 with a balloon carrier the precursor to the aircraft carrier 30 in the first offensive use of air power in naval aviation 31 32 33 Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 incendiary balloons at the besieged city The balloons were launched mainly from land however some were also launched from the Austrian ship SMS Vulcano At least one bomb fell in the city however due to the wind changing after launch most of the balloons missed their target and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano 34 35 36 The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio based control system called the Telekino at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives 37 38 Significant development of drones started in the 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A M Low s Aerial Target in 1916 39 Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland s monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system 40 Following this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches D C B s with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he also assisted Wing Commander Brock in preparations for the Zeebrugge Raid Other British unmanned developments followed leading to the fleet of over 400 de Havilland 82 Queen Bee aerial targets that went into service in 1935 Nikola Tesla described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat vehicles in 1915 41 These developments also inspired the construction of the Kettering Bug by Charles Kettering from Dayton Ohio and the Hewitt Sperry Automatic Airplane initially meant as an uncrewed plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target Development continued during World War I when the Dayton Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time 42 The film star and model airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny developed the first scaled remote piloted vehicle in 1935 39 Soviet researchers experimented with controlling Tupolev TB 1 bombers remotely in the late 1930s 43 World War II Edit In 1940 Denny started the Radioplane Company and more models emerged during World War II used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack missions Nazi Germany produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war like the Argus As 292 and the V 1 flying bomb with a jet engine Postwar period Edit After World War II development continued in vehicles such as the American JB 4 using television radio command guidance the Australian GAF Jindivik and Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951 while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for the U S Navy in 1955 39 Nevertheless they were little more than remote controlled airplanes until the Vietnam War In 1959 the U S Air Force concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory began planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft 44 Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot down a U 2 in 1960 Within days a highly classified UAV program started under the code name of Red Wagon 45 The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between naval units of the U S and the North Vietnamese Navy initiated America s highly classified UAVs Ryan Model 147 Ryan AQM 91 Firefly Lockheed D 21 into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War 46 When the Chinese government 47 showed photographs of downed U S UAVs via Wide World Photos 48 the official U S response was no comment During the War of Attrition 1967 1970 in the Middle East Israeli intelligence tested the first tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras which successfully returned photos from across the Suez Canal This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short runway unlike the heavier jet based UAVs were developed and tested in battle 49 In the 1973 Yom Kippur War Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti aircraft missiles 50 After the 1973 Yom Kippur war a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UAV 51 pages needed In 1973 the U S military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia Vietnam 52 Over 5 000 U S airmen had been killed and over 1 000 more were missing or captured The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3 435 UAV missions during the war 53 at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes In the words of USAF General George S Brown Commander Air Force Systems Command in 1972 The only reason we need UAVs is that we don t want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit 54 Later that year General John C Meyer Commander in Chief Strategic Air Command stated we let the drone do the high risk flying the loss rate is high but we are willing to risk more of them they save lives 54 During the 1973 Yom Kippur War Soviet supplied surface to air missile batteries in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets As a result Israel developed the IAI Scout as the first UAV with real time surveillance 55 56 57 The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War resulting in no pilots downed 58 In Israel in 1987 UAVs were first used as proof of concept of super agility post stall controlled flight in combat flight simulations that involved tailless stealth technology based three dimensional thrust vectoring flight control and jet steering 59 Modern UAVs Edit The STM Kargu was the first lethal autonomous weapon to attack enemy combatants in warfare With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U S military In the 1990s the U S DoD gave a contract to AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat The U S Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly Many of these UAVs saw service in the 1991 Gulf War UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper more capable fighting machines deployable without risk to aircrews Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft but some carried armaments such as the General Atomics MQ 1 Predator that launched AGM 114 Hellfire air to ground missiles CAPECON a European Union project to develop UAVs 60 ran from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005 61 As of 2012 update the United States Air Force USAF employed 7 494 UAVs almost one in three USAF aircraft 62 63 The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs 64 By 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs China Iran Israel Pakistan Turkey and others which designed and built their own varieties The use of drones has continued to increase 65 Due to their wide proliferation no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists 63 66 The development of smart technologies and improved electrical power systems led to a parallel increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities As of 2021 quadcopter drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby radio controlled aircraft and toys however the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is limited by a lack of autonomy clarification needed and by new regulatory environments which require line of sight contact with the pilot citation needed In 2020 a Kargu 2 drone hunted down and attacked a human target in Libya according to a report from the UN Security Council s Panel of Experts on Libya published in March 2021 This may have been the first time an autonomous killer robot armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings 67 68 Superior drone technology specifically the Bayraktar TB2 played a role in Azerbaijan s successes in the 2020 Nagorno Karabakh war against Armenia 69 Artist s concept of Dragonfly landing on Titan UAVs are also used in NASA missions The Dragonfly spacecraft is being developed and is aiming to reach and examine Saturn s moon Titan Its primary goal is to roam around the surface expanding the amount of area to be researched previously seen by Landers As a UAV Dragonfly allows examination of potentially diverse types of soil The drone is set to launch in 2027 and is estimated to take a seven more years to reach the Saturnian system Miniaturisation is also supporting the development of small UAV which can be used as individual system or in a fleet offering the possibility to survey large areas in relatively small time 70 Design EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed May 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message General physical structure of an UAV Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life support systems Some UAVs carry payloads such as a camera that weigh considerably less than an adult human and as a result can be considerably smaller Though they carry heavy payloads weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments Small civilian UAVs have no life critical systems and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems For small UAVs the quadcopter design has become popular though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft Miniaturization means that less powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft such as small electric motors and batteries Control systems for UAVs are often different than crewed craft For remote human control a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows radio transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls Autopilot software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft with varying feature sets Aircraft configuration Edit UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no need for a cockpit and its windows and there is no need to optimize for human comfort although some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples or are designed for optionally piloted modes Air safety is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment Instead UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and their ground equipment These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor configurations in UAVs For conventional flight the flying wing and blended wing body offer light weight combined with low drag and stealth and are popular configurations for many use cases Larger types which carry a variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct fuselage with a tail for stability control and trim although the wing configurations in use vary widely For uses that require vertical flight or hovering the tailless quadcopter requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs Multirotor designs with 6 or more rotors is more common with larger UAVs where redundancy is prioritized Propulsion Edit Traditional internal combustion and jet engines remain in use for drones requiring long range However for shorter range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over The distance record for a UAV built from balsa wood and mylar skin across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV Manard Hill in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1 882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel holds this record 71 Besides the traditional piston engine the Wankel rotary engine is used by some drones This type offers high power output for lower weight with quieter and more vibration free running Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range citation needed Small drones mostly use lithium polymer batteries Li Po while some larger vehicles have adopted the a hydrogen fuel cell The energy density of modern Li Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen However electric motors are cheaper lighter and quieter Complex multi engine multi propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency For such complex power installations Battery elimination circuitry BEC may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating under the control of a microcontroller unit MCU Ornithopters wing propulsion Edit Flapping wing ornithopters imitating birds or insects have been flown as microUAVs Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions Sub 1g microUAVs inspired by flies albeit using a power tether have been able to land on vertical surfaces 72 Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects 73 Computer control systems Edit A flight controller run on either CleanFlight or BaseFlight firmware for multirotor UAVs UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers then system on a chip SOC and single board computers SBC System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller FC flight controller board FCB or autopilot Common UAV systems control hardware typically incorporate a primary microprocessor a secondary or failsafe processor and sensors such as accelerometers gyroscopes magnetometers and barometers into a single module Architecture Edit Sensors Edit Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states 74 Non cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance 75 Degrees of freedom DOF refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board 6 DOF implies 3 axis gyroscopes and accelerometers a typical inertial measurement unit IMU 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver 76 In addition to the navigation sensors the UAV or UAS can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as RGB multispectral hyper spectral cameras or LiDAR which may allow providing specific measurements or observations 77 Actuators Edit UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers which control the RPM of the motors linked to motors engines and propellers servomotors for planes and helicopters mostly weapons payload actuators LEDs and speakers Software Edit This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information February 2022 The software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote pilot input An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors controlling the motors to make progress along a path and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning 78 UAVs are real time systems that require high frequency to changing sensor data As a result UAVs rely on single board computers for their computational needs Examples of such single board computers include Raspberry Pis Beagleboards etc shielded with NavIO PXFMini etc or designed from scratch such as NuttX preemptive RT Linux Xenomai Orocos Robot Operating System or DDS ROS 2 0 Flight stack overview Layer Requirement Operations ExampleFirmware Time critical From machine code to processor execution memory access ArduCopter v1 PX4Middleware Time critical Flight control navigation radio management PX4 Cleanflight ArduPilotOperating system Computer intensive Optical flow obstacle avoidance SLAM decision making ROS Nuttx Linux distributions Microsoft IOTDue to the open source nature of UAV software they can be customized to fit specific applications For example researchers from the Technical University of Kosice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot 79 This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open source stacks some of which are forked from others such as CleanFlight which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked from Loop principles Edit Typical flight control loops for a multirotor UAVs employ open loop closed loop or hybrid control architectures Open loop This type provides a positive control signal faster slower left right up down without incorporating feedback from sensor data Closed loop This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior reduce speed to reflect tailwind move to altitude 300 feet The PID controller is common Sometimes feedforward is employed transferring the need to close the loop further 80 Communications Edit UAVs use a radio for control and exchange of video and other data Early UAVs had only narrowband uplink Downlinks came later These bi directional narrowband radio links carried command and control C amp C and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator In most modern UAV applications video transmission is required So instead of having separate links for C amp C telemetry and video traffic a broadband link is used to carry all types of data These broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques and carry TCP IP traffic that can be routed over the Internet The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either Ground control a human operating a radio transmitter receiver a smartphone a tablet a computer or the original meaning of a military ground control station GCS Remote network system such as satellite duplex data links for some military powers Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials 81 Another aircraft serving as a relay or mobile control station military manned unmanned teaming MUM T 82 Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra reliable and low latency communications 83 Autonomy Edit Main article Autonomous aircraft UAV s degrees of autonomy The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations such as 84 Self level attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes Altitude hold The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and or GPS data Hover position hold Keep level pitch and roll stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using GNSS or inertial sensors Headless mode Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicle s axes Care free automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally Take off and landing using a variety of aircraft or ground based sensors and systems see also autoland Failsafe automatic landing or return to home upon loss of control signal Return to home Fly back to the point of takeoff often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings Follow me Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS image recognition or homing beacon GPS waypoint navigation Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path Orbit around an object Similar to Follow me but continuously circle a target Pre programmed aerobatics such as rolls and loops One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on OODA terminology as suggested by a 2002 US Air Force Research Laboratory report and used in the table on the right 85 A Northrop Grumman X 47B unmanned combat aircraft demonstrator of the US Navy refuels in flight from a tanker aircraft Full autonomy is available for specific tasks such as airborne refueling 86 or ground based battery switching Other functions available or under development include collective flight real time collision avoidance wall following corridor centring simultaneous localization and mapping and swarming cognitive radio and machine learning In this context computer vision can play an important role for automatically ensuring flight safety 87 Performance considerations EditFlight envelope Edit UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing perching on inclined surfaces 88 and then to climb toward better communication spots 89 Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation 90 91 such as VTOL designs UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface 92 Endurance Edit UEL UAV 741 Wankel engine for UAV operations Flight time against mass of small less than 1 kg drones 74 UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot Because of their small size low weight low vibration and high power to weight ratio Wankel rotary engines are used in many large UAVs Their engine rotors cannot seize the engine is not susceptible to shock cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power These attributes reduce fuel usage increasing range or payload Proper drone cooling is essential for long term drone endurance Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure 93 Hydrogen fuel cells using hydrogen power may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs up to several hours 94 95 96 Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping wing UAVs followed by planes and multirotors standing last due to lower Reynolds number 74 Solar electric UAVs a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974 have achieved flight times of several weeks Solar powered atmospheric satellites atmosats designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km 12 miles or 60 000 feet for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than low Earth orbit satellites Likely applications include weather drones for weather monitoring disaster recovery Earth imaging and communications Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions 97 Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to stare at a battlefield for a long interval ARGUS IS Gorgon Stare Integrated Sensor Is Structure to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities Lengthy endurance flights UAV Flight timehours minutes Date NotesBoeing Condor 58 11 1989 The aircraft is currently in the Hiller Aviation Museum 98 General Atomics Gnat 40 00 1992 99 100 TAM 5 38 52 11 August 2003 Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic 101 QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric 54 00 September 2007 102 103 RQ 4 Global Hawk 33 06 22 March 2008 Set an endurance record for a full scale operational uncrewed aircraft 104 QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric 82 37 28 31 July 2008 105 QinetiQ Zephyr 7 336 22 9 23 July 2010 Solar electric powered Remained aloft for 14 days Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70 740 ft 21 561 m 106 Reliability Edit Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems using resilience engineering and fault tolerance techniques Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight 107 Besides dynamic assessment of flight envelope allows damage resilient UAVs using non linear analysis with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks 108 UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of crewed avionics software 109 Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures 110 Applications EditMain article List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications In recent years autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can fly beyond visual line of sight BVLOS 111 while maximizing production reducing costs and risks ensuring site safety security and regulatory compliance 112 and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic 113 They can also be used for consumer related missions like package delivery as demonstrated by Amazon Prime Air and critical deliveries of health supplies There are numerous civilian commercial military and aerospace applications for UAVs 6 These include General Recreation Disaster relief archeology conservation of biodiversity and habitat 114 law enforcement crime and terrorism Commercial Aerial surveillance filmmaking 115 journalism scientific research surveying cargo transport mining manufacturing Forestry solar farming thermal energy ports and agriculture Warfare Edit Main articles Unmanned combat aerial vehicle Loitering munition Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle Miniature UAV Micro air vehicle and Target drone A Baykar Bayraktar TB2 of the Ukrainian Air Force armed with MAM L two ground control stations in the background As of 2020 seventeen countries have armed UAVs and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity 116 The global military UAV market is dominated by companies based in the United States Turkey 117 118 China 119 Israel and Iran 120 By sale numbers the US held over 60 military market share in 2017 Top military UAV manufactures are including General Atomics Lockheed Martin Northrop Grumman Boeing Baykar 121 118 TAI IAIO CASC and CAIG 120 China has established and expanded its presence in military UAV market 120 since 2010 Turkey also established and expanded its presence in military UAV market 117 120 118 121 Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 and 2019 the top 12 all purchased their drones from China 120 According to a report of 2015 Israeli companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV systems and by quantity of drones Israel exported 60 7 2014 of UAV on the market while the United States export 23 9 2014 122 Between 2010 and 2014 there were 439 drones exchanged compared to 322 in the five years previous to that among these only small fraction of overall trade just 11 2 5 of the 439 are armed drones 122 The US alone operated over 9 000 military UAVs in 2014 among them more than 7000 are RQ 11 Raven miniature UAVs 123 General Atomics is the dominant manufacturer with the Global Hawk and Predator Mariner systems product line For intelligence and reconnaissance missions the inherent stealth of micro UAV flapping wing ornithopters imitating birds or insects offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them difficult targets to bring down UAVs are used for reconnaissance attack demining and target practice Civil Edit See also Delivery drone Wing s aircraft delivering goods in Vuosaari Helsinki The civilian commercial and general drone market is dominated by Chinese companies Chinese drone manufacturer DJI alone had 74 of the civil market share in 2018 with no other company accounting for more than 5 and with 11 billion forecast global sales in 2020 124 Following increased scrutiny of its activities the US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020 while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign made UAVs 125 126 DJI is followed by Chinese company Yuneec US company 3D Robotics and French company Parrot with a significant gap in market share 127 As of May 2021 873 576 UAVs have been registered with the US FAA of which 42 are categorized as commercial drones and 58 as recreational drones 128 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the 500 and 1000 market segments 129 The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time Many early stage startups have received support and funding from investors as is the case in the United States and by government agencies as is the case in India 130 Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees 131 Private entities also provide online and in person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use 132 Consumer drones are also widely used by military organizations worldwide because of the cost effective nature of consumer product In 2018 Israeli military started to use DJI Mavic and Matrice series of UAV for light reconnaissance mission since the civil drones are easier to use and have higher reliability DJI drones is also the most widely used commercial unmanned aerial system that the US Army has employed 133 134 DJI surveillance drones have also been used by Chinese police in Xinjiang since 2017 135 136 The global UAV market will reach US 21 47 billion with the Indian market touching the US 885 7 million mark by 2021 137 Lighted drones are beginning to be used in nighttime displays for artistic and advertising purposes 138 Aerial photography Edit See also Drone journalism Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography and are widely used for this purpose 115 Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman with the same person taking on both roles However big drones with professional cine cameras there is usually a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls camera angle and lens For example the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people 139 Drones provide access to dangerous remote or otherwise inaccessible sites Environmental MonitoringUASs or UAVs offer the great advantage for environmental monitoring to generate a new generation of survey at very high or ultra high resolution both in space and time This gives the opportunity to bridge the existing gap between satellite data and field monitoring This has stimulated a huge number of activities in order to enhance the description of natural and agricultural ecosystems Most common applications are Topographic surveys 140 for the production of orthomosaics Digital Surface Model DSM 3D Models Monitoring of natural ecosystems for biodiversity monitoring 141 habitat mapping 142 and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive species or disturbances Precision Agricolture 143 which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to produce more with less e g optimisation of fertilizers pesticides irrigation River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields 144 These activities can be carried out with different approaches that include photogrammetry SfM thermography multispectral images 3D field scanning NDVI maps etc Agriculture forestry and environmental studies Edit Main article Agricultural drone As global demand for food production grows exponentially resources are depleted farmland is reduced and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress 145 Agricultural drones have been used to help build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agricolture 146 In this context there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow precise descrition of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients or pesticides over a field 7 The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start backfires 147 UAVs are also now widely used to survey wildlife such as nesting seabirds seals and even wombat burrows 148 Law enforcement Edit Main article Use of UAVs in law enforcement Police can use drones for applications such as search and rescue and traffic monitoring 149 Safety and security EditSee also List of UAV related incidents US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires Threats Edit Nuisance Edit UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers The first incident of a drone airplane collision occurred in mid October 2017 in Quebec City Canada 150 The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a hot air balloon occurred on 10 August 2018 in Driggs Idaho United States although there was no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants the balloon pilot reported the incident to the National Transportation Safety Board stating that I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature the airspace and rules and regulations 151 Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial flights 152 Drones caused significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018 needing the deployment of the British Army 153 154 In the United States flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum 25 000 fine Nonetheless in 2014 and 2015 firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions including at the Lake Fire 155 and the North Fire 156 157 In response California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace 158 The FAA later required registration of most UAVs Security vulnerabilities Edit By 2017 drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons 159 The interest in UAVs cyber security has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009 160 where Islamic militants used cheap off the shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks 161 At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016 researchers from the Federal Trade Commission showed they were able to hack into three different consumer quadcopters and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi Fi signal and adding password protection 162 Aggression Edit UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads and crashed into vulnerable targets Payloads could include explosives chemical radiological or biological hazards UAVs with generally non lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes Anti UAV systems are being developed by states to counter this threat This is however proving difficult As Dr J Rogers stated in an interview to A amp T There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor 163 Countermeasures Edit Counter unmanned air system Edit Italian Army soldiers of the 17th Anti aircraft Artillery Regiment Sforzesca with a portable drone jammer in Rome Further information Electronic warfare The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of counter unmanned air system C UAS technologies Automatic tracking and detection of UAVs from commercial cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of deep learning based machine learning algorithms 164 It is also possible to automatically identify UAVs across different cameras with different view points and hardware specification with re identification methods 165 Commercial solutions such as the Aaronia AARTOS have been installed on major international airports 166 167 Once a UAV is detected it can be countered with kinetic force missiles projectiles or another UAV or by non kinetic force laser microwaves communications jamming 168 Anti aircraft missile systems such as the Iron Dome are also being enhanced with C UAS technologies Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or more hostile UAVs is also proposed 169 Regulation Edit Main article Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles Regulatory bodies around the world are developing unmanned aircraft system traffic management solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace 170 The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the civil aviation authorities of individual countries Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use The International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005 which resulted in a 2011 report 171 France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the FAA and the EASA quickly followed suit 172 In 2021 the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing 250g or more to participate in Remote ID which makes drone locations controller locations and other information public from takeoff to shutdown this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit RaceDayQuads v FAA 173 174 Export controls Edit The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the Missile Technology Control Regime See also EditList of unmanned aerial vehicles Delivery drone Drone in a Box International Aerial Robotics Competition List of films featuring drones Micromechanical Flying Insect ParcAberporth Quadcopter Radio controlled aircraft Satellite Sentinel Project Tactical Control System UAV ground control station Unmanned underwater vehicle Portals Aviation Systems science Engineering TelecommunicationReferences EditCitations Edit a b Hu J Niu H Carrasco J Lennox B Arvin F Fault tolerant cooperative navigation of networked UAV swarms for forest fire monitoring Aerospace Science and Technology 2022 Cary Leslie Coyne James ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems UAS Circular 328 2011 2012 UAS Yearbook UAS The Global Perspective PDF Blyenburgh amp Co pp 112 115 Archived from the original PDF on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 26 February 2022 Hu J Lanzon A 2018 An innovative tri rotor drone and associated distributed aerial drone swarm control Robotics and Autonomous Systems 103 162 174 doi 10 1016 j robot 2018 02 019 Tice Brian P Spring 1991 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles The Force Multiplier of the 1990s Airpower Journal Archived from the original on 24 July 2009 Retrieved 6 June 2013 When used UAVs should generally perform missions characterized by the three Ds dull dirty and dangerous Hu J Bhowmick P Jang I Arvin F Lanzon A A Decentralized Cluster Formation Containment Framework for Multirobot Systems IEEE Transactions on Robotics 2021 a b Alvarado Ed 3 May 2021 237 Ways Drone Applications Revolutionize Business Drone Industry Insights Retrieved 11 May 2021 a b REMOTE SENSING OF THE ENVIRONMENT USING UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEMS UAS S l ELSEVIER HEALTH SCIENCE 2023 ISBN 0 323 85283 1 OCLC 1329422815 Perks Matthew T Dal Sasso Silvano Fortunato Hauet Alexandre Jamieson Elizabeth Le Coz Jerome Pearce Sophie Pena Haro Salvador Pizarro Alonso Strelnikova Dariia Tauro Flavia Bomhof James Grimaldi Salvatore Goulet Alain Hortobagyi Borbala Jodeau Magali 8 July 2020 Towards harmonisation of image velocimetry techniques for river surface velocity observations Earth System Science Data 12 3 1545 1559 doi 10 5194 essd 12 1545 2020 ISSN 1866 3516 Koparan Cengiz Koc A Bulent Privette Charles V Sawyer Calvin B March 2020 Adaptive Water Sampling Device for Aerial Robots Drones 4 1 5 doi 10 3390 drones4010005 Koparan Cengiz Koc Ali Bulent Privette Charles V Sawyer Calvin B Sharp Julia L May 2018 Evaluation of a UAV Assisted Autonomous Water Sampling Water 10 5 655 doi 10 3390 w10050655 Koparan Cengiz Koc Ali Bulent Privette Charles V Sawyer Calvin B March 2018 In Situ Water Quality Measurements Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle UAV System Water 10 3 264 doi 10 3390 w10030264 Koparan Cengiz Koc Ali Bulent Privette Charles V Sawyer Calvin B March 2019 Autonomous In Situ Measurements of Noncontaminant Water Quality Indicators and Sample Collection with a UAV Water 11 3 604 doi 10 3390 w11030604 Drones smuggling porn drugs to inmates around the world Fox News 17 April 2017 Note the term drone refers to the male bee that serves only to fertilize the queen bee hence the use of the name in reference to the DH Queen Bee aerial target Drones and Artificial Intelligence Drone Industry Insights 28 August 2018 Retrieved 11 April 2020 What is the difference between a drone and an RC plane or helicopter Drones Etc Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 Retrieved 12 October 2015 unmanned aerial vehicle TheFreeDictionary com Retrieved 8 January 2015 Guilmartin John F unmanned aerial vehicle Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 24 March 2020 Unmanned Aircraft Systems Roadmap PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2 October 2008 European ATM Master Plan 2015 SESAR www sesarju eu Archived from the original on 6 February 2016 Retrieved 3 February 2016 State government gears up for autonomous RPAS mapping 23 January 2017 Kucharczyk Maja Hugenholtz Chris 2021 Remote sensing of natural hazard related disasters with small drones Global trends biases and research opportunities Remote Sensing of Environment 264 112577 Bibcode 2021RSEnv 264k2577K doi 10 1016 j rse 2021 112577 Retrieved 28 November 2021 Canadian Aviation Regulations Government of Canada Justice Laws Website 1 June 2019 Retrieved 16 January 2019 a b c d UAV classification Retrieved 10 June 2022 Eyes of the Army U S Army Roadmap for UAS 2010 2035 PDF Retrieved 10 June 2022 Nano micro small The different drone types in India amp if Jammu like strike can be averted ThePrint 29 June 2021 Drones Percepto 3 January 2019 The Differences Between UAV UAS and Autonomous Drones Percepto The Encyclopedia of the Arab Israeli Conflict A Political Social and Military History A Political Social and Military History ABC CLIO 12 May 2008 by Spencer C Tucker Priscilla Mary Roberts pages 1054 55 ISBN The Future of Drone Use Opportunities and Threats from Ethical and Legal Perspectives Asser Press Springer chapter by Alan McKenna page 355 Kaplan Philip 2013 Naval Aviation in the Second World War Pen and Sword p 19 ISBN 978 1 4738 2997 8 Hallion Richard P 2003 Taking Flight Inventing the Aerial Age from Antiquity through the First World War Oxford University Press p 66 ISBN 978 0 19 028959 1 Naval Aviation in the First World War Its Impact and Influence R D Layman page 56 Renner Stephen L 2016 Broken Wings The Hungarian Air Force 1918 45 Indiana University Press p 2 ISBN 978 0 253 02339 1 Murphy Justin D 2005 Military Aircraft Origins to 1918 An Illustrated History of Their Impact ABC CLIO pp 9 10 ISBN 978 1 85109 488 2 Haydon F Stansbury 2000 Military Ballooning During the Early Civil War JHU Press pp 18 20 ISBN 978 0 8018 6442 1 Mikesh Robert C Japan s World War II balloon bomb attacks on North America 1973 PDF Sarkar 2006 page 97 H R Everett Unmanned Systems of World Wars I and II MIT Press 2015 pages 91 95 a b c Taylor John W R Jane s Pocket Book of Remotely Piloted Vehicles Professor A M Low FLIGHT 3 October 1952 page 436 The First Guided Missile Dempsey Martin E 9 April 2010 Eyes of the Army U S Army Roadmap for Unmanned Aircraft Systems 2010 2035 PDF U S Army Archived from the original PDF on 22 September 2018 Retrieved 6 March 2011 Says Robert Kanyike 21 May 2012 History of U S Drones Andersson Lennart 1994 Soviet Aircraft and Aviation 1917 1941 The Putnam Aviation Series Annapolis Maryland Naval Institute Press p 249 ISBN 9781557507709 Retrieved 18 December 2021 Experiments with a pilotless drone version of the TB 1 controlled by radio from other aircraft started in 1935 and continued until 1939 Wagner 1982 p xi Wagner 1982 p xi xii Wagner 1982 p xii Wagner 1982 p 79 Wagner 1982 p 78 79 Dunstan Simon 2013 Israeli Fortifications of the October War 1973 Osprey Publishing p 16 ISBN 9781782004318 Retrieved 25 October 2015 The War of Attrition was also notable for the first use of UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles carrying reconnaissance cameras in combat Saxena V K 2013 The Amazing Growth and Journey of UAV s and Ballistic Missile Defence Capabilities Where the Technology is Leading to Vij Books India Pvt Ltd p 6 ISBN 9789382573807 Retrieved 25 October 2015 During the Yom Kippur War the Israelis used Teledyne Ryan 124 R RPVs along with the home grown Scout and Mastiff UAVs for reconnaissance surveillance and as decoys to draw fire from Arab SAMs This resulted in Arab forces expending costly and scarce missiles on inappropriate targets Blum Howard 2003 The eve of destruction the untold story of the Yom Kippur War HarperCollins ISBN 9780060013998 Wagner 1982 p 202 Wagner 1982 p 200 212 a b Wagner 1982 p 208 A Brief History of UAVs Howstuffworks com 22 July 2008 Retrieved 8 January 2015 Russia Buys A Bunch of Israeli UAVs Strategypage com Retrieved 8 January 2015 Azoulai Yuval 24 October 2011 Unmanned combat vehicles shaping future warfare Globes Retrieved 8 January 2015 Levinson Charles 13 January 2010 Israeli Robots Remake Battlefield The Wall Street Journal p A10 Retrieved 13 January 2010 Gal Or Benjamin 1990 Vectored Propulsion Supermaneuverability amp Robot Aircraft Springer Verlag ISBN 978 3 540 97161 0 Z Goraj A Frydrychewicz R Switkiewicz B Hernik J Gadomski T Goetzendorf Grabowski M Figat St Suchodolski W Chajec report PDF Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences Volume 52 Number 3 2004 Retrieved 9 December 2015 Community Research and Development Information Service Civil uav application and economic effectiveness of potential configuration solutions published by the Publications Office of the European Union Retrieved 9 December 2015 Ackerman Spencer Shachtman Noah 9 January 2012 Almost 1 in 3 U S Warplanes Is a Robot WIRED Retrieved 8 January 2015 a b Singer Peter W A Revolution Once More Unmanned Systems and the Middle East Archived 6 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine The Brookings Institution November 2009 Radsan AJ Murphy 2011 Measure Twice Shoot Once Higher Care for Cia Targeted Killing Univ Ill Law Rev 1201 1241 Sayler 2015 Franke Ulrike Esther The global diffusion of unmanned aerial vehicles UAVs or drones in Mike Aaronson ed Precision Strike Warfare and International Intervention Routledge 2015 Hambling David Drones may have attacked humans fully autonomously for the first time New Scientist Retrieved 30 May 2021 Killer drone hunted down a human target without being told to New York Post 29 May 2021 Retrieved 30 May 2021 Forestier Walker Robin 13 October 2020 Nagorno Karabakh New weapons for an old conflict spell danger Al Jazeera Retrieved 18 December 2021 battlefield videos and the known military capabilities of the two warring sides suggest Azerbaijan has the technological advantage especially with its combat drones purchased from Israel and Turkey Bailon Ruiz Rafael Lacroix Simon Bit Monnot Arthur October 2018 Planning to Monitor Wildfires with a Fleet of UAVs 2018 IEEE RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems IROS Madrid IEEE 4729 4734 doi 10 1109 IROS 2018 8593859 ISBN 978 1 5386 8094 0 Model airplane history maker Maynard Hill dies at the age of 85 Washington Post Chirarattananon Pakpong Ma Kevin Y Wood J 22 May 2014 Adaptive control of a millimeter scale flapping wing robot PDF Bioinspiration amp Biomimetics 9 2 025004 Bibcode 2014BiBi 9b5004C CiteSeerX 10 1 1 650 3728 doi 10 1088 1748 3182 9 2 025004 PMID 24855052 S2CID 12799012 archived from the original PDF on 16 April 2016 Sarah Knapton 29 March 2016 Giant remote controlled beetles and biobot insects could replace drones The Telegraph Archived from the original on 1 April 2016 a b c Floreano Dario Wood Robert J 27 May 2015 Science technology and the future of small autonomous drones Nature 521 7553 460 466 Bibcode 2015Natur 521 460F doi 10 1038 nature14542 PMID 26017445 S2CID 4463263 Fasano Giancarmine Accardo Domenico Tirri Anna Elena Moccia Antonio De Lellis Ettore 1 October 2015 Radar electro optical data fusion for non cooperative UAS sense and avoid Aerospace Science and Technology 46 436 450 doi 10 1016 j ast 2015 08 010 Arduino Playground WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF playground arduino cc Retrieved 4 February 2016 Manfreda Salvatore McCabe Matthew Miller Pauline Lucas Richard Pajuelo Madrigal Victor Mallinis Giorgos Ben Dor Eyal Helman David Estes Lyndon Ciraolo Giuseppe Mullerova Jana Tauro Flavia de Lima M de Lima Joao Maltese Antonino 20 April 2018 On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring Remote Sensing 10 4 641 doi 10 3390 rs10040641 ISSN 2072 4292 Carlson Daniel F Rysgaard Soren 1 January 2018 Adapting open source drone autopilots for real time iceberg observations MethodsX 5 1059 1072 doi 10 1016 j mex 2018 09 003 ISSN 2215 0161 PMC 6139390 PMID 30225206 Lesko J Schreiner M Megyesi D Kovacs Levente November 2019 Pixhawk PX 4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane 2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation MOSATT Kosice Slovakia IEEE 90 93 doi 10 1109 MOSATT48908 2019 8944101 ISBN 978 1 7281 5083 3 S2CID 209695691 Pierre Jean Bristeau Francois Callou David Vissiere Nicolas Petit 2011 The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR Drone micro UAV PDF IFAC World Congress Cellular enables safer drone deployments Qualcomm Retrieved 9 May 2018 Identifying Critical Manned Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators PDF U S Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences September 2012 Archived PDF from the original on 6 February 2016 Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT 2020 radio interface s www itu int Retrieved 8 October 2020 Automated Vehicles for Safety NHTSA www nhtsa gov Retrieved 8 October 2021 Clough Bruce August 2002 Metrics Schmetrics How The Heck Do You Determine A UAV s Autonomy Anyway US Air Force Research Laboratory Archived from the original on 24 September 2020 Davenport Christian 23 April 2015 Watch a step in Navy history an autonomous drone gets refueled mid air The Washington Post ISSN 0190 8286 Retrieved 3 February 2016 Kakaletsis Efstratios Symeonidis Charalampos Tzelepi Maria Mademlis Ioannis Tefas Anastasios Nikolaidis Nikos Pitas Ioannis 2021 Computer Vision for Autonomous UAV Flight Safety An Overview and a Vision based Safe Landing Pipeline Example ACM Computing Surveys New York NY ACM 54 9 1 37 doi 10 1145 3472288 S2CID 241273504 Teaching tiny drones how to fly themselves Ars Technica 27 November 2012 Retrieved 4 February 2016 Biomimetics and Dextrous Manipulation Lab MultiModalRobots bdml stanford edu Retrieved 21 March 2016 D Andrea Raffaello The astounding athletic power of quadcopters www ted com Retrieved 4 February 2016 Yanguo Song Huanjin Wang 1 June 2009 Design of Flight Control System for a Small Unmanned Tilt Rotor Aircraft Chinese Journal of Aeronautics 22 3 250 256 doi 10 1016 S1000 9361 08 60095 3 The device designed for landing UAV helicopter type on a flat vertical surface patents google com Inc Pelonis Technologies The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance Retrieved 22 June 2018 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a last has generic name help yeair The quadcopter of the future From 1399 Kickstarter Retrieved 4 February 2016 Flying on Hydrogen Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Georgia Tech Research Institute www gtri gatech edu Retrieved 4 February 2016 Hydrogen powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time www gizmag com 20 May 2015 Retrieved 4 February 2016 Gibbs Yvonne 31 March 2015 NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet Beamed Laser Power for UAVs NASA Retrieved 22 June 2018 Vertical Challenge Monsters of the sky PDF archived from the original PDF on 11 September 2013 General Atomics Gnat Designation systems net Retrieved 8 January 2015 UAV Notes Archived from the original on 30 July 2013 Trans atlantic Model Tam plannet21 com Archived from the original on 22 May 2016 Retrieved 8 January 2015 QinetiQ s Zephyr UAV exceeds official world record for longest duration unmanned flight Press release QinetiQ 10 September 2007 Archived from the original on 23 April 2011 Simonite Tom New Scientist Technology Blog Solar plane en route to everlasting flight New Scientist Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 Retrieved 8 January 2015 Northrop Grumman s Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33 Hour Flight Endurance Record Spacewar com Retrieved 27 August 2013 QinetiQ s Zephyr UAV flies for three and a half days to set unofficial world record for longest duration unmanned flight Press release QinetiQ 24 August 2008 Archived from the original on 24 May 2011 QinetiQ files for three world records for its Zephyr Solar powered UAV QinetiQ Press release Qinetiq 24 August 2010 Archived from the original on 24 September 2010 Boniol December 2014 Towards Modular and Certified Avionics for UAV PDF Aerospacelab Journal D Boskovic and Knoebel 2009 A Comparison Study of Several Adaptive Control Strategies for Resilient Flight Control PDF AIAA Guidance Navigation andControl Conference Archived from the original PDF on 4 February 2016 Atkins Certifiable Autonomous Flight Management for Unmanned Aircraft Systems University of Michigan Subhav Pradhan William Otte Abhishek Dubey Aniruddha Gokhale Gabor Karsai 2013 Key Considerations for a Resilient and Autonomous Deployment and Configuration Infrastructure for Cyber Physical Systems PDF Dept of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Vanderbilt University Nashville How Autonomous Drone Flights Will Go Beyond Line of Sight Nanalyze 31 December 2019 McNabb Miriam 28 February 2020 Drones Get the Lights Back on Faster for Florida Communities DRONELIFE Peck Abe 19 March 2020 Coronavirus Spurs Percepto s Drone in a Box Surveillance Solution Inside Unmanned Systems Valle Roberto G January 2022 Rapid drone semi automated counts of wintering Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus as a tool for amateur researchers Ibis 164 1 320 328 doi 10 1111 ibi 12993 ISSN 0019 1019 S2CID 237865267 a b Mademlis Ioannis Nikolaidis Nikos Tefas Anastasios Pitas Ioannis Wagner Tilman Messina Alberto Autonomous UAV Cinematography A Tutorial and a Formalized Shot Type Taxonomy ACM org Association for Computing Machinery doi 10 1145 3347713 S2CID 202676119 Retrieved 3 November 2022 Horowitz Michael C 2020 Do Emerging Military Technologies Matter for International Politics Annual Review of Political Science 23 385 400 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 050718 032725 a b Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports Carnegie Endowment for International Retrieved 17 March 2022 a b c Turkey s defense industry targets more than 4 billion in exports this year Official Hurriyet Daily News 6 March 2022 Retrieved 17 March 2022 Combat drones in China are coming to a conflict near you www intelligent aerospace com a b c d e Market for Military Drones will Surge 27 October 2016 a b Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal TRTWORLD 23 January 2022 Retrieved 17 March 2022 a b Arnett George 16 March 2015 The numbers behind the worldwide trade in UAVs The Guardian Pentagon Plans for Cuts to Drone Budgets DoD Buzz 2 January 2014 Archived from the original on 8 January 2015 Retrieved 17 March 2022 Bateman Joshua 1 September 2017 China drone maker DJI Alone atop the unmanned skies News Ledge Friedman Lisa McCabe David 29 January 2020 Interior Dept Grounds Its Drones Over Chinese Spying Fears The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 29 January 2020 Retrieved 17 November 2020 Miller Maggie 8 October 2020 DOJ bans use of grant funds for certain foreign made drones TheHill Retrieved 17 November 2020 DJI MARKET SHARE HERE S EXACTLY HOW RAPIDLY IT HAS GROWN IN JUST A FEW YEARS Emberify Blog Retrieved 18 September 2018 UAS by the Numbers www faa gov Retrieved 24 May 2021 Consumer Drones By the Numbers in 2018 and Beyond News Ledge News Ledge 4 April 2017 Retrieved 13 October 2018 Skylark Drones set to raise its first round of funding to boost expansion 14 September 2015 Retrieved 28 August 2016 Peterson Andrea 19 August 2013 States are competing to be the Silicon Valley of drones The Washington Post ISSN 0190 8286 Retrieved 4 February 2016 Drone Training Courses The Complete List Drone Business Marketer Retrieved 1 December 2016 IDF buying mass market DJI drones Jane s 360 Archived from the original on 11 December 2017 The U S Military Shouldn t Use Commercial Drones slate August 2017 DJI Won the Drone Wars and Now It s Paying the Price Bloomberg com 26 March 2020 Retrieved 18 November 2020 大疆创新与新疆自治区公安厅结为警用无人机战略合作伙伴 YouUAV com 24 December 2017 Flying High pwc November 2018 Drone Light Shows Powered by Intel Intel Retrieved 28 June 2021 AERIGON cinema drone UAV pioneering in film production Ferreira Edgar Chandler Jim Wackrow Rene Shiono Koji April 2017 Automated extraction of free surface topography using SfM MVS photogrammetry Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 54 243 249 doi 10 1016 j flowmeasinst 2017 02 001 Reddy C Sudhakar Kurian Ayushi Srivastava Gaurav Singhal Jayant Varghese A O Padalia Hitendra Ayyappan N Rajashekar G Jha C S Rao P V N January 2021 Remote sensing enabled essential biodiversity variables for biodiversity assessment and monitoring technological advancement and potentials Biodiversity and Conservation 30 1 1 14 doi 10 1007 s10531 020 02073 8 ISSN 0960 3115 Goncalves Joao Henriques Renato Alves Paulo Sousa Silva Rita Monteiro Antonio T Lomba Angela Marcos Bruno Honrado Joao January 2016 Rocchini Duccio ed Evaluating an unmanned aerial vehicle based approach for assessing habitat extent and condition in fine scale early successional mountain mosaics Applied Vegetation Science 19 1 132 146 doi 10 1111 avsc 12204 Zhang Chunhua Kovacs John M December 2012 The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture a review Precision Agriculture 13 6 693 712 doi 10 1007 s11119 012 9274 5 ISSN 1385 2256 Perks Matthew T Russell Andrew J Large Andrew R G 5 October 2016 Technical Note Advances in flash flood monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles UAVs Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 20 10 4005 4015 doi 10 5194 hess 20 4005 2016 ISSN 1607 7938 Global Agriculture Drones and Robots Market Analysis amp Forecast 2018 2028 ResearchAndMarkets com finance yahoo com Retrieved 23 May 2019 Africa Farming Problems Aided With Drone Technology Drone Addicts 12 March 2018 Retrieved 23 May 2019 Drones That Launch Flaming Balls Are Being Tested To Help Fight Wildfires NPR org Old JM Lin S H Franklin MJM 2019 Mapping out bare nosed wombat Vombatus ursinus burrows with the use of a drone BMC Ecology 19 39 DOI 10 1186 s12898 019 0257 5 Faust Daniel R 2015 Police Drones 1 ed New York The Rosen Publishing Group Inc ISBN 9781508145028 Retrieved 20 February 2020 Dent Steve 16 October 2017 Drone hits a commercial plane for the first time in Canada Engadget Archived from the original on 16 October 2017 Retrieved 16 October 2017 Tellman Julie 28 September 2018 First ever recorded drone hot air balloon collision prompts safety conversation Teton Valley News Boise Idaho United States Boise Post Register Retrieved 3 October 2018 Drones need to be encouraged and people protected The Economist 26 January 2019 ProQuest 2171135630 Retrieved 28 June 2020 Halon Eytan 21 December 2018 Israeli anti drone technology brings an end to Gatwick Airport chaos International news Jerusalem Post jpost com Retrieved 22 December 2018 Matthew Weaver Damien Gayle Patrick Greenfield Frances Perraudin 20 December 2018 Military called in to help with Gatwick drone crisis The Guardian Retrieved 22 December 2018 In The Heat of the Moment Drones Are Getting in the Way of Firefighters NPR org Michael Martinez Paul Vercammen Ben Brumfield Drones visit California wildfire angering firefighters CNN Medina Jennifer 19 July 2015 Chasing Video With Drones Hobbyists Imperil California Firefighting Efforts Archived from the original on 21 July 2015 via NYTimes com Rocha Veronica 21 July 2015 Attack on the drones Legislation could allow California firefighters to take them down via LA Times Prisons Work To Keep Out Drug Smuggling Drones NPR org Mike Mount Elaine Quijano Iraqi insurgents hacked Predator drone feeds U S official indicates CNN com Retrieved 6 December 2016 Walters Sander 29 October 2016 How Can Drones Be Hacked The updated list of vulnerable drones amp attack tools Medium Retrieved 6 December 2016 Glaser April 4 January 2017 The U S government showed just how easy it is to hack drones made by Parrot DBPower and Cheerson Recode Retrieved 6 January 2017 Anti drone technology to be test flown on UK base amid terror fears 6 March 2017 Retrieved 9 May 2017 Isaac Medina Brian K S Poyser Matthew Organisciak Daniel Willcocks Chris G Breckon Toby P Shum Hubert P H 2021 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Visual Detection and Tracking using Deep Neural Networks A Performance Benchmark pp 1223 1232 arXiv 2103 13933 Organisciak Daniel Poyser Matthew Alsehaim Aishah Hu Shanfeng Isaac Medina Brian K S Breckon Toby P Shum Hubert P H 2022 UAV ReID A Benchmark on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Re identification in Video Imagery Proceedings of the 17th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications SciTePress pp 136 146 arXiv 2104 06219 doi 10 5220 0010836600003124 ISBN 978 989 758 555 5 Heathrow picks C UAS to combat drone disruption Retrieved 13 March 2019 Muscat International Airport to install USD10 million Aaronia counter UAS system Retrieved 21 January 2019 Grand Clement Sarah Bajon Theo 19 October 2022 Uncrewed Aerial Systems A Primer United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research Hartley John Shum Hubert P H Ho Edmond S L Wang He Ramamoorthy Subramanian 2022 Formation Control for UAVs Using a Flux Guided Approach Expert Systems with Applications Elsevier 205 117665 arXiv 2103 09184 doi 10 1016 j eswa 2022 117665 ISSN 0957 4174 S2CID 232240581 What is unmanned traffic management Airbus Airbus Retrieved 28 January 2021 Cary Leslie Coyne James ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems UAS Circular 328 2011 2012 UAS Yearbook UAS The Global Perspective PDF Blyenburgh amp Co pp 112 115 Archived from the original PDF on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 26 February 2022 Boedecker Hendrik The 2021 Drone Regulation What is new What is planned Drone Industry Insights Retrieved 17 May 2021 UAS Remote Identification Overview www faa gov Retrieved 29 May 2021 FAA Legal Battle Challenging Remote ID RaceDayQuads Retrieved 29 May 2021 Bibliography Edit Axe David Drone War Vietnam Pen amp Sword Military Great Britain 2021 ISBN 978 1 52677 026 4 Sayler Kelley June 2015 A world of proliferated drones a technology primer PDF Center for a New American Security Archived from the original PDF on 6 March 2016 Wagner William 1982 Lightning Bugs and other Reconnaissance Drones The can do story of Ryan s unmanned spy planes Armed Forces Journal International Aero Publishers ISBN 978 0 8168 6654 0Further reading EditJavier Garcia Bernardoa Peter Sheridan Dodds Neil F Johnson 2016 Quantitative patterns in drone wars PDF Science direct Archived from the original PDF on 6 February 2016 Hill J amp Rogers A 2014 The rise of the drones From The Great War to Gaza Vancouver Island University Arts amp Humanities Colloquium Series Rogers A amp Hill J 2014 Unmanned Drone warfare and global security Between the Lines ISBN 9781771131544External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Unmanned aerial vehicles Wikiquote has quotations related to Drones How Intelligent Drones Are Shaping the Future of Warfare Rolling Stone Magazine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Unmanned aerial vehicle amp oldid 1133634229, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.