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Louse

Louse (pl.: lice) is the common name for any member of the clade Phthiraptera, which contains nearly 5,000 species of wingless parasitic insects. Phthiraptera has variously been recognized as an order, infraorder, or a parvorder, as a result of developments in phylogenetic research.[1][2][3]

Phthiraptera
Temporal range: Cenomanian–present
Light micrograph of Fahrenholzia pinnata
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Psocodea
Suborder: Troctomorpha
Infraorder: Nanopsocetae
Parvorder: Phthiraptera
Haeckel, 1896
Clades[1]

Lice are obligate parasites, living externally on warm-blooded hosts which include every species of bird and mammal, except for monotremes, pangolins, and bats. Lice are vectors of diseases such as typhus.

Chewing lice live among the hairs or feathers of their host and feed on skin and debris, whereas sucking lice pierce the host's skin and feed on blood and other secretions. They usually spend their whole life on a single host, cementing their eggs, called nits, to hairs or feathers. The eggs hatch into nymphs, which moult three times before becoming fully grown, a process that takes about four weeks. Genetic evidence indicates that lice are a highly modified lineage of Psocoptera (now called Psocodea), commonly known as booklice, barklice or barkflies. The oldest known fossil lice are from the Cretaceous.[4]

Humans host two species of louse—the head louse and the body louse are subspecies of Pediculus humanus; and the pubic louse, Pthirus pubis. The body louse has the smallest genome of any known insect; it has been used as a model organism and has been the subject of much research. Lice were ubiquitous in human society until at least the Middle Ages. They appear in folktales, songs such as The Kilkenny Louse House, and novels such as James Joyce's Finnegans Wake. They commonly feature in the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis. A louse was one of the early subjects of microscopy, appearing in Robert Hooke's 1667 book, Micrographia.

Morphology and diversity

Lice are divided into two groups: sucking lice, which obtain their nourishment from feeding on the sebaceous secretions and body fluids of their host; and chewing lice, which are scavengers, feeding on skin, fragments of feathers or hair, and debris found on the host's body. Many lice are specific to a single species of host and have co-evolved with it. In some cases, they live on only a particular part of the body. Some animals are known to host up to fifteen different species, although one to three is typical for mammals, and two to six for birds. Lice generally cannot survive for long if removed from their host.[5] If their host dies, lice can opportunistically use phoresis to hitch a ride on a fly and attempt to find a new host.[6]

Sucking lice range in length from 0.5 to 5 mm (164 to 1364 in). They have narrow heads and oval, flattened bodies. They have no ocelli, and their compound eyes are reduced in size or absent. Their antennae are short with three to five segments, and their mouthparts, which are retractable into their head, are adapted for piercing and sucking.[7] There is a cibarial pump at the start of the gut; it is powered by muscles attached to the inside of the cuticle of the head. The mouthparts consist of a proboscis which is toothed, and a set of stylets arranged in a cylinder inside the proboscis, containing a salivary canal (ventrally) and a food canal (dorsally).[8] The thoracic segments are fused, the abdominal segments are separate, and there is a single large claw at the tip of each of the six legs.[7]

Chewing lice are also flattened and can be slightly larger than sucking lice, ranging in length from 0.5 to 6 mm (164 to 1564 in). They are similar to sucking lice in form but the head is wider than the thorax and all species have compound eyes. There are no ocelli and the mouthparts are adapted for chewing. The antennae have three to five segments and are slender in the suborder Ischnocera, but club-shaped in the suborder Amblycera. The legs are short and robust, and terminated by one or two claws. Some species of chewing lice house symbiotic bacteria in bacteriocytes in their bodies. These may assist in digestion because if the insect is deprived of them, it will die. Lice are usually cryptically coloured to match the fur or feathers of the host.[7][9] A louse's color varies from pale beige to dark gray; however, if feeding on blood, it may become considerably darker.

Female lice are usually more common than males, and some species are parthenogenetic, with young developing from unfertilized eggs. A louse's egg is commonly called a nit. Many lice attach their eggs to their hosts' hair with specialized saliva; the saliva/hair bond is very difficult to sever without specialized products. Lice inhabiting birds, however, may simply leave their eggs in parts of the body inaccessible to preening, such as the interior of feather shafts. Living louse eggs tend to be pale whitish, whereas dead louse eggs are yellower.[5] Lice are exopterygotes, being born as miniature versions of the adult, known as nymphs. The young moult three times before reaching the final adult form, usually within a month after hatching.[5]

Humans host three different kinds of lice: head lice, body lice, and pubic lice. Head lice and body lice are subspecies of Pediculus humanus, and pubic lice are a separate species, Pthirus pubis. Lice infestations can be controlled with lice combs, and medicated shampoos or washes.[10]

Ecology

The average number of lice per host tends to be higher in large-bodied bird species than in small ones.[11] Lice have an aggregated distribution across bird individuals, i.e. most lice live on a few birds, while most birds are relatively free of lice. This pattern is more pronounced in territorial than in colonial—more social—bird species.[12] Host organisms that dive under water to feed on aquatic prey harbor fewer taxa of lice.[13][14] Bird taxa that are capable of exerting stronger antiparasitic defense—such as stronger T cell immune response or larger uropygial glands—harbor more taxa of Amblyceran lice than others.[15][16] Reductions in the size of host populations may cause a long-lasting reduction of louse taxonomic richness,[17] for example, birds introduced into New Zealand host fewer species of lice there than in Europe.[18][19] Louse sex ratios are more balanced in more social hosts and more female-biased in less social hosts, presumably due to the stronger isolation among louse subpopulations (living on separate birds) in the latter case.[20] The extinction of a species results in the extinction of its host-specific lice. Host-switching is a random event that would seem very rarely likely to be successful, but speciation has occurred over evolutionary time-scales so it must be successfully accomplished sometimes.[17]

Lice may reduce host life expectancy if the infestation is heavy,[21] but most seem to have little effect on their host. The habit of dust bathing in domestic hens is probably an attempt by the birds to rid themselves of lice.[7] Lice may transmit microbial diseases and helminth parasites,[22] but most individuals spend their whole life cycle on a single host and are only able to transfer to a new host opportunistically.[7] Ischnoceran lice may reduce the thermoregulation effect of the plumage; thus heavily infested birds lose more heat than others.[23] Lice infestation is a disadvantage in the context of sexual rivalry.[24][25]

Evolution

Phthiraptera lice are members of Psocodea (formerly Psocoptera), the order that contains booklice, barklice and barkflies. Within Psocodea, lice are within the suborder Troctomorpha, and most closely related to the family Liposcelididae.[26] The oldest confirmed fossil louse is Archimenopon myanmarensis, an amblyceran from the Cretaceous amber from Myanmar.[4] Another early representative of the group is a bird louse, Megamenopon rasnitsyni, from Eckfelder Maar, Germany, which dates to the Eocene, around 44 million years ago.[27] Saurodectes vrsanskyi from the Early Cretaceous (Aptian) Zaza Formation of Buryatia, Russia, has also been suggested to be a louse, but this is tentative.[28]

Cladogram showing the position of Phthiraptera within Psocodea:[1]

Classification

Phthiraptera is clearly a monophyletic grouping, united as the members are by a number of derived features including their parasitism on warm-blooded vertebrates and the combination of their metathoracic ganglia with their abdominal ganglia to form a single ventral nerve junction.[29] The order has traditionally been divided into two suborders, the sucking lice (Anoplura) and the chewing lice (Mallophaga); however, subsequent classifications suggest that the Mallophaga are paraphyletic and four suborders were then recognized:[30]

  • Anoplura: sucking lice, occurring on mammals exclusively
  • Rhynchophthirina: parasites of elephants and warthogs
  • Ischnocera: mostly avian chewing lice, with one family parasitizing mammals
  • Amblycera: a primitive suborder of chewing lice, widespread on birds, and also occurring on South American and Australian mammals

Upon finding that Phthiraptera was nested within Psocoptera, Phthiraptera, in 2021 de Moya et al. proposed reducing the rank of Phthiraptera to infraorder, and the four suborders to parvorder.[1] These changes were accepted by Psocodea Species File and others, with the exception of placing Phthiraptera under the infraorder Nanopsocetae, as a parvorder, with the four subgroups listed above. These classifications are likely to change in the future as a result of ongoing phylogenetic research.[2][3]

Nearly 5,000 species of louse have been identified, about 4,000 being parasitic on birds and 800 on mammals. Lice are present on every continent in all the habitats that their host animals occupy.[30] They are found even in the Antarctic, where penguins carry 15 species of lice (in the genera Austrogonoides and Nesiotinus).[31] The oldest known record of the group is Megamenopon rasnitsyni from the Eocene of Germany, but it is essentially a modern form, belonging to Amblycera, so the group as a whole likely has an origin in the Mesozoic.[27]

Phylogeny

Lice have been the subject of significant DNA research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution. The three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera, Pediculus and Pthirus: head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis), body lice (Pediculus humanus humanus), and pubic lice (Pthirus pubis). Human head and body lice (genus Pediculus) share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice, while pubic lice (genus Pthirus) share a common ancestor with gorilla lice. Using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis, Reed et al. hypothesized that Pediculus and Pthirus are sister taxa and monophyletic.[32] In other words, the two genera descended from the same common ancestor. The age of divergence between Pediculus and its common ancestor is estimated to be 6-7 million years ago, which matches the age predicted by chimpanzee-hominid divergence.[32] Because parasites rely on their hosts, host–parasite cospeciation events are likely.

Genetic evidence suggests that human ancestors acquired pubic lice from gorillas approximately 3-4 million years ago.[32] Unlike the genus Pediculus, the divergence in Pthirus does not match the age of host divergence that likely occurred 7 million years ago. Reed et al. propose a Pthirus species host-switch around 3-4 million years ago. While it is difficult to determine if a parasite–host switch occurred in evolutionary history, this explanation is the most parsimonious (containing the fewest evolutionary changes).[32]

Additionally, the DNA differences between head lice and body lice provide corroborating evidence that humans used clothing between 80,000 and 170,000 years ago, before leaving Africa.[33] Human head and body lice occupy distinct ecological zones: head lice live and feed on the scalp, while body lice live on clothing and feed on the body. Because body lice require clothing to survive, the divergence of head and body lice from their common ancestor provides an estimate of the date of introduction of clothing in human evolutionary history.[33][34]

The mitochondrial genome of the human species of the body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus), the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis) and the pubic louse (Pthirus pubis) fragmented into a number of minichromosomes, at least seven million years ago.[35] Analysis of mitochondrial DNA in human body and hair lice reveals that greater genetic diversity existed in African than in non-African lice.[34][36] Human lice can also shed light on human migratory patterns in prehistory. The dominating theory of anthropologists regarding human migration is the Out of Africa Hypothesis. Genetic diversity accumulates over time, and mutations occur at a relatively constant rate. Because there is more genetic diversity in African lice, the lice and their human hosts must have existed in Africa before anywhere else.[36]

In human culture

In social history

 
Drawing of a louse clinging to a human hair. Robert Hooke, Micrographia, 1667

Lice have been intimately associated with human society throughout history. In the Middle Ages, they were essentially ubiquitous. At the death of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury in 1170, it was recorded that "The vermin boiled over like water in a simmering cauldron, and the onlookers burst into alternate weeping and laughing".[37] The clergy often saw lice and other parasites as a constant reminder of human frailty and weakness. Monks and nuns would purposely ignore grooming themselves and suffer from infestations to express their religious devotion.[38] A mediaeval treatment for lice was an ointment made from pork grease, incense, lead, and aloe.[39]

Robert Hooke's 1667 book, Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and Inquiries thereupon, illustrated a human louse, drawn as seen down an early microscope.[40]

Margaret Cavendish's satirical The Description of a New World, Called The Blazing-World (1668) has "Lice-men" as "mathematicians", investigating nature by trying to weigh the air like the real scientist Robert Boyle.[41][42]

In 1935 the Harvard medical researcher Hans Zinsser wrote the book Rats, Lice and History, alleging that both body and head lice transmit typhus between humans.[43] Despite this, the modern view is that only the body louse can transmit the disease.[44]

 
Detail showing delousing from Jan Siberechts' painting Cour de ferme ("Farmyard"), 1662

Soldiers in the trenches of the First World War suffered severely from lice, and the typhus they carried. The Germans boasted that they had lice under effective control, but themselves suffered badly from lice in the Second World War on the Eastern Front, especially in the Battle of Stalingrad. "Delousing" became a euphemism for the extermination of Jews in concentration camps such as Auschwitz under the Nazi regime.[45]

In the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis, patients express a persistent irrational fear of animals such as lice and mites, imagining that they are continually infested and complaining of itching, with "an unshakable false belief that live organisms are present in the skin".[46]

In science

The human body louse Pediculus humanus humanus has (2010) the smallest insect genome known.[47] This louse can transmit certain diseases while the human head louse (P. h. capitis), to which it is closely related, cannot. With their simple life history and small genomes, the pair make ideal model organisms to study the molecular mechanisms behind the transmission of pathogens and vector competence.[48]

In literature and folklore

 
Mother Louse, a notorious alewife in Oxford during the mid-18th century, shown with three lice as a coat of arms. Image by David Loggan.[49][50]

James Joyce's 1939 book Finnegans Wake has the character Shem the Penman infested with "foxtrotting fleas, the lieabed lice, ... bats in his belfry".[51]

Clifford E. Trafzer's A Chemehuevi Song: The Resilience of a Southern Paiute Tribe retells the story of Sinawavi (Coyote)'s love for Poowavi (Louse). Her eggs are sealed in a basket woven by her mother, who gives it to Coyote, instructing him not to open it before he reaches home. Hearing voices coming from it, however, Coyote opens the basket and the people, the world's first human beings, pour out of it in all directions.[52]

The Irish songwriter John Lyons (b. 1934) wrote the popular[53] song The Kilkenny Louse House. The song contains the lines "Well we went up the stairs and we put out the light, Sure in less than five minutes, I had to show fight. For the fleas and the bugs they collected to march, And over me stomach they formed a great arch". It has been recorded by Christie Purcell (1952), Mary Delaney on From Puck to Appleby (2003), and the Dubliners on Double Dubliners (1972) among others.[53][54]

Robert Burns dedicated a poem to the louse, inspired by witnessing one on a lady's bonnet in church: "Ye ugly, creepin, blastid wonner, Detested, shunn'd, by saint and sinner, How dare ye set your fit upon her, sae fine lady! Gae somewhere else, and seek your dinner on some poor body." John Milton in Paradise Lost mentioned the biblical plague of lice visited upon pharaoh: "Frogs, lice, and flies must all his palace fill with loathed intrusion, and filled all the land." John Ray recorded a Scottish proverb, "Gie a beggar a bed and he'll repay you with a Louse." In Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida, Thersites compares Menelaus, brother of Agamemnon, to a louse: "Ask me not what I would be, if I were not Thersites; for I care not to be the louse of a lazar, so I were not Menelaus."[55]

Woodlouse

The name woodlouse or wood-louse is given to crustaceans of the suborder Oniscidea within the order Isopoda, unrelated to lice. The Oxford English Dictionary's earliest citation of this usage is from 1611.[56]

See also

References

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  53. ^ a b Carroll J. "Songs of Clare: The Kilkenny Louse House". Clare Library. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  54. ^ Scott B (2013). "My Colleen by the Shore" (PDF). Veteran. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  55. ^ Twinn CR (1942). Insect Life in the Poetry and Drama of England: With Special Reference to Poetry (PhD thesis). University of Ottawa. hdl:10393/21088.
  56. ^ "Woodlouse". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

External links

louse, lice, redirects, here, infection, pediculosis, district, diyarbakır, province, turkey, lice, turkey, episode, office, lice, office, other, uses, disambiguation, lice, common, name, member, clade, phthiraptera, which, contains, nearly, species, wingless,. Lice redirects here For the infection see Pediculosis For the district of Diyarbakir Province in Turkey see Lice Turkey For the episode of The Office see Lice The Office For other uses see Louse disambiguation Louse pl lice is the common name for any member of the clade Phthiraptera which contains nearly 5 000 species of wingless parasitic insects Phthiraptera has variously been recognized as an order infraorder or a parvorder as a result of developments in phylogenetic research 1 2 3 PhthirapteraTemporal range Cenomanian present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NLight micrograph of Fahrenholzia pinnataScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ArthropodaClass InsectaOrder PsocodeaSuborder TroctomorphaInfraorder NanopsocetaeParvorder PhthirapteraHaeckel 1896Clades 1 Amblycera Anoplura Rhyncophthirina Ischnocera Trichodectera Lice are obligate parasites living externally on warm blooded hosts which include every species of bird and mammal except for monotremes pangolins and bats Lice are vectors of diseases such as typhus Chewing lice live among the hairs or feathers of their host and feed on skin and debris whereas sucking lice pierce the host s skin and feed on blood and other secretions They usually spend their whole life on a single host cementing their eggs called nits to hairs or feathers The eggs hatch into nymphs which moult three times before becoming fully grown a process that takes about four weeks Genetic evidence indicates that lice are a highly modified lineage of Psocoptera now called Psocodea commonly known as booklice barklice or barkflies The oldest known fossil lice are from the Cretaceous 4 Humans host two species of louse the head louse and the body louse are subspecies of Pediculus humanus and the pubic louse Pthirus pubis The body louse has the smallest genome of any known insect it has been used as a model organism and has been the subject of much research Lice were ubiquitous in human society until at least the Middle Ages They appear in folktales songs such as The Kilkenny Louse House and novels such as James Joyce s Finnegans Wake They commonly feature in the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis A louse was one of the early subjects of microscopy appearing in Robert Hooke s 1667 book Micrographia Contents 1 Morphology and diversity 2 Ecology 3 Evolution 3 1 Classification 3 2 Phylogeny 4 In human culture 4 1 In social history 4 2 In science 4 3 In literature and folklore 4 4 Woodlouse 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksMorphology and diversityLice are divided into two groups sucking lice which obtain their nourishment from feeding on the sebaceous secretions and body fluids of their host and chewing lice which are scavengers feeding on skin fragments of feathers or hair and debris found on the host s body Many lice are specific to a single species of host and have co evolved with it In some cases they live on only a particular part of the body Some animals are known to host up to fifteen different species although one to three is typical for mammals and two to six for birds Lice generally cannot survive for long if removed from their host 5 If their host dies lice can opportunistically use phoresis to hitch a ride on a fly and attempt to find a new host 6 Sucking lice range in length from 0 5 to 5 mm 1 64 to 13 64 in They have narrow heads and oval flattened bodies They have no ocelli and their compound eyes are reduced in size or absent Their antennae are short with three to five segments and their mouthparts which are retractable into their head are adapted for piercing and sucking 7 There is a cibarial pump at the start of the gut it is powered by muscles attached to the inside of the cuticle of the head The mouthparts consist of a proboscis which is toothed and a set of stylets arranged in a cylinder inside the proboscis containing a salivary canal ventrally and a food canal dorsally 8 The thoracic segments are fused the abdominal segments are separate and there is a single large claw at the tip of each of the six legs 7 Chewing lice are also flattened and can be slightly larger than sucking lice ranging in length from 0 5 to 6 mm 1 64 to 15 64 in They are similar to sucking lice in form but the head is wider than the thorax and all species have compound eyes There are no ocelli and the mouthparts are adapted for chewing The antennae have three to five segments and are slender in the suborder Ischnocera but club shaped in the suborder Amblycera The legs are short and robust and terminated by one or two claws Some species of chewing lice house symbiotic bacteria in bacteriocytes in their bodies These may assist in digestion because if the insect is deprived of them it will die Lice are usually cryptically coloured to match the fur or feathers of the host 7 9 A louse s color varies from pale beige to dark gray however if feeding on blood it may become considerably darker Female lice are usually more common than males and some species are parthenogenetic with young developing from unfertilized eggs A louse s egg is commonly called a nit Many lice attach their eggs to their hosts hair with specialized saliva the saliva hair bond is very difficult to sever without specialized products Lice inhabiting birds however may simply leave their eggs in parts of the body inaccessible to preening such as the interior of feather shafts Living louse eggs tend to be pale whitish whereas dead louse eggs are yellower 5 Lice are exopterygotes being born as miniature versions of the adult known as nymphs The young moult three times before reaching the final adult form usually within a month after hatching 5 Humans host three different kinds of lice head lice body lice and pubic lice Head lice and body lice are subspecies of Pediculus humanus and pubic lice are a separate species Pthirus pubis Lice infestations can be controlled with lice combs and medicated shampoos or washes 10 EcologyThe average number of lice per host tends to be higher in large bodied bird species than in small ones 11 Lice have an aggregated distribution across bird individuals i e most lice live on a few birds while most birds are relatively free of lice This pattern is more pronounced in territorial than in colonial more social bird species 12 Host organisms that dive under water to feed on aquatic prey harbor fewer taxa of lice 13 14 Bird taxa that are capable of exerting stronger antiparasitic defense such as stronger T cell immune response or larger uropygial glands harbor more taxa of Amblyceran lice than others 15 16 Reductions in the size of host populations may cause a long lasting reduction of louse taxonomic richness 17 for example birds introduced into New Zealand host fewer species of lice there than in Europe 18 19 Louse sex ratios are more balanced in more social hosts and more female biased in less social hosts presumably due to the stronger isolation among louse subpopulations living on separate birds in the latter case 20 The extinction of a species results in the extinction of its host specific lice Host switching is a random event that would seem very rarely likely to be successful but speciation has occurred over evolutionary time scales so it must be successfully accomplished sometimes 17 Lice may reduce host life expectancy if the infestation is heavy 21 but most seem to have little effect on their host The habit of dust bathing in domestic hens is probably an attempt by the birds to rid themselves of lice 7 Lice may transmit microbial diseases and helminth parasites 22 but most individuals spend their whole life cycle on a single host and are only able to transfer to a new host opportunistically 7 Ischnoceran lice may reduce the thermoregulation effect of the plumage thus heavily infested birds lose more heat than others 23 Lice infestation is a disadvantage in the context of sexual rivalry 24 25 EvolutionPhthiraptera lice are members of Psocodea formerly Psocoptera the order that contains booklice barklice and barkflies Within Psocodea lice are within the suborder Troctomorpha and most closely related to the family Liposcelididae 26 The oldest confirmed fossil louse is Archimenopon myanmarensis an amblyceran from the Cretaceous amber from Myanmar 4 Another early representative of the group is a bird louse Megamenopon rasnitsyni from Eckfelder Maar Germany which dates to the Eocene around 44 million years ago 27 Saurodectes vrsanskyi from the Early Cretaceous Aptian Zaza Formation of Buryatia Russia has also been suggested to be a louse but this is tentative 28 Cladogram showing the position of Phthiraptera within Psocodea 1 Psocodea Troctomorpha Phthiraptera PhilopteridaeAnopluraRhynchophthirinaTrichodectidaeAmblyceraLiposcelididaePachytroctidaeSphaeropsocidaeAmphientometaePsocomorpha HomilopsocideaCaeciliusetaePsocetaeEpipsocetaePhilotarsetaeArchipsocetaeTrogiomorpha AtropetaePsyllipsocetaePrionoglaridetae paraphyletic Classification Phthiraptera is clearly a monophyletic grouping united as the members are by a number of derived features including their parasitism on warm blooded vertebrates and the combination of their metathoracic ganglia with their abdominal ganglia to form a single ventral nerve junction 29 The order has traditionally been divided into two suborders the sucking lice Anoplura and the chewing lice Mallophaga however subsequent classifications suggest that the Mallophaga are paraphyletic and four suborders were then recognized 30 Anoplura sucking lice occurring on mammals exclusively Rhynchophthirina parasites of elephants and warthogs Ischnocera mostly avian chewing lice with one family parasitizing mammals Amblycera a primitive suborder of chewing lice widespread on birds and also occurring on South American and Australian mammalsUpon finding that Phthiraptera was nested within Psocoptera Phthiraptera in 2021 de Moya et al proposed reducing the rank of Phthiraptera to infraorder and the four suborders to parvorder 1 These changes were accepted by Psocodea Species File and others with the exception of placing Phthiraptera under the infraorder Nanopsocetae as a parvorder with the four subgroups listed above These classifications are likely to change in the future as a result of ongoing phylogenetic research 2 3 Nearly 5 000 species of louse have been identified about 4 000 being parasitic on birds and 800 on mammals Lice are present on every continent in all the habitats that their host animals occupy 30 They are found even in the Antarctic where penguins carry 15 species of lice in the genera Austrogonoides and Nesiotinus 31 The oldest known record of the group is Megamenopon rasnitsyni from the Eocene of Germany but it is essentially a modern form belonging to Amblycera so the group as a whole likely has an origin in the Mesozoic 27 nbsp Ricinus bombycillae an amblyceran louse from a Bohemian waxwing nbsp Trinoton anserinum an amblyceran louse from a mute swan nbsp Bovicola limbata an ischnoceran louse from goats The species is sexually dimorphic with the male smaller than the female Phylogeny Lice have been the subject of significant DNA research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution The three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera Pediculus and Pthirus head lice Pediculus humanus capitis body lice Pediculus humanus humanus and pubic lice Pthirus pubis Human head and body lice genus Pediculus share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice while pubic lice genus Pthirus share a common ancestor with gorilla lice Using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis Reed et al hypothesized that Pediculus and Pthirus are sister taxa and monophyletic 32 In other words the two genera descended from the same common ancestor The age of divergence between Pediculus and its common ancestor is estimated to be 6 7 million years ago which matches the age predicted by chimpanzee hominid divergence 32 Because parasites rely on their hosts host parasite cospeciation events are likely Genetic evidence suggests that human ancestors acquired pubic lice from gorillas approximately 3 4 million years ago 32 Unlike the genus Pediculus the divergence in Pthirus does not match the age of host divergence that likely occurred 7 million years ago Reed et al propose a Pthirus species host switch around 3 4 million years ago While it is difficult to determine if a parasite host switch occurred in evolutionary history this explanation is the most parsimonious containing the fewest evolutionary changes 32 Additionally the DNA differences between head lice and body lice provide corroborating evidence that humans used clothing between 80 000 and 170 000 years ago before leaving Africa 33 Human head and body lice occupy distinct ecological zones head lice live and feed on the scalp while body lice live on clothing and feed on the body Because body lice require clothing to survive the divergence of head and body lice from their common ancestor provides an estimate of the date of introduction of clothing in human evolutionary history 33 34 The mitochondrial genome of the human species of the body louse Pediculus humanus humanus the head louse Pediculus humanus capitis and the pubic louse Pthirus pubis fragmented into a number of minichromosomes at least seven million years ago 35 Analysis of mitochondrial DNA in human body and hair lice reveals that greater genetic diversity existed in African than in non African lice 34 36 Human lice can also shed light on human migratory patterns in prehistory The dominating theory of anthropologists regarding human migration is the Out of Africa Hypothesis Genetic diversity accumulates over time and mutations occur at a relatively constant rate Because there is more genetic diversity in African lice the lice and their human hosts must have existed in Africa before anywhere else 36 In human cultureFor information about human infestation see Pediculosis For information on treatment see Treatment of human head lice In social history nbsp Drawing of a louse clinging to a human hair Robert Hooke Micrographia 1667Lice have been intimately associated with human society throughout history In the Middle Ages they were essentially ubiquitous At the death of Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury in 1170 it was recorded that The vermin boiled over like water in a simmering cauldron and the onlookers burst into alternate weeping and laughing 37 The clergy often saw lice and other parasites as a constant reminder of human frailty and weakness Monks and nuns would purposely ignore grooming themselves and suffer from infestations to express their religious devotion 38 A mediaeval treatment for lice was an ointment made from pork grease incense lead and aloe 39 Robert Hooke s 1667 book Micrographia or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and Inquiries thereupon illustrated a human louse drawn as seen down an early microscope 40 Margaret Cavendish s satirical The Description of a New World Called The Blazing World 1668 has Lice men as mathematicians investigating nature by trying to weigh the air like the real scientist Robert Boyle 41 42 In 1935 the Harvard medical researcher Hans Zinsser wrote the book Rats Lice and History alleging that both body and head lice transmit typhus between humans 43 Despite this the modern view is that only the body louse can transmit the disease 44 nbsp Detail showing delousing from Jan Siberechts painting Cour de ferme Farmyard 1662Soldiers in the trenches of the First World War suffered severely from lice and the typhus they carried The Germans boasted that they had lice under effective control but themselves suffered badly from lice in the Second World War on the Eastern Front especially in the Battle of Stalingrad Delousing became a euphemism for the extermination of Jews in concentration camps such as Auschwitz under the Nazi regime 45 In the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis patients express a persistent irrational fear of animals such as lice and mites imagining that they are continually infested and complaining of itching with an unshakable false belief that live organisms are present in the skin 46 In science The human body louse Pediculus humanus humanus has 2010 the smallest insect genome known 47 This louse can transmit certain diseases while the human head louse P h capitis to which it is closely related cannot With their simple life history and small genomes the pair make ideal model organisms to study the molecular mechanisms behind the transmission of pathogens and vector competence 48 In literature and folklore nbsp Mother Louse a notorious alewife in Oxford during the mid 18th century shown with three lice as a coat of arms Image by David Loggan 49 50 James Joyce s 1939 book Finnegans Wake has the character Shem the Penman infested with foxtrotting fleas the lieabed lice bats in his belfry 51 Clifford E Trafzer s A Chemehuevi Song The Resilience of a Southern Paiute Tribe retells the story of Sinawavi Coyote s love for Poowavi Louse Her eggs are sealed in a basket woven by her mother who gives it to Coyote instructing him not to open it before he reaches home Hearing voices coming from it however Coyote opens the basket and the people the world s first human beings pour out of it in all directions 52 The Irish songwriter John Lyons b 1934 wrote the popular 53 song The Kilkenny Louse House The song contains the lines Well we went up the stairs and we put out the light Sure in less than five minutes I had to show fight For the fleas and the bugs they collected to march And over me stomach they formed a great arch It has been recorded by Christie Purcell 1952 Mary Delaney on From Puck to Appleby 2003 and the Dubliners on Double Dubliners 1972 among others 53 54 Robert Burns dedicated a poem to the louse inspired by witnessing one on a lady s bonnet in church Ye ugly creepin blastid wonner Detested shunn d by saint and sinner How dare ye set your fit upon her sae fine lady Gae somewhere else and seek your dinner on some poor body John Milton in Paradise Lost mentioned the biblical plague of lice visited upon pharaoh Frogs lice and flies must all his palace fill with loathed intrusion and filled all the land John Ray recorded a Scottish proverb Gie a beggar a bed and he ll repay you with a Louse In Shakespeare s Troilus and Cressida Thersites compares Menelaus brother of Agamemnon to a louse Ask me not what I would be if I were not Thersites for I care not to be the louse of a lazar so I were not Menelaus 55 Woodlouse The name woodlouse or wood louse is given to crustaceans of the suborder Oniscidea within the order Isopoda unrelated to lice The Oxford English Dictionary s earliest citation of this usage is from 1611 56 See alsoPest organism Use of DNA in forensic entomologyReferences a b c d de Moya Robert S Yoshizawa Kazunori Walden Kimberly K O Sweet Andrew D Dietrich Christopher H Kevin P Johnson 2021 06 16 Buckley Thomas ed Phylogenomics of Parasitic and Nonparasitic Lice Insecta Psocodea Combining Sequence Data and Exploring Compositional Bias Solutions in Next Generation Data Sets Systematic Biology 70 4 719 738 doi 10 1093 sysbio syaa075 ISSN 1063 5157 PMID 32979270 a b Johnson Kevin P Smith Vincent S 2021 Psocodea species file online Version 5 0 Retrieved 2021 11 03 a b Catalogue of Life Phthiraptera Haeckel 1896 2021 Retrieved 2021 11 03 a b Zhang Y Rasnitsyn A P Zhang W Song F Shih C Ren D Wang Y Li H Gao T 2024 Stem chewing lice on Cretaceous feathers preserved in amber Current Biology doi 10 1016 j cub 2024 01 027 a b c Hoell HV Doyen JT Purcell AH 1998 Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity 2nd ed Oxford University Press pp 407 409 ISBN 978 0 19 510033 4 Harbison CW 2008 Ecology and Evolution of Transmission in Feather feeding Lice Phthiraptera Ischnocera Department of Biology Doctoral thesis University of Utah pp 83 87 ISBN 978 0 549 46429 7 a href Template Cite thesis html title Template Cite thesis cite thesis a CS1 maint date and year link a b c d e Capinera JL 2008 Encyclopedia of Entomology Springer Science amp Business Media pp 838 844 ISBN 978 1 4020 6242 1 Gullan PJ Cranston PS 2014 The Insects An Outline of Entomology Wiley pp 41 42 ISBN 978 1 118 84615 5 Smith V Phthiraptera Summary Phthiraptera info Retrieved 25 October 2015 permanent dead link Mumcuoglu KY 1999 Prevention and treatment of head lice in children Paediatric Drugs 1 3 211 8 doi 10 2165 00128072 199901030 00005 PMID 10937452 S2CID 13547569 Rozsa 1997 Patterns in the abundance of avian lice Phthiraptera Amblycera Ischnocera PDF Journal of Avian Biology 28 3 249 254 doi 10 2307 3676976 JSTOR 3676976 Rekasi J Rozsa L Kiss BJ 1997 Patterns in the distribution of avian lice Phthiraptera Amblycera Ischnocera PDF Journal of Avian Biology 28 2 150 156 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 506 730 doi 10 2307 3677308 JSTOR 3677308 Felso B Rozsa L August 2006 Reduced taxonomic richness of lice Insecta Phthiraptera in diving birds The Journal of Parasitology 92 4 867 9 doi 10 1645 ge 849 1 PMID 16995408 S2CID 31000581 Felso B Rozsa L 2007 Diving behaviour reduces genera richness of lice Insecta Phthiraptera of mammals PDF Acta Parasitologica 52 82 85 doi 10 2478 s11686 007 0006 3 S2CID 38683871 Moller AP Rozsa L January 2005 Parasite biodiversity and host defenses chewing lice and immune response of their avian hosts Oecologia 142 2 169 76 Bibcode 2005Oecol 142 169M doi 10 1007 s00442 004 1735 8 PMID 15503162 S2CID 12992951 Moller AP Erritzoe J Rozsa L June 2010 Ectoparasites uropygial glands and hatching success in birds Oecologia 163 2 303 11 Bibcode 2010Oecol 163 303M doi 10 1007 s00442 009 1548 x PMID 20043177 S2CID 11433594 a b Rozsa L November 1993 Speciation patterns of ectoparasites and straggling lice International Journal for Parasitology 23 7 859 64 doi 10 1016 0020 7519 93 90050 9 PMID 8314369 Paterson AM Palma RL Gray RD 1999 How Frequently Do Avian Lice Miss the Boat Implications for Coevolutionary Studies Systematic Biology 48 214 223 doi 10 1080 106351599260544 MacLeod CJ Paterson AM Tompkins DM Duncan RP April 2010 Parasites lost do invaders miss the boat or drown on arrival Ecology Letters 13 4 516 27 doi 10 1111 j 1461 0248 2010 01446 x PMID 20455925 Rozsa L Rekasi J Reiczigel J 1996 Relationship of host coloniality to the population ecology of avian lice Insecta Phthiraptera PDF Journal of Animal Ecology 65 2 242 248 doi 10 2307 5727 JSTOR 5727 Brown CR Brown MB Rannala B 1995 Ectoparasites reduce long term survivorship of their avian host PDF Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 262 1365 313 319 doi 10 1098 rspb 1995 0211 S2CID 13869042 Barlett CM 1993 Lice Amblycera and Ischnocera as vectors of Eulimdana spp Nematoda Filarioidea in Charadriiform birds and the necessity of short reproductive periods in adult worms Journal of Parasitology 75 1 85 91 doi 10 2307 3283282 JSTOR 3283282 Booth DT Clayton DH Block BA 1993 Experimental demonstration of the energetic cost of parasitism in free ranging hosts PDF Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 253 1337 125 129 Bibcode 1993RSPSB 253 125B doi 10 1098 rspb 1993 0091 S2CID 85731062 Archived from the original PDF on 2010 06 10 Retrieved 2010 08 14 Clayton 1990 Mate choice in experimentally parasitized rock doves lousy males lose PDF American Zoologist 30 2 251 262 doi 10 1093 icb 30 2 251 Archived from the original PDF on 2010 06 10 Retrieved 2010 08 14 Garamszegi LZ Heylen D Moller AP Eens M De Lope F 2005 Age dependent health status and song characteristics Behavioral Ecology 16 3 580 591 doi 10 1093 beheco ari029 Light JE Smith VS Allen JM Durden LA Reed DL September 2010 Evolutionary history of mammalian sucking lice Phthiraptera Anoplura BMC Evolutionary Biology 10 1 292 doi 10 1186 1471 2148 10 292 PMC 2949877 PMID 20860811 a b Wappler T Smith VS Dalgleish RC August 2004 Scratching an ancient itch an Eocene bird louse fossil Proceedings Biological Sciences 271 Suppl 5 suppl 5 S255 8 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2003 0158 PMC 1810061 PMID 15503987 Rasnitsyn AP Zherikhin VV 1999 First fossil chewing louse from the lower Cretaceous of Baissa Transbaikalia Insecta Pediculida Phthiriaptera Saurodectidae fam n Russian Entomological Journal 8 4 253 5 Ax P 2013 Multicellular Animals Volume II The Phylogenetic System of the Metazoa Springer Science amp Business Media pp 303 307 ISBN 978 3 662 10396 8 a b Smith V Phthiraptera info International Society of Phthirapterists Retrieved 25 October 2015 Banks JC Paterson AM 2004 A penguin chewing louse Insecta Phthiraptera phylogeny derived from morphology Invertebrate Systematics 18 1 89 100 doi 10 1071 IS03022 S2CID 53516244 a b c d Reed DL Light JE Allen JM Kirchman JJ March 2007 Pair of lice lost or parasites regained the evolutionary history of anthropoid primate lice BMC Biology 5 7 7 doi 10 1186 1741 7007 5 7 PMC 1828715 PMID 17343749 a b Parry W 7 November 2013 Lice Reveal Clues to Human Evolution LiveScience Retrieved 25 October 2015 a b Kittler R Kayser M Stoneking M August 2003 Molecular evolution of Pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing Current Biology 13 16 1414 7 doi 10 1016 S0960 9822 03 00507 4 PMID 12932325 S2CID 15277254 Shao R Zhu XQ Barker SC Herd K 2012 Evolution of extensively fragmented mitochondrial genomes in the lice of humans Genome Biology and Evolution 4 11 1088 101 doi 10 1093 gbe evs088 PMC 3514963 PMID 23042553 a b Light JE Allen JM Long LM Carter TE Barrow L Suren G et al December 2008 Geographic distributions and origins of human head lice Pediculus humanus capitis based on mitochondrial data The Journal of Parasitology 94 6 1275 81 doi 10 1645 GE 1618 1 PMID 18576877 S2CID 9456340 Kowalski TJ Agger WA January 2009 Art supports new plague science Clinical Infectious Diseases 48 1 137 8 doi 10 1086 595557 PMID 19067623 Harvey Katherine 2019 04 09 Medieval people were surprisingly clean apart from the clergy Aeon Retrieved 2022 10 13 Elliott L 2004 Clothing in the Middle Ages Crabtree p 29 ISBN 978 0 7787 1351 7 Hooke R Microscopic view of a louse The Royal Society Retrieved 17 October 2015 Sarasohn LT 2010 The Natural Philosophy of Margaret Cavendish Reason and Fancy During the Scientific Revolution JHU Press pp 165 167 ISBN 978 0 8018 9443 5 The Bear men were to be her Experimental Philosophers the Bird men her Astronomers the Fly Worm and Fish men her Natural Philosophers the Ape men her Chymists the Satyrs her Galenick Physicians the Fox men her Politicians the Spider and Lice men her Mathematicians the Jackdaw Magpie and Parrot men her Orators and Logicians the Gyants her Architects amp c Cavendish M 1668 The Description of a New World Called the Blazing World A Maxwell Zinsser H 2007 1935 Rats Lice and History Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 1 4128 0672 5 Altschuler DZ 1990 Zinsser Lice and History HeadLice org Retrieved 19 October 2015 Evans RJ The Great Unwashed Gresham College Retrieved 17 October 2015 Weinstein P 26 February 2013 The Great Unwashed Entomophobia Delusionary Parasitosis Illusionary Parasitosis The Great Plagues Epidemics in History from the Middle Ages to the Present Day University of Sydney Department of Medical Entomology Archived from the original on 17 May 2016 Retrieved 17 October 2015 Kirkness EF Haas BJ Sun W Braig HR Perotti MA Clark JM et al July 2010 Genome sequences of the human body louse and its primary endosymbiont provide insights into the permanent parasitic lifestyle Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 27 12168 73 Bibcode 2010PNAS 10712168K doi 10 1073 pnas 1003379107 PMC 2901460 PMID 20566863 Pittendrigh BR Berenbaum MR Seufferheld MJ Margam VM Strycharz JP Yoon KS et al March 2011 Simplify simplify Lifestyle and compact genome of the body louse provide a unique functional genomics opportunity Communicative amp Integrative Biology 4 2 188 91 doi 10 4161 cib 4 2 14279 PMC 3104575 PMID 21655436 White W 1859 Notes amp Queries Oxford University Press pp 275 276 Pierce H 2004 Unseemly pictures political graphic satire in England c 1600 c 1650 PDF University of York Joyce J 1939 Finnegans Wake Faber p 180 Trafzer CE 2015 A Chemehuevi Song The Resilience of a Southern Paiute Tribe University of Washington Press pp 22 25 ISBN 978 0 295 80582 5 a b Carroll J Songs of Clare The Kilkenny Louse House Clare Library Retrieved 19 October 2015 Scott B 2013 My Colleen by the Shore PDF Veteran Retrieved 25 October 2015 Twinn CR 1942 Insect Life in the Poetry and Drama of England With Special Reference to Poetry PhD thesis University of Ottawa hdl 10393 21088 Woodlouse Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Phthiraptera nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Phthiraptera nbsp Look up louse in Wiktionary the free dictionary National Pesticide Information Center Understanding and Controlling Lice body and head lice on the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures Web site crab louse on the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures Web site Pediculus humanus capitis head louse facts myths life cycle at MetaPathogen Parasitic Insects Mites and Ticks Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance Wikibooks Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Louse amp oldid 1204279083, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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