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Gunther

January 26, 2023

For other uses, see Günther.

Gundaharius or Gundahar (died 437), better known by his legendary names Gunther (Middle High German: Gunther) or Gunnar (Old Norse: Gunnarr), was a historical king of Burgundy in the early 5th century. Gundahar is attested as ruling his people shortly after they crossed the Rhine into Roman Gaul. He was involved in the campaigns of the failed Roman usurper Jovinus before the latter's defeat, after which he was settled on the left bank of the Rhine as a Roman ally. In 436, Gundahar launched an attack from his kingdom on the Roman province of Belgica Prima. He was defeated by the Roman general Flavius Aetius, who destroyed Gundahar's kingdom with the help of Hunnish mercenaries the following year, resulting in Gundahar's death.

According to the Nibelungenlied (1859) by Peter von Cornelius, Gunther orders Hagen to drop the hoard into the Rhine.

The historical Gundahar's death became the basis for a tradition in Germanic heroic legend in which the legendary Gunther met his death at the court of Attila the Hun (Etzel/Atli). The character also became attached to other legends: most notably he is associated with Siegfried/Sigurd and Brunhild, and is implicated in Sigurd's murder. He also appears as an adversary in the legend of Walter of Aquitaine. It is generally assumed that Gunther's involvement in these other legends, in which he plays a secondary or antagonistic role, is a later development.[1] Gunther's importance in the story of the destruction of the Burgundians also waned with time.[2]

Gunther appears as a legendary character in Latin, Middle High German, Old Norse, and Old English texts, as well as in various pictorial depictions from Scandinavia. Most significantly, he plays a role in the German Nibelungenlied, the medieval Latin Waltharius, and the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Völsunga saga. He also plays an important role in Richard Wagner's operatic Ring cycle, which is based on the medieval legends of Sigurd.

Etymology

The first element of Gunther's name is Proto-Germanic *gunþ-, meaning war or conflict.[3] The second element is Proto-Germanic *-hari, meaning army.[4]

The name of the historical Gundahar is attested in the primary sources as Latin Gundaharius or Gundicharius and Greek Γυντιάριος (Gyntiarios).[5] Medieval Latin gives the name of the legendary figure as Guntharius, while Anglo-Saxon has Gūðhere, Old Norse has Gunnarr, and Middle High German has Gunther.[6]

Historical Gundahar

Gundahar is the first king of Burgundy to be historically attested.[5] It is unclear if he ruled alone or if he may have ruled together with brothers, as occurs in the heroic tradition; the title φύλαρχος (phylarchos) given to him by Olympiodorus of Thebes may suggest he was not the sole ruler.[5] In Prosper of Aquitaine he is identified as rex (king).[7]

A majority of the Burgundians crossed the Rhine in 406/407, together with numerous other Germanic tribes.[8] Their king Gundahar is first attested in 411 as cooperating with Goar, king of the Alans, to proclaim Jovinus as a new emperor in the province Germania Inferior on the lower Rhine.[5] He is attested as being involved in Jovinus's campaigns in southern Gaul.[5] Following Jovinus's defeat in 413, the Roman magister militum Constantius settled the Burgundians on the left bank of the Rhine as Roman foederati.[5] Based on the later heroic tradition, many scholars identify their area of settlement as around Worms, though some scholars have argued in favor of other locations.[5][9]

In the 430s, the Burgundians came under increasing pressure from the Huns; likely as a reaction to this Gundahar attacked the Roman province Belgica Prima (based around Trier) in 435.[7] The Burgundians were defeated by the Roman general Flavius Aetius, who nevertheless confirmed Gundahar and his people's rights to their kingdom.[7] However, the next year (436) Aetius, accompanied by Hunnish mercenaries, attacked and destroyed the Burgundian kingdom. According to Prosper of Aquitaine, Gundahar and the majority of his people found their deaths in Aetius's attack.[7][10]

Aetius resettled the survivors of the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom in Savoy on the upper Rhone.[10] The memory of Gundahar and his downfall was likely preserved by these survivors, as well as by observers from neighboring Germanic tribes.[11]

The late fifth-/early-sixth century Lex Burgundionum, produced by the Burgundian king Gundobad at the Burgundians' new kingdom, mentions four older Burgundian kings: Gibica, Gundomar, Gislaharius, and Gundahar. It makes no mention of any familial relationship between the kings, however.[12] In the heroic tradition, Gibica (Gibeche/Gjúki) appears as Gundahar's father, while Gundomar (Guthorm/Gernot) and Gislaharius (Giselher) appear as his brothers and co-kings.[12]

Anglo-Saxon traditions

Waldere

In the fragmentary Old English poem Waldere (c. 1000), the Old English attestation of the story of Walter of Aquitaine (see Waltharius under Continental traditions), Guðhere (Gunther) is preparing to attack Waldere (Walter). He refuses the gifts that Walther offers him to make peace and is portrayed as boastful.[13] It appears that Guðhere wishes to take the gold that Waldere has with him.[14]

Widsith

The narrator of the Old English poem Widsith reports that he was given a ring by Guðhere when he visited the Burgundians (Burgendas).[13]

Continental traditions

Waltharius

The Waltharius is a Latin epic that reworks the legend of Walter of Aquitaine; it is conventionally dated to around 1000, but some scholars argue that it was produced in the Carolingian period.[15]

In Waltharius, Gunther (as Guntharius) appears as a king of the Franks with his capital at Worms.[16] At the beginning of the poem, Gunther's father Gibeche (Gibico) has sent his vassal Hagen (Hageno) to the Huns as a hostage because Gunther is still too young. Hagen later flees back to Gibeche's kingdom.[17] When Walter and his love Hiltgunt flee the Huns, taking much treasure, they enter into Gunther's kingdom by crossing the Rhine by Worms. They sell the ferryman fish they had brought with them in exchange for passage, and the ferryman brings these fish, which do not live in the area, to the king. Hagen tells Gunther that this must be Walter, and Gunther declares that now he can reclaim the gold that his father had paid to Attila in tribute. Although Hagen advises against it, the king sets out with some warriors to apprehend Walter and Hiltgunt. When Gunther finds the pair, he demands that Walter give him Hiltgunt and the gold. Walter refuses and kills Gunther's warriors as they attack, despite Gunther's encouragements. Finally, only Gunther and Hagen are left alive; they allow Walter to leave, then attack him from behind. Walter cuts off Gunther's leg, but Hagen saves the king's life when Walter wishes to kill him. After both Hagen and Walter have maimed each other, the fighting stops and Hiltgunt tends the warriors' wounds. The warriors then part in friendship.[18]

The story presents a contrast to Gunther's destruction in that he is attracted by the Huns' gold rather than the other way around.[19] Like Gunther's role in the death of Siegfried, his role in the legend of Walter places him in a negative light.[20]

Nibelungenlied

 
Gunther and the Burgundians prepare to leave for Etzel's court. Hundeshagenscher Kodex

Gunther's story next appears in writing in the Nibelungenlied from c. 1200. In it, Gunther is the king of the Burgundians with a capital at Worms. He is the son of King Dancrat and Queen Ute and rules together with his royal brothers Giselher and Gernot, and his sister is named Kriemhild.[13] When Siegfried comes to Worms to woo Kriemhild, he first challenges Gunther as king before the situation is resolved peacefully. Gunther subsequently relies on Siegfried to defeat his enemies the Saxons and Danes. Eventually, Gunther offers to allow Siegfried to marry Kriemhild if Siegfried first helps him woo the queen of Iceland, Brunhild. Brunhild has set various martial and physical challenges that any suitor must accomplish, or else she will kill him. Siegfried uses his cloak of invisibility (Tarnkappe) to allow Gunther to accomplish each challenge, and Brunhild is forced to marry Gunther. She refuses, however, to sleep with Gunther on her wedding night, tying him up and hanging him from a hook. Gunther again enlists Siegfried's help, who takes Gunther's shape and overpowers Brunhild so that Gunther can then sleep with her.[21]

Some time later, Kriemhild and Brunhild quarrel, and Kriemhild tells Brunhild that Siegfried and not Gunther took her virginity. Brunhild complains to Gunther, who causes Siegfried to publicly swear that this is not true. Brunhild and Gunther's vassal Hagen, however, are not satisfied, and convince Gunther to have Siegfried murdered while on a hunt. Hagen kills Siegfried, taking possession of his sword Balmung, and later arranges to steal the hoard of the Nibelungs that rightfully belongs to Kriemhild as Siegfried's widow. After some time, Kriemhild is persuaded to be reconciled with Gunther, but not with Hagen. After she has been married to King Etzel (Attila) of the Huns, she invites her brothers to visit, plotting revenge. Gunther accepts this invitation despite Hagen's warning, and the Burgundians trek from Worms to Etzelburg (Buda). Gunther can be said to play a secondary role to Hagen in the conclusion of the Nibelungenlied.[22] When fighting begins, Gunther fights bravely. When only he and Hagen are left alive, Dietrich von Bern defeats and captures the two after his offers to surrender are rejected. Told by Hagen that he will only reveal the location of the hoard of the Nibelungs once Gunther is dead, Kriemhild has her brother beheaded.[23]

Þiðrekssaga

Although the Þiðrekssaga (c. 1250) is written in Old Norse, the majority of the material is translated from German (particularly Low German) oral tales, as well as possibly some from German written sources such as the Nibelungenlied.[24] Therefore, it is included here.

Gunnar (Gunther) is a king of the Niflungs who live in northern Germany at Niflungaland,[25] with a capital at Verniza (Worms).[26] He is the son of King Aldrian and Queen Oda and brother of Grimhild (Kriemhild), Gernoz (Gernot), and Gisler (Giselher), and half-brother of Högni (Hagen).[25] In another version of the saga, his father is Irung.[27]

Gunnar first appears when he takes part in the expedition of twelve heroes to Bertangenland organized by Thidrek (Dietrich von Bern). He loses in combat against one of King Isung's sons, but is freed once Thidrek defeats Sigurd (Siegfried).[25][28] Thidrek and Sigurd then accompany Gunnar back to his court, and Sigurd marries Gunnar's sister Grimhild. Sigurd suggests that Gunnar should marry Brunhild, and Gunnar agrees. Although Brunhild is initially reluctant, saying Sigurd had promised to marry her, she eventually agrees. However, she refuses to sleep with Gunnar and overpowers him with her immense strength when he tries to. Gunnar then tells Sigurd to take Gunnar's shape and deflower Brunhild for him. This takes away Brunhild's strength; after this, Brunhild is brought back to Gunnar's court.[29][28]

After some time conflict erupts between Brunhild and Grimhild over their respective statuses at court. The quarrel causes Grimhild to reveal to Brunhild that Sigurd took her virginity, not Gunnar. When Gunnar hears of this, he and Högni decide to kill Sigurd. Högni then kills Sigurd on a hunt, and Gunnar and he place the corpse in Grimhild's bed.[30] Later, Grimhild is married to Atli (Attila), and she invites her brothers to visit her and her new husband's court at Susat (Soest). She intends to kill them, while Atli desires the hoard they had taken from Sigurd. Gunnar agrees to come despite Högni's warnings. As in the Nibeungenlied, Gunnar plays a secondary role to Högni in the action at Atli's court.[31] Once fighting breaks out at the Hunnish court, Gunnar is taken captive. Grimhild tells Atli to throw him into a tower full of snakes, where he dies.[32]

The author of the saga has made a number of changes to create a more or less coherent story out of the many oral and possibly written sources that he used to create the saga.[33] The author mentions alternative Scandinavian versions of many of these same tales, and appears to have changed some details to match the stories known by his Scandinavian audience.[34][35] The saga's version of the downfall of the Burgundians represents a unique mix of elements known from the Norse and continental traditions.[36] Some elements that are closer to the Norse version may reflect genuine Low German traditions: a "snake tower" (Schlangenturm) is attested as having existed in Soest until the end of the eighteenth century.[37]

Scandinavian traditions and attestations

The Poetic Edda

The Poetic Edda, a collection of heroic and mythological Nordic poems, appears to have been compiled around 1270 in Iceland, and assembles mythological and heroic songs of various ages.[38] As elsewhere in the Scandinavian tradition, Gunnar is the son of Gjuki and the brother of Gudrun and Högni. Depending on the poem Guthorm is either his full brother, step-brother, or half-brother.[39] A sister Gullrönd also appears in one poem.[40]

Generally, none of the poems in the collection is thought to be older than 900 and some appear to have been written in the thirteenth century.[41] It is also possible that apparently old poems have been written in an archaicizing style and that apparently recent poems are reworkings of older material, so that reliable dating is impossible.[42]

Grípisspá

In Grípisspá, a prophecy that Sigurd receives about his future life and deeds, Sigurd learns of his future marriage to Gudrun and his role taking Gunnar's place in his wooing of Brunhild, followed by his murder.[43]

The poem is probably not very old.[44]

Brot af Sigurðarkviðu

Brot af Sigurðarkviðu is only preserved fragmentarily: the surviving part of the poem tells the story of Sigurd's murder. The fragment opens with Högni questioning Gunnar's decision to have Sigurd murdered, believing that Brunhild's claim that Sigurd slept with her might be false. Soon after the murder occurs, Gunnar shows himself to be deeply concerned about the future, while Brunhild admits that she lied to have Sigurd killed.[45] Gunnar plays only a supporting role in the surviving portion of the poem, with Brunhild and Gudrun being the more important characters.[46]

Sigurðarkviða hin skamma

Sigurðarkviða hin skamma retells the story of Sigurd's life from his arrival at Gunnar's court to his murder. On account of its content, which dwells on psychological motivation, and its style, this poem is generally not thought to be very old.[46]

Sigurd and Gunnar become friends when Sigurd comes to Gunnar's court, and Sigurd aids Gunnar in his wooing of Brunhild. Sigurd marries Gudrun, but Brunhild desires him for herself. In her jealousy, she threatens to leave Gunnar if he does not have Sigurd murdered. Gunnar and Högni decide that the death of Sigurd is not as bad as losing the queen, so they have their brother Guthorm murder him in his bed. Brunhild laughs loudly when she hears Gudrun's wailing, and Gunnar insults her and makes accusations against her when he hears her laugh. Brunhild tells him that she never wanted to marry him, but was forced to by her brother Atli. She then kills herself in spite of Gunnar's attempts to change her mind.[47]

Dráp Niflunga

The Dráp Niflunga is a short prose section connecting the death of Sigurd to the following poems about the Burgundians (Niflungs) and Atli (Attila). Atli, who is Brunhild's brother, blames Gunnar for Brunhild's death, and in order to placate him Gunnar marries Gudrun to Atli. Gunnar desires to marry Brunhild and Atli's sister Oddrun, but Atli refuses, so Gunnar and Oddrun become lovers. Some time later, Atli invites Gunnar and Högni to visit him, and they go despite a warning from Gudrun. Gunnar and Högni are taken prisoner, and Gunnar is thrown into a snake pit: he puts the snakes to sleep with his harp, but in the end one bites him in the liver, and he dies.[48]

Oddrúnargrátr

In Oddrúnargrátr, Atli's sister Oddrun narrates the story of her love for Gunnar. She tells how Atli refused to marry her to Gunnar after her sister Brunhild's death. She and Gunnar nevertheless begin an affair, sleeping together until one day they are discovered. In anger, Atli then murders Gunnar and Högni, throwing Gunnar into a snake pit. Oddrun says that she tries to help Gunnar escape the snake pit, but by the time she got there he was already dead, as her mother had turned into a snake and bitten him.[49]

Oddrun appears to be a late addition to the legend, perhaps created so that the poet could "tell the story of the fall of the Nibelungs from a different point of view."[50] She also provides an additional reason for enmity between Gunnar and Atli besides Atli's lust for treasure in Gunnar's role as Oddrun's lover.[49]

Atlakviða

In Atlakviða, Atli invites Högni and Gunnar to his hall, claiming to wish to offer them great riches, but actually intending to kill them. Gunnar decides to come although Gudrun has sent them a warning. They cross through Myrkviðr (mirkwood) on their way to Atli's court. Once they arrive, Atli captures Gunnar and Högni. He demands Gunnar's hoard of gold, but Gunnar says he will not tell Atli until Högni is dead. Atli then kills Högni and brings his heart to Gunnar, who laughs and says now only he knows the secret of the hoard's location. He refuses to tell Atli, so Atli has him thrown into a snake pit. Gunnar plays his harp there until he is bitten by a snake and dies.[51]

Atlakviða is commonly supposed to be one of the oldest poems in the Poetic Edda, possibly dating from the ninth century.[52] The poem is particularly notable in that Sigurd is not mentioned at all.[53] The presence of the forest Myrkviðr and the timelessness of the story show the poem to have moved into the realm of myth rather than historical legend.[54] Alternatively, Myrkviðr could refer to the Erzgebirge, which are called Miriquidui by the historian Thietmar of Merseburg in the eleventh century.[55]

Atlamál hin groenlenzku

Atlamál hin groenlenzku tells the same story as Atlakviða with several important differences. When Gunnar receives Atli's invitation, he and Högni shrug off the warning sent by Gudrun. They then ignore the runes read by Högni's wife Kostbera telling them not to go, and an ominous dream by Gunnar's wife Glaumvör. When they arrive at Atli's court, Atli's messenger, who has accompanied them, announces that they must die. Gunnar and Högni kill him. Gudrun attempts to negotiate between the two sides but is unsuccessful; she fights with her brothers until they are captured. Atli then has Gunnar and Högni killed in order to spite Gudrun. Gunnar is thrown into a snake pit, where he plays the harp with his toes as his hands are bound. He is bitten and dies.[56]

Völsunga saga

The Völsunga saga tells a longer prose version of Gunther's life and deeds. It follows the plot given in the Poetic Edda fairly closely, although there is no indication that the author knew the other text.[57] The author appears to have been working in Norway and to have known the Thidrekssaga (c. 1250), a translation of continental Germanic traditions into Old Norse (see Þiðrekssaga above). Therefore the Völsunga Saga is dated to sometime in the second half of the thirteenth century.[58]

Gunnar is portrayed as the son of Gjúki and Grimhild and brother of Högni, Gudrun, and Guthorm. After Sigurd's arrival at the Burgundian court, Gunnar is encouraged by Grimhild to marry Brynhild. Brynhild, however, refuses to marry any man but the one who can ride through a wall of flame. Gunnar is unable to do this, and so Sigurd takes his shape and performs the action for him. Brynhild is thus forced to marry Gunnar. Some time later, Gudrun and Brynhild quarrel about whether Sigurd or Gunnar has the highest rank at the court. Gudrun then reveals the deception to Brynhild, who demands vengeance from Gunnar. He is unable to change her mind, and she demands that he kill Sigurd. Gunnar and Högni decide that their younger brother Guthorm, who has not sworn any oaths to Sigurd, should perform the murder. They feed him with wolf meat to make him more ferocious, then send him to kill Sigurd in his bed. After the murder, Brynhild commits suicide and prophesies Gunnar's fate.[59]

In order to be reconciled to Brynhild's brother Atli for her death, Gunnar arranges for Sigurd's widow, his sister Gudrun, to marry Atli. He also seeks to marry Atli's other sister Oddrun, but Atli refuses and the two begin an affair.[60] Gunnar instead marries the woman Glaumvör.[61] After some time, desiring to avenge his sister and to gain Gunnar's treasure, Atli invites Gunnar and Högni to his court, intending to kill them. Gunnar is suspicious and Gudrun has tried to warn them not to come, but once he and Högni are drunk, Atli's messenger convinces them to accept the invitation. In spite of the warnings of their wives, Gunnar and Högni set out for Atli's court. Once they arrive the messenger reveals that it is a trap, and they kill him. Atli demands the treasure that Gunnar took for Sigurd, and when Gunnar refuses, they begin to fight. Eventually, Gunnar and Högni are captured. Gunnar says he will not tell Atli where the hoard is unless he sees Högni's heart. When he is finally shown the heart, Gunnar laughs and says that now only he knows where the hoard is and he will never tell. Atli then orders Gunnar thrown into a snake pit, where he plays the harp with his toes as his hands are bound. In the end, the snakes kill him.[62]

Pictorial depictions

 
Gunnar in snakepit at Hylestad stave church, c. 1200.

Gunnar's death in the snake pit is well attested in pictorial depictions. Not all images of a man in a snake pit can be identified as Gunnar: the image appears to predate the story of Gunnar's death.[63] Although only images that also depict a harp can be securely identified as depicting Gunnar, Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir argues that the presence of a harp appears to have originally been a variant of the story of Gunnar's death, and that images that do not depict a harp can therefore also depict Gunnar.[63]

Only one potential depiction is located outside of Scandinavia, on the Isle of Man: the Kirk Andreas cross (c. 1000) shows a bound figure surrounded by snakes who has been identified as Gunnar. An alternative interpretation is that the figure is meant to represent Loki.[64]

The earliest depiction that has been relatively securely identified as Gunnar is the picture stone Södermanland 40, from Västerljung, Sweden. Guðmundsdóttir argues that the presence of several Sigurd stones nearby make an identification of the bound figure on the stone with Gunnar very likely.[65]

Gunnar can be securely identified on a number of church portals and baptismal fonts in Norway or areas formerly under Norwegian control in Sweden (see the Norum font), with the earliest dating to the twelfth-century and most dating to around 1200 or later. In all of these images, Gunnar is shown with a harp.[66] The presence of Gunnar's death in Christian religious contexts shows that a Christian interpretation was common: his death was seen as typologically related to the story of Daniel in the lions' den.[67]

Seven additional images from Norway, Sweden, and the island of Gotland have been proposed to depict Gunnar in the snake pit, but without a harp: these images date from between the ninth and the eleventh centuries, and thus predate the secure attestations considerably.[68] The earliest of these proposed identifications are the carvings on the cart found with the ninth-century Oseberg Ship burial.[69] This identification is very controversial.[70] Guðmundsdóttir suggests that the picture stone Klinte Hunninge I from Gotland (ninth/tenth century) may depict a version of the story of Oddrun's aid to Gunnar, as it shows an unidentified female figure by the snake pit.[68] She argues in favor of identifying the figure in the snake pit in all of these images with Gunnar, noting their apparent shared iconography.[71] Guðmundsdóttir nevertheless dismisses a number of other proposed images of Gunnar, on the grounds that they are not clear.[72]

Wagnerian mythology

Here Gunther is ruler of the Gibichungs, son of Gibich and Grimhilde. Hagen is his half-brother, his father being the villainous dwarf Alberich. Hagen convinces Gunther and Gutrune to respectively wed Brunhilde and Siegfried, using a love potion on Siegfried to make him forget Brunhilde. After Hagen murders Siegfried, he and Gunther argue over the ring and Hagen kills Gunther.

Notes

  1. ^ Millet 2008, p. 118.
  2. ^ Guðmundsdóttir & Cosser 2012, p. 1015.
  3. ^ Gillespie 1973.
  4. ^ Gillespie 1973, p. 136.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Anton 1999, p. 193.
  6. ^ Nedoma & Anton 1998, p. 67.
  7. ^ a b c d Anton 1999, p. 194.
  8. ^ Anton 1981, p. 238.
  9. ^ Anton 1981, pp. 238–240.
  10. ^ a b Anton 1981, p. 241.
  11. ^ Nedoma & Anton 1998, p. 69.
  12. ^ a b Nedoma & Anton 1998, p. 68.
  13. ^ a b c Gillespie 1973, p. 54.
  14. ^ Millet 2008, p. 109.
  15. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 105–106.
  16. ^ Rosenfeld 1981, p. 233.
  17. ^ Millet 2008, p. 106.
  18. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 108–109.
  19. ^ Millet 2008, p. 117.
  20. ^ Millet 2008, p. 198.
  21. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 181–182.
  22. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 78.
  23. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 183–185.
  24. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 270–273.
  25. ^ a b c Gillespie 1973, p. 55.
  26. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 103.
  27. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 50.
  28. ^ a b Millet 2008, p. 264.
  29. ^ Haymes & Samples 1996, p. 114.
  30. ^ Millet 2008, p. 266.
  31. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 76.
  32. ^ Millet 2008, p. 267.
  33. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 273–274.
  34. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 271–272.
  35. ^ Haymes 1988, pp. xxvii–xxix.
  36. ^ Uecker 1972, p. 42.
  37. ^ Gillespie 1973, p. 55 n. 9.
  38. ^ Millet 2008, p. 288.
  39. ^ Gillespie 1973, p. 50.
  40. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 75.
  41. ^ Haymes & Samples 1996, p. 119.
  42. ^ Millet 2008, p. 294.
  43. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 295–296.
  44. ^ Millet 2008, p. 301.
  45. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 296–297.
  46. ^ a b Würth 2005, p. 426.
  47. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 297–298.
  48. ^ Millet 2008, p. 298.
  49. ^ a b Millet 2008, p. 306.
  50. ^ Haymes & Samples 1996, p. 124.
  51. ^ Millet 2008, p. 49-50.
  52. ^ Millet 2008, p. 48, 51.
  53. ^ Beck 1973, p. 466-467.
  54. ^ Millet 2008, p. 58-59.
  55. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 101.
  56. ^ Millet 2008, pp. 299–300.
  57. ^ Millet 2008, p. 319.
  58. ^ Millet 2008, p. 313.
  59. ^ Millet 2008, p. 316.
  60. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 105.
  61. ^ Gentry et al. 2011, p. 73.
  62. ^ Millet 2008, p. 317.
  63. ^ a b Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 352.
  64. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 353.
  65. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 355.
  66. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, pp. 355–358.
  67. ^ Millet 2008, p. 169.
  68. ^ a b Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 360.
  69. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 358.
  70. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, p. 364.
  71. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, pp. 368–370.
  72. ^ Guðmundsdóttir 2015, pp. 370–371.

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  • Guðmundsdóttir, Aðalheiður; Cosser, Jeffrey (2012). "Gunnarr and the Snake Pit in Medieval Art and Legend". Speculum. 87 (4): 1015–1049. doi:10.1017/S0038713412003144. JSTOR 23488628.
  • Haubrichs, Wolfgang (2004). ""Heroische Zeiten?": Wanderungen von Heldennamen und Heldensagen zwischen den germanischen gentes des frühen Mittelalters". In Nahl, Astrid von; Elmevik, Lennart; Brink, Stefan (eds.). Namenwelten: Orts- und Personennamen in historischer Sicht. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter. pp. 513–534. ISBN 978-3-11-018108-1.
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See also

Preceded by King of Burgundy
?–437 		Succeeded by

January 26, 2023
gunther, other, uses, günther, gundaharius, gundahar, died, better, known, legendary, names, middle, high, german, gunnar, norse, gunnarr, historical, king, burgundy, early, century, gundahar, attested, ruling, people, shortly, after, they, crossed, rhine, int. For other uses see Gunther Gundaharius or Gundahar died 437 better known by his legendary names Gunther Middle High German Gunther or Gunnar Old Norse Gunnarr was a historical king of Burgundy in the early 5th century Gundahar is attested as ruling his people shortly after they crossed the Rhine into Roman Gaul He was involved in the campaigns of the failed Roman usurper Jovinus before the latter s defeat after which he was settled on the left bank of the Rhine as a Roman ally In 436 Gundahar launched an attack from his kingdom on the Roman province of Belgica Prima He was defeated by the Roman general Flavius Aetius who destroyed Gundahar s kingdom with the help of Hunnish mercenaries the following year resulting in Gundahar s death According to the Nibelungenlied 1859 by Peter von Cornelius Gunther orders Hagen to drop the hoard into the Rhine The historical Gundahar s death became the basis for a tradition in Germanic heroic legend in which the legendary Gunther met his death at the court of Attila the Hun Etzel Atli The character also became attached to other legends most notably he is associated with Siegfried Sigurd and Brunhild and is implicated in Sigurd s murder He also appears as an adversary in the legend of Walter of Aquitaine It is generally assumed that Gunther s involvement in these other legends in which he plays a secondary or antagonistic role is a later development 1 Gunther s importance in the story of the destruction of the Burgundians also waned with time 2 Gunther appears as a legendary character in Latin Middle High German Old Norse and Old English texts as well as in various pictorial depictions from Scandinavia Most significantly he plays a role in the German Nibelungenlied the medieval Latin Waltharius and the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Volsunga saga He also plays an important role in Richard Wagner s operatic Ring cycle which is based on the medieval legends of Sigurd Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historical Gundahar 3 Anglo Saxon traditions 3 1 Waldere 3 2 Widsith 4 Continental traditions 4 1 Waltharius 4 2 Nibelungenlied 4 3 THidrekssaga 5 Scandinavian traditions and attestations 5 1 The Poetic Edda 5 1 1 Gripisspa 5 1 2 Brot af Sigurdarkvidu 5 1 3 Sigurdarkvida hin skamma 5 1 4 Drap Niflunga 5 1 5 Oddrunargratr 5 1 6 Atlakvida 5 1 7 Atlamal hin groenlenzku 5 2 Volsunga saga 5 3 Pictorial depictions 6 Wagnerian mythology 7 Notes 8 References 9 See alsoEtymology EditThe first element of Gunther s name is Proto Germanic gunth meaning war or conflict 3 The second element is Proto Germanic hari meaning army 4 The name of the historical Gundahar is attested in the primary sources as Latin Gundaharius or Gundicharius and Greek Gyntiarios Gyntiarios 5 Medieval Latin gives the name of the legendary figure as Guntharius while Anglo Saxon has Gudhere Old Norse has Gunnarr and Middle High German has Gunther 6 Historical Gundahar EditGundahar is the first king of Burgundy to be historically attested 5 It is unclear if he ruled alone or if he may have ruled together with brothers as occurs in the heroic tradition the title fylarxos phylarchos given to him by Olympiodorus of Thebes may suggest he was not the sole ruler 5 In Prosper of Aquitaine he is identified as rex king 7 A majority of the Burgundians crossed the Rhine in 406 407 together with numerous other Germanic tribes 8 Their king Gundahar is first attested in 411 as cooperating with Goar king of the Alans to proclaim Jovinus as a new emperor in the province Germania Inferior on the lower Rhine 5 He is attested as being involved in Jovinus s campaigns in southern Gaul 5 Following Jovinus s defeat in 413 the Roman magister militum Constantius settled the Burgundians on the left bank of the Rhine as Roman foederati 5 Based on the later heroic tradition many scholars identify their area of settlement as around Worms though some scholars have argued in favor of other locations 5 9 In the 430s the Burgundians came under increasing pressure from the Huns likely as a reaction to this Gundahar attacked the Roman province Belgica Prima based around Trier in 435 7 The Burgundians were defeated by the Roman general Flavius Aetius who nevertheless confirmed Gundahar and his people s rights to their kingdom 7 However the next year 436 Aetius accompanied by Hunnish mercenaries attacked and destroyed the Burgundian kingdom According to Prosper of Aquitaine Gundahar and the majority of his people found their deaths in Aetius s attack 7 10 Aetius resettled the survivors of the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom in Savoy on the upper Rhone 10 The memory of Gundahar and his downfall was likely preserved by these survivors as well as by observers from neighboring Germanic tribes 11 The late fifth early sixth century Lex Burgundionum produced by the Burgundian king Gundobad at the Burgundians new kingdom mentions four older Burgundian kings Gibica Gundomar Gislaharius and Gundahar It makes no mention of any familial relationship between the kings however 12 In the heroic tradition Gibica Gibeche Gjuki appears as Gundahar s father while Gundomar Guthorm Gernot and Gislaharius Giselher appear as his brothers and co kings 12 Anglo Saxon traditions EditWaldere Edit In the fragmentary Old English poem Waldere c 1000 the Old English attestation of the story of Walter of Aquitaine see Waltharius under Continental traditions Gudhere Gunther is preparing to attack Waldere Walter He refuses the gifts that Walther offers him to make peace and is portrayed as boastful 13 It appears that Gudhere wishes to take the gold that Waldere has with him 14 Widsith Edit The narrator of the Old English poem Widsith reports that he was given a ring by Gudhere when he visited the Burgundians Burgendas 13 Continental traditions EditWaltharius Edit The Waltharius is a Latin epic that reworks the legend of Walter of Aquitaine it is conventionally dated to around 1000 but some scholars argue that it was produced in the Carolingian period 15 In Waltharius Gunther as Guntharius appears as a king of the Franks with his capital at Worms 16 At the beginning of the poem Gunther s father Gibeche Gibico has sent his vassal Hagen Hageno to the Huns as a hostage because Gunther is still too young Hagen later flees back to Gibeche s kingdom 17 When Walter and his love Hiltgunt flee the Huns taking much treasure they enter into Gunther s kingdom by crossing the Rhine by Worms They sell the ferryman fish they had brought with them in exchange for passage and the ferryman brings these fish which do not live in the area to the king Hagen tells Gunther that this must be Walter and Gunther declares that now he can reclaim the gold that his father had paid to Attila in tribute Although Hagen advises against it the king sets out with some warriors to apprehend Walter and Hiltgunt When Gunther finds the pair he demands that Walter give him Hiltgunt and the gold Walter refuses and kills Gunther s warriors as they attack despite Gunther s encouragements Finally only Gunther and Hagen are left alive they allow Walter to leave then attack him from behind Walter cuts off Gunther s leg but Hagen saves the king s life when Walter wishes to kill him After both Hagen and Walter have maimed each other the fighting stops and Hiltgunt tends the warriors wounds The warriors then part in friendship 18 The story presents a contrast to Gunther s destruction in that he is attracted by the Huns gold rather than the other way around 19 Like Gunther s role in the death of Siegfried his role in the legend of Walter places him in a negative light 20 Nibelungenlied Edit Gunther and the Burgundians prepare to leave for Etzel s court Hundeshagenscher Kodex Gunther s story next appears in writing in the Nibelungenlied from c 1200 In it Gunther is the king of the Burgundians with a capital at Worms He is the son of King Dancrat and Queen Ute and rules together with his royal brothers Giselher and Gernot and his sister is named Kriemhild 13 When Siegfried comes to Worms to woo Kriemhild he first challenges Gunther as king before the situation is resolved peacefully Gunther subsequently relies on Siegfried to defeat his enemies the Saxons and Danes Eventually Gunther offers to allow Siegfried to marry Kriemhild if Siegfried first helps him woo the queen of Iceland Brunhild Brunhild has set various martial and physical challenges that any suitor must accomplish or else she will kill him Siegfried uses his cloak of invisibility Tarnkappe to allow Gunther to accomplish each challenge and Brunhild is forced to marry Gunther She refuses however to sleep with Gunther on her wedding night tying him up and hanging him from a hook Gunther again enlists Siegfried s help who takes Gunther s shape and overpowers Brunhild so that Gunther can then sleep with her 21 Some time later Kriemhild and Brunhild quarrel and Kriemhild tells Brunhild that Siegfried and not Gunther took her virginity Brunhild complains to Gunther who causes Siegfried to publicly swear that this is not true Brunhild and Gunther s vassal Hagen however are not satisfied and convince Gunther to have Siegfried murdered while on a hunt Hagen kills Siegfried taking possession of his sword Balmung and later arranges to steal the hoard of the Nibelungs that rightfully belongs to Kriemhild as Siegfried s widow After some time Kriemhild is persuaded to be reconciled with Gunther but not with Hagen After she has been married to King Etzel Attila of the Huns she invites her brothers to visit plotting revenge Gunther accepts this invitation despite Hagen s warning and the Burgundians trek from Worms to Etzelburg Buda Gunther can be said to play a secondary role to Hagen in the conclusion of the Nibelungenlied 22 When fighting begins Gunther fights bravely When only he and Hagen are left alive Dietrich von Bern defeats and captures the two after his offers to surrender are rejected Told by Hagen that he will only reveal the location of the hoard of the Nibelungs once Gunther is dead Kriemhild has her brother beheaded 23 THidrekssaga Edit Although the THidrekssaga c 1250 is written in Old Norse the majority of the material is translated from German particularly Low German oral tales as well as possibly some from German written sources such as the Nibelungenlied 24 Therefore it is included here Gunnar Gunther is a king of the Niflungs who live in northern Germany at Niflungaland 25 with a capital at Verniza Worms 26 He is the son of King Aldrian and Queen Oda and brother of Grimhild Kriemhild Gernoz Gernot and Gisler Giselher and half brother of Hogni Hagen 25 In another version of the saga his father is Irung 27 Gunnar first appears when he takes part in the expedition of twelve heroes to Bertangenland organized by Thidrek Dietrich von Bern He loses in combat against one of King Isung s sons but is freed once Thidrek defeats Sigurd Siegfried 25 28 Thidrek and Sigurd then accompany Gunnar back to his court and Sigurd marries Gunnar s sister Grimhild Sigurd suggests that Gunnar should marry Brunhild and Gunnar agrees Although Brunhild is initially reluctant saying Sigurd had promised to marry her she eventually agrees However she refuses to sleep with Gunnar and overpowers him with her immense strength when he tries to Gunnar then tells Sigurd to take Gunnar s shape and deflower Brunhild for him This takes away Brunhild s strength after this Brunhild is brought back to Gunnar s court 29 28 After some time conflict erupts between Brunhild and Grimhild over their respective statuses at court The quarrel causes Grimhild to reveal to Brunhild that Sigurd took her virginity not Gunnar When Gunnar hears of this he and Hogni decide to kill Sigurd Hogni then kills Sigurd on a hunt and Gunnar and he place the corpse in Grimhild s bed 30 Later Grimhild is married to Atli Attila and she invites her brothers to visit her and her new husband s court at Susat Soest She intends to kill them while Atli desires the hoard they had taken from Sigurd Gunnar agrees to come despite Hogni s warnings As in the Nibeungenlied Gunnar plays a secondary role to Hogni in the action at Atli s court 31 Once fighting breaks out at the Hunnish court Gunnar is taken captive Grimhild tells Atli to throw him into a tower full of snakes where he dies 32 The author of the saga has made a number of changes to create a more or less coherent story out of the many oral and possibly written sources that he used to create the saga 33 The author mentions alternative Scandinavian versions of many of these same tales and appears to have changed some details to match the stories known by his Scandinavian audience 34 35 The saga s version of the downfall of the Burgundians represents a unique mix of elements known from the Norse and continental traditions 36 Some elements that are closer to the Norse version may reflect genuine Low German traditions a snake tower Schlangenturm is attested as having existed in Soest until the end of the eighteenth century 37 Scandinavian traditions and attestations EditThe Poetic Edda Edit The Poetic Edda a collection of heroic and mythological Nordic poems appears to have been compiled around 1270 in Iceland and assembles mythological and heroic songs of various ages 38 As elsewhere in the Scandinavian tradition Gunnar is the son of Gjuki and the brother of Gudrun and Hogni Depending on the poem Guthorm is either his full brother step brother or half brother 39 A sister Gullrond also appears in one poem 40 Generally none of the poems in the collection is thought to be older than 900 and some appear to have been written in the thirteenth century 41 It is also possible that apparently old poems have been written in an archaicizing style and that apparently recent poems are reworkings of older material so that reliable dating is impossible 42 Gripisspa Edit In Gripisspa a prophecy that Sigurd receives about his future life and deeds Sigurd learns of his future marriage to Gudrun and his role taking Gunnar s place in his wooing of Brunhild followed by his murder 43 The poem is probably not very old 44 Brot af Sigurdarkvidu Edit Brot af Sigurdarkvidu is only preserved fragmentarily the surviving part of the poem tells the story of Sigurd s murder The fragment opens with Hogni questioning Gunnar s decision to have Sigurd murdered believing that Brunhild s claim that Sigurd slept with her might be false Soon after the murder occurs Gunnar shows himself to be deeply concerned about the future while Brunhild admits that she lied to have Sigurd killed 45 Gunnar plays only a supporting role in the surviving portion of the poem with Brunhild and Gudrun being the more important characters 46 Sigurdarkvida hin skamma Edit Sigurdarkvida hin skamma retells the story of Sigurd s life from his arrival at Gunnar s court to his murder On account of its content which dwells on psychological motivation and its style this poem is generally not thought to be very old 46 Sigurd and Gunnar become friends when Sigurd comes to Gunnar s court and Sigurd aids Gunnar in his wooing of Brunhild Sigurd marries Gudrun but Brunhild desires him for herself In her jealousy she threatens to leave Gunnar if he does not have Sigurd murdered Gunnar and Hogni decide that the death of Sigurd is not as bad as losing the queen so they have their brother Guthorm murder him in his bed Brunhild laughs loudly when she hears Gudrun s wailing and Gunnar insults her and makes accusations against her when he hears her laugh Brunhild tells him that she never wanted to marry him but was forced to by her brother Atli She then kills herself in spite of Gunnar s attempts to change her mind 47 Drap Niflunga Edit The Drap Niflunga is a short prose section connecting the death of Sigurd to the following poems about the Burgundians Niflungs and Atli Attila Atli who is Brunhild s brother blames Gunnar for Brunhild s death and in order to placate him Gunnar marries Gudrun to Atli Gunnar desires to marry Brunhild and Atli s sister Oddrun but Atli refuses so Gunnar and Oddrun become lovers Some time later Atli invites Gunnar and Hogni to visit him and they go despite a warning from Gudrun Gunnar and Hogni are taken prisoner and Gunnar is thrown into a snake pit he puts the snakes to sleep with his harp but in the end one bites him in the liver and he dies 48 Oddrunargratr Edit In Oddrunargratr Atli s sister Oddrun narrates the story of her love for Gunnar She tells how Atli refused to marry her to Gunnar after her sister Brunhild s death She and Gunnar nevertheless begin an affair sleeping together until one day they are discovered In anger Atli then murders Gunnar and Hogni throwing Gunnar into a snake pit Oddrun says that she tries to help Gunnar escape the snake pit but by the time she got there he was already dead as her mother had turned into a snake and bitten him 49 Oddrun appears to be a late addition to the legend perhaps created so that the poet could tell the story of the fall of the Nibelungs from a different point of view 50 She also provides an additional reason for enmity between Gunnar and Atli besides Atli s lust for treasure in Gunnar s role as Oddrun s lover 49 Atlakvida Edit In Atlakvida Atli invites Hogni and Gunnar to his hall claiming to wish to offer them great riches but actually intending to kill them Gunnar decides to come although Gudrun has sent them a warning They cross through Myrkvidr mirkwood on their way to Atli s court Once they arrive Atli captures Gunnar and Hogni He demands Gunnar s hoard of gold but Gunnar says he will not tell Atli until Hogni is dead Atli then kills Hogni and brings his heart to Gunnar who laughs and says now only he knows the secret of the hoard s location He refuses to tell Atli so Atli has him thrown into a snake pit Gunnar plays his harp there until he is bitten by a snake and dies 51 Atlakvida is commonly supposed to be one of the oldest poems in the Poetic Edda possibly dating from the ninth century 52 The poem is particularly notable in that Sigurd is not mentioned at all 53 The presence of the forest Myrkvidr and the timelessness of the story show the poem to have moved into the realm of myth rather than historical legend 54 Alternatively Myrkvidr could refer to the Erzgebirge which are called Miriquidui by the historian Thietmar of Merseburg in the eleventh century 55 Atlamal hin groenlenzku Edit Atlamal hin groenlenzku tells the same story as Atlakvida with several important differences When Gunnar receives Atli s invitation he and Hogni shrug off the warning sent by Gudrun They then ignore the runes read by Hogni s wife Kostbera telling them not to go and an ominous dream by Gunnar s wife Glaumvor When they arrive at Atli s court Atli s messenger who has accompanied them announces that they must die Gunnar and Hogni kill him Gudrun attempts to negotiate between the two sides but is unsuccessful she fights with her brothers until they are captured Atli then has Gunnar and Hogni killed in order to spite Gudrun Gunnar is thrown into a snake pit where he plays the harp with his toes as his hands are bound He is bitten and dies 56 Volsunga saga Edit The Volsunga saga tells a longer prose version of Gunther s life and deeds It follows the plot given in the Poetic Edda fairly closely although there is no indication that the author knew the other text 57 The author appears to have been working in Norway and to have known the Thidrekssaga c 1250 a translation of continental Germanic traditions into Old Norse see THidrekssaga above Therefore the Volsunga Saga is dated to sometime in the second half of the thirteenth century 58 Gunnar is portrayed as the son of Gjuki and Grimhild and brother of Hogni Gudrun and Guthorm After Sigurd s arrival at the Burgundian court Gunnar is encouraged by Grimhild to marry Brynhild Brynhild however refuses to marry any man but the one who can ride through a wall of flame Gunnar is unable to do this and so Sigurd takes his shape and performs the action for him Brynhild is thus forced to marry Gunnar Some time later Gudrun and Brynhild quarrel about whether Sigurd or Gunnar has the highest rank at the court Gudrun then reveals the deception to Brynhild who demands vengeance from Gunnar He is unable to change her mind and she demands that he kill Sigurd Gunnar and Hogni decide that their younger brother Guthorm who has not sworn any oaths to Sigurd should perform the murder They feed him with wolf meat to make him more ferocious then send him to kill Sigurd in his bed After the murder Brynhild commits suicide and prophesies Gunnar s fate 59 In order to be reconciled to Brynhild s brother Atli for her death Gunnar arranges for Sigurd s widow his sister Gudrun to marry Atli He also seeks to marry Atli s other sister Oddrun but Atli refuses and the two begin an affair 60 Gunnar instead marries the woman Glaumvor 61 After some time desiring to avenge his sister and to gain Gunnar s treasure Atli invites Gunnar and Hogni to his court intending to kill them Gunnar is suspicious and Gudrun has tried to warn them not to come but once he and Hogni are drunk Atli s messenger convinces them to accept the invitation In spite of the warnings of their wives Gunnar and Hogni set out for Atli s court Once they arrive the messenger reveals that it is a trap and they kill him Atli demands the treasure that Gunnar took for Sigurd and when Gunnar refuses they begin to fight Eventually Gunnar and Hogni are captured Gunnar says he will not tell Atli where the hoard is unless he sees Hogni s heart When he is finally shown the heart Gunnar laughs and says that now only he knows where the hoard is and he will never tell Atli then orders Gunnar thrown into a snake pit where he plays the harp with his toes as his hands are bound In the end the snakes kill him 62 Pictorial depictions Edit Gunnar in snakepit at Hylestad stave church c 1200 Gunnar s death in the snake pit is well attested in pictorial depictions Not all images of a man in a snake pit can be identified as Gunnar the image appears to predate the story of Gunnar s death 63 Although only images that also depict a harp can be securely identified as depicting Gunnar Adalheidur Gudmundsdottir argues that the presence of a harp appears to have originally been a variant of the story of Gunnar s death and that images that do not depict a harp can therefore also depict Gunnar 63 Only one potential depiction is located outside of Scandinavia on the Isle of Man the Kirk Andreas cross c 1000 shows a bound figure surrounded by snakes who has been identified as Gunnar An alternative interpretation is that the figure is meant to represent Loki 64 The earliest depiction that has been relatively securely identified as Gunnar is the picture stone Sodermanland 40 from Vasterljung Sweden Gudmundsdottir argues that the presence of several Sigurd stones nearby make an identification of the bound figure on the stone with Gunnar very likely 65 Gunnar can be securely identified on a number of church portals and baptismal fonts in Norway or areas formerly under Norwegian control in Sweden see the Norum font with the earliest dating to the twelfth century and most dating to around 1200 or later In all of these images Gunnar is shown with a harp 66 The presence of Gunnar s death in Christian religious contexts shows that a Christian interpretation was common his death was seen as typologically related to the story of Daniel in the lions den 67 Seven additional images from Norway Sweden and the island of Gotland have been proposed to depict Gunnar in the snake pit but without a harp these images date from between the ninth and the eleventh centuries and thus predate the secure attestations considerably 68 The earliest of these proposed identifications are the carvings on the cart found with the ninth century Oseberg Ship burial 69 This identification is very controversial 70 Gudmundsdottir suggests that the picture stone Klinte Hunninge I from Gotland ninth tenth century may depict a version of the story of Oddrun s aid to Gunnar as it shows an unidentified female figure by the snake pit 68 She argues in favor of identifying the figure in the snake pit in all of these images with Gunnar noting their apparent shared iconography 71 Gudmundsdottir nevertheless dismisses a number of other proposed images of Gunnar on the grounds that they are not clear 72 Wagnerian mythology EditHere Gunther is ruler of the Gibichungs son of Gibich and Grimhilde Hagen is his half brother his father being the villainous dwarf Alberich Hagen convinces Gunther and Gutrune to respectively wed Brunhilde and Siegfried using a love potion on Siegfried to make him forget Brunhilde After Hagen murders Siegfried he and Gunther argue over the ring and Hagen kills Gunther Notes Edit Millet 2008 p 118 Gudmundsdottir amp Cosser 2012 p 1015 Gillespie 1973 Gillespie 1973 p 136 a b c d e f g Anton 1999 p 193 Nedoma amp Anton 1998 p 67 a b c d Anton 1999 p 194 Anton 1981 p 238 Anton 1981 pp 238 240 a b Anton 1981 p 241 Nedoma amp Anton 1998 p 69 a b Nedoma amp Anton 1998 p 68 a b c Gillespie 1973 p 54 Millet 2008 p 109 Millet 2008 pp 105 106 Rosenfeld 1981 p 233 Millet 2008 p 106 Millet 2008 pp 108 109 Millet 2008 p 117 Millet 2008 p 198 Millet 2008 pp 181 182 Gentry et al 2011 p 78 Millet 2008 pp 183 185 Millet 2008 pp 270 273 a b c Gillespie 1973 p 55 Gentry et al 2011 p 103 Gentry et al 2011 p 50 a b Millet 2008 p 264 Haymes amp Samples 1996 p 114 Millet 2008 p 266 Gentry et al 2011 p 76 Millet 2008 p 267 Millet 2008 pp 273 274 Millet 2008 pp 271 272 Haymes 1988 pp xxvii xxix Uecker 1972 p 42 Gillespie 1973 p 55 n 9 Millet 2008 p 288 Gillespie 1973 p 50 Gentry et al 2011 p 75 Haymes amp Samples 1996 p 119 Millet 2008 p 294 Millet 2008 pp 295 296 Millet 2008 p 301 Millet 2008 pp 296 297 a b Wurth 2005 p 426 Millet 2008 pp 297 298 Millet 2008 p 298 a b Millet 2008 p 306 Haymes amp Samples 1996 p 124 Millet 2008 p 49 50 Millet 2008 p 48 51 Beck 1973 p 466 467 Millet 2008 p 58 59 Gentry et al 2011 p 101 Millet 2008 pp 299 300 Millet 2008 p 319 Millet 2008 p 313 Millet 2008 p 316 Gentry et al 2011 p 105 Gentry et al 2011 p 73 Millet 2008 p 317 a b Gudmundsdottir 2015 p 352 Gudmundsdottir 2015 p 353 Gudmundsdottir 2015 p 355 Gudmundsdottir 2015 pp 355 358 Millet 2008 p 169 a b Gudmundsdottir 2015 p 360 Gudmundsdottir 2015 p 358 Gudmundsdottir 2015 p 364 Gudmundsdottir 2015 pp 368 370 Gudmundsdottir 2015 pp 370 371 References EditAnton Hans H 1999 Gundahar In Beck Heinrich Geuenich Dieter Steuer Heiko eds Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde Vol 13 New York Berlin de Gruyter pp 193 194 Anton Hans H 1981 Burgunden 4 Historisches In Beck Heinrich Geuenich Dieter Steuer Heiko eds Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde Vol 4 New York Berlin de Gruyter pp 235 247 Andersson Theodore M 1980 The Legend of Brynhild Ithaca NY Cornell University ISBN 978 0 8014 1302 5 Beck Heinrich 1973 Atlilieder In Beck Heinrich Geuenich Dieter Steuer Heiko eds Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde Vol 1 New York Berlin de Gruyter pp 465 467 Boldl Klaus Preissler Katharina 2015 Ballade Germanische Altertumskunde Online Berlin Boston de Gruyter Edwards Cyril trans 2010 The Nibelungenlied The Lay of the Nibelungs Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 923854 5 Gentry Francis G McConnell Winder Muller Ulrich Wunderlich Werner eds 2011 2002 The Nibelungen Tradition An Encyclopedia New York Abingdon Routledge ISBN 978 0 8153 1785 2 Gillespie George T 1973 Catalogue of Persons Named in German Heroic Literature 700 1600 Including Named Animals and Objects and Ethnic Names Oxford Oxford University ISBN 978 0 19 815718 2 Gudmundsdottir Adalheidur 2015 Gunnarr Gjukason and images of snake pits In Heizmann Wilhelm Oehrl Sigmund eds Bilddenkmaler zur germanischen Gotter und Heldensage Berlin Boston de Gruyter pp 351 371 ISBN 978 3 11 040733 4 Gudmundsdottir Adalheidur Cosser Jeffrey 2012 Gunnarr and the Snake Pit in Medieval Art and Legend Speculum 87 4 1015 1049 doi 10 1017 S0038713412003144 JSTOR 23488628 Haubrichs Wolfgang 2004 Heroische Zeiten Wanderungen von Heldennamen und Heldensagen zwischen den germanischen gentes des fruhen Mittelalters In Nahl Astrid von Elmevik Lennart Brink Stefan eds Namenwelten Orts und Personennamen in historischer Sicht Berlin and New York de Gruyter pp 513 534 ISBN 978 3 11 018108 1 Haymes Edward R trans 1988 The Saga of Thidrek of Bern New York Garland ISBN 978 0 8240 8489 9 Haymes Edward R Samples Susan T 1996 Heroic legends of the North an introduction to the Nibelung and Dietrich cycles New York Garland ISBN 978 0 8153 0033 5 Heinzle Joachim ed 2013 Das Nibelungenlied und die Klage Nach der Handschrift 857 der Stiftsbibliothek St Gallen Mittelhochdeutscher Text Ubersetzung und Kommentar Berlin Deutscher Klassiker Verlag ISBN 978 3 618 66120 7 Holzapfel Otto Otto Holzapfel ed 1974 Die danischen Nibelungenballaden Texte und Kommentare Goppingen Kummerle ISBN 978 3 87452 237 3 Lienert Elisabeth 2015 Mittelhochdeutsche Heldenepik Berlin Erich Schmidt ISBN 978 3 503 15573 6 Millet Victor 2008 Germanische Heldendichtung im Mittelalter Berlin New York de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 020102 4 Muller Jan Dirk 2009 Das Nibelungenlied 3 ed Berlin Erich Schmidt The Poetic Edda Revised Edition Translated by Larrington Carolyne Oxford Oxford University 2014 ISBN 978 0 19 967534 0 Nedoma Robert Anton Hans H 1998 Gibichungen In Beck Heinrich Geuenich Dieter Steuer Heiko eds Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde Vol 12 New York Berlin de Gruyter pp 66 69 Rosenfeld Hellmut 1981 Burgunden 3 Burgundensagen In Beck Heinrich Geuenich Dieter Steuer Heiko eds Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde Vol 4 New York Berlin de Gruyter pp 231 235 Sprenger Ulrike 2002 Nibelungensage In Beck Heinrich Geuenich Dieter Steuer Heiko eds Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde Vol 21 New York Berlin de Gruyter pp 135 138 Uecker Heiko 1972 Germanische Heldensage Stuttgart Metzler ISBN 978 3 476 10106 8 Wurth Stephanie 2005 Sigurdlieder In Beck Heinrich Geuenich Dieter Steuer Heiko eds Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde Vol 28 New York Berlin de Gruyter pp 424 426 See also EditBurgundians Nibelung Volsunga sagaPreceded byGiselher King of Burgundy 437 Succeeded byGunderic Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Gunther amp oldid 1126578539, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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