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Pteridium aquilinum

August 27, 2023

Pteridium aquilinum, commonly called bracken, brake, common bracken, and also known as eagle fern, is a species of fern occurring in temperate and subtropical regions in both hemispheres. Originally native to Eurasia and North America, the extreme lightness of its spores has led to it achieving a cosmopolitan distribution.

Pteridium aquilinum

Secure (NatureServe)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Division: Polypodiophyta
Class: Polypodiopsida
Order: Polypodiales
Family: Dennstaedtiaceae
Genus: Pteridium
Species:
P. aquilinum
Binomial name
Pteridium aquilinum

Etymology Edit

Common bracken was first described as Pteris aquilina by Carl Linnaeus, in Volume 2 of his Species Plantarum in 1753. The origin of the specific epithet derived from the Latin aquila "eagle". In the reprint of the Flora Suecica in 1755, Linnaeus explains that the name refers to the image of an eagle seen in the transverse section of the root.[3] In spite of this, the opinion has been forwarded that the name pertains to the shape of the mature fronds appearing akin to an eagle's wing.[4] However, medieval scholars, including Erasmus, thought the pattern of the fibres seen in a transverse section of the stipe resembled a double-headed eagle or oak tree.

Taxonomy Edit

It was traditionally treated as the sole species in the genus Pteridium (brackens); however, authorities have split and recognised up to 11 species in the genus. It was placed in the genus Pteridium by Friedrich Adalbert Maximilian Kuhn in 1879.[5] Genetic analysis of Pteridium from 100 different locations worldwide has revealed two distinct species and despite the common name "bracken" being shared, the "southern" species is Pteridium esculentum. Though the southern P. esculentum shows little genetic diversity among physically isolated locations, P. aquilinum has distinct groups at the continental scale. However, evidence of long-distance gene flow was found in samples taken from Hawaii that presented elements of both North American and Asian subspecies of P. aquilinum.[6]

Description Edit

Common bracken is a herbaceous perennial plant, deciduous in winter. The large, roughly triangular fronds are produced singly, arising upwards from an underground rhizome, and grow to 0.3–1 m (1–3 ft) tall; the main stem, or stipe, is up to 1 cm (0.4 in) diameter at the base. It dies back to ground level in autumn.[7] The rhizome grows up to 3.5 m (11.5 ft) deep, about 5 cm (2 in) in diameter, and up to 15 m (49 ft) long. Because it regrows in the spring from an underground rhizome, P. aquilinum tends to be found in dense colonies on genetically identical fronds. In the spring as the plant enters its growing cycle, fiddleheads are first sent up from the rhizome. The density and area covered by a single rhizome maximizes that rhizome's chance of biological success when sending up new growth. The new growth presents as vertical stalks, coiled and covered in silver-gray hairs, that can be several feet in height before unfurling into fronds.[8]

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    Amphicribral vascular bundle of a common bracken rhizome

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Reproduction Edit

Sporangia are formed in sori on the underside of the frond.[9] They are arranged in narrow brown bands, and form spores over July, August and September.[10]

Habitat Edit

Bracken grows in pastures, deciduous and coniferous woodlands, and hillsides. It prefers acidic soils.[10]

An adaptable plant, bracken readily colonises disturbed areas. It can even be aggressive in countries where it is native, such as England, where it has invaded heather (Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull) stands on the North Yorkshire moors.[11] In Ireland, bracken is found in open woodland and sandy pastures.[9]

Distribution Edit

Bracken is native to Europe, Eastern Asia and North America,[10] but now has an almost cosmopolitan distribution.[12] In the Americas, it is found throughout the continental United States and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland. Its range's northern border extends to southern Alaska, while its southern reaches the northern portions of Mexico, as well as the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean.[10] Weedy in acidic upland pastures of northwestern Europe.[12]

Uses Edit

Food Edit

 
Commercially packaged warabimochi (bracken jelly) in Japan

Despite its established toxicity, P. aquilinum’s global distribution — it is the fifth most widely distributed common weed species in the world — means that it has a long history of being consumed in many parts of the world.[13] The toxicity and wide distribution has led to variation in cultural attitudes towards the consumption of the plant. In the United Kingdom where P. aquilinum is extremely successful, the rhizome was once consumed during and after World War I.[14] However the Royal Horticultural Society now explicitly advises against its consumption due to toxicity.[15]

Bracken is a widely eaten vegetable in Korea, Japan, Russian Far East, and parts of China where they have historically been some of the most important wild vegetables consumed.[16] Populations of these countries where bracken is traditionally consumed have been able to access bracken in new locations after immigrating due to P. aquilinum’s global ubiquity.

In Korea, bracken is known as gosari. It is soaked, parboiled, and stir-fried, and often eaten as a side dish (namul).[17] It is also a classic ingredient of bibimbap.[18]

In Japan, bracken is known as warabi (蕨, ワラビ), and a jelly-like starch made from it is a key ingredient for the chilled dessert warabimochi. As a type of sansai (mountain vegetables), young bracken shoots are steamed, boiled, or cooked in soups. The shoots are also preserved in salt, sake, or miso.[19]

Bracken shoots have been used to produce beer in Siberia, and among indigenous peoples of North America.[19]

The rhizome can be ground into flour to make bread. In the Canary Islands, the rhizome was historically used to make a porridge called gofio.[19]

Bracken leaves are used in the Mediterranean region to filter sheep's milk, and to store freshly made ricotta cheese.[19]

  •  

    Dried bracken (gosari) from Korea

  •  

    Seasoned stir-fried bracken (gosari namul) from Korea

Pharmacology Edit

P. aquilinum has been investigated for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties.[20]

Toxicity Edit

The plant contains the carcinogenic compound ptaquiloside.[21] Ptaquiloside is known to cause hemorrhagic diseases in ruminants, tumors and hematological problems in non-ruminants, and is correlated with esophageal and gastric cancer in humans.[13][22] High stomach cancer rates are found in Japan and North Wales, where the young stems are used as a vegetable, but it is unknown whether bracken plays any part or if the cancer can be attributed to another cause.[23] Consumption of ptaquiloside-contaminated milk is thought to contribute to human gastric cancer in the Andean states of Venezuela.[24] The spores have also been implicated as carcinogens. Consumption of contaminated water and meat may be dangerous as well.[25]

However, ptaquiloside is water-soluble, and is reduced by soaking bracken in cool water.[16] Korean and Japanese cooks have traditionally soaked the shoots in water and ash to detoxify the plant before eating.[19] Ptaquiloside also degenerates at room temperature, which explains why the rat studies were done with the toxin stored at −20 °C (−4 °F).[16] At boiling temperature, the carcinogen denatures almost completely.[16] Salt and baking soda also help with volatilizing the chemical.[16]

It has been suggested that selenium supplementation can prevent as well as reverse the immunotoxic effects induced by ptaquiloside from Pteridium aquilinum.[26]

References Edit

  1. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0 Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  2. ^ Christenhusz, M., Bento Elias, R., Dyer, R., Ivanenko, Y., Rouhan, G., Rumsey, F. & Väre, H. 2017. Pteridium aquilinum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T73691742A85427115. Downloaded on 01 July 2021.
  3. ^ radix oblique dissecta refert aliquatenus aquilam imperialem
  4. ^ Austin, Daniel F. (2004). Florida ethnobotany. CRC Press. p. 551. ISBN 978-0-8493-2332-4. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
  5. ^ Thomson, John A. (2004). "Towards a taxonomic revision of Pteridium (Dennstaedtiaceae)". Telopea. 10 (4): 793–803.
  6. ^ Wolf, Paul G.; Rowe, Carol A.; Kinosian, Sylvia P.; Der, Joshua P.; Lockhart, Peter J.; Shepherd, Lara D.; McLenachan, Patricia A.; Thomson, John A. (October 2019). "Worldwide relationships in the fern genus Pteridium (bracken) based on nuclear genome markers". American Journal of Botany. 106 (10): 1365–1376. doi:10.1002/ajb2.1365. ISSN 0002-9122. PMC 6856829. PMID 31545874.
  7. ^ Clapham, A.R., Tutin, T.G. and Warburg, E.F. 1968 Excursion Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-04656-4.
  8. ^ "SCDNR - Species: Bracken Fern". www.dnr.sc.gov. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
  9. ^ a b Parnell, J. and Curtis, T. 2012. Webb's An Irish Flora. Cork University Press. ISBN 978-1-85918-478-3.
  10. ^ a b c d Common Weeds of the United States. New York: Dover. January 1971. p. 8. ISBN 0486205045.
  11. ^ Whitehead, S J; Digby, J (1997). "The morphology of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) in the North York Moors—a comparison of the mature stand and the interface with heather (Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull) 1. The fronds". Annals of Applied Biology. 131: 103–116. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1997.tb05399.x.
  12. ^ a b Baker, Herbert G (1974). "The Evolution of Weeds". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. Annual Reviews. 5 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.000245. ISSN 0066-4162.
  13. ^ a b Vetter, János (2009-03-03). "A biological hazard of our age: Bracken fern [ Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn] — A Review". Acta Veterinaria Hungarica. 57 (1): 183–196. doi:10.1556/avet.57.2009.1.18. ISSN 1588-2705. PMID 19457786.
  14. ^ Marrs, R. H.; Watt, A. S. (November 2006). "Biological Flora of the British Isles: Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn". Journal of Ecology. 94 (6): 1272–1321. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01177.x. ISSN 0022-0477. S2CID 85114338.
  15. ^ "Bracken / RHS Gardening". www.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
  16. ^ a b c d e Shaw, Hank (30 June 2011). "The Bracken Fern: A Natural Born Killer?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  17. ^ Mishan, Ligaya (16 February 2017). "At Cafe Lily, the Korean-Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  18. ^ Fontella, Amelia Cook (16 February 2017). "I brake for fernbrake". Isthmus. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  19. ^ a b c d e Pieroni, Andrea (2005). Prance, Ghillean; Nesbitt, Mark (eds.). The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 0415927463.
  20. ^ Dion, C; Haug, C; Guan, H; Ripoll, C; Spiteller, P; Coussaert, A; Boulet, E; Schmidt, D; Wei, J; Zhou, Y; Lamottke, K (2015). "Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative potential of four fern species from China intended for use as food supplements". Natural Product Communications. 10 (4): 597–603. doi:10.1177/1934578X1501000416. PMID 25973486. S2CID 8419285.
  21. ^ Gomes, Joana; Magalhães, Ana; Michel, Valérie; Amado, Inês F; Aranha, Paulo; Ovesen, Rikke G; Hansen, Hans C. B; Gärtner, Fátima; Reis, Celso A; Touati, Eliette (2012). "Pteridium aquilinum and Its Ptaquiloside Toxin Induce DNA Damage Response in Gastric Epithelial Cells, a Link with Gastric Carcinogenesis". Toxicological Sciences. 126 (1): 60–71. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfr329. PMID 22143989.
  22. ^ Hirono, Iwao; Ito, Mitsuya; Yagyu, Shigeru; Haga, Masanobu; Wakamatsu, Kazumasa; Kishikawa, Teruaki; Nishikawa, Osamu; Yamada, Kiyoyuki; Ojika, Makoto; Kigoshi, Hideo (1993). "Reproduction of Progressive Retinal Degeneration (Bright Blindness) in Sheep by Administration of Ptaquiloside Contained in Bracken". Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 55 (6): 979–983. doi:10.1292/jvms.55.979. PMID 8117827.
  23. ^ I A Evans; B Widdop; R S Jones; G D Barber; H Leach; D L Jones & R Mainwaring-Burton (1971). "The possible human hazard of the naturally occurring bracken carcinogen". Biochem. J. 124 (2): 29P–30P. doi:10.1042/bj1240029pa. PMC 1177200. PMID 5158492.
  24. ^ Alonso‐Amelot, Miguel E; Avendaño, Marisabel (2001). "Possible association between gastric cancer and bracken fern in Venezuela: An epidemiologic study". International Journal of Cancer. 91 (2): 252–259. doi:10.1002/1097-0215(200002)9999:9999<::AID-IJC1028>3.0.CO;2-H. PMID 11146454.
  25. ^ Tourchi-Roudsari, Motahhareh (2014). "Multiple effects of bracken fern under in vivo and in vitro conditions". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 15 (18): 7505–7513. doi:10.7314/apjcp.2014.15.18.7505. ISSN 2476-762X. PMID 25292020.
  26. ^ Latorre, A.O; Caniceiro, B.D; Wysocki, H.L; Haraguchi, M; Gardner, D.R; Górniak, S.L (2011). "Selenium reverses Pteridium aquilinum-induced immunotoxic effects". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 49 (2): 464–470. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2010.11.026. PMID 21112370.

External links Edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pteridium aquilinum.

August 27, 2023
pteridium, aquilinum, commonly, called, bracken, brake, common, bracken, also, known, eagle, fern, species, fern, occurring, temperate, subtropical, regions, both, hemispheres, originally, native, eurasia, north, america, extreme, lightness, spores, achieving,. Pteridium aquilinum commonly called bracken brake common bracken and also known as eagle fern is a species of fern occurring in temperate and subtropical regions in both hemispheres Originally native to Eurasia and North America the extreme lightness of its spores has led to it achieving a cosmopolitan distribution Pteridium aquilinumConservation statusSecure NatureServe 1 Least Concern IUCN 3 1 2 Scientific classificationKingdom PlantaeClade TracheophytesDivision PolypodiophytaClass PolypodiopsidaOrder PolypodialesFamily DennstaedtiaceaeGenus PteridiumSpecies P aquilinumBinomial namePteridium aquilinum L Kuhn Contents 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy 3 Description 4 Reproduction 5 Habitat 6 Distribution 7 Uses 7 1 Food 7 2 Pharmacology 8 Toxicity 9 References 10 External linksEtymology EditCommon bracken was first described as Pteris aquilina by Carl Linnaeus in Volume 2 of his Species Plantarum in 1753 The origin of the specific epithet derived from the Latin aquila eagle In the reprint of the Flora Suecica in 1755 Linnaeus explains that the name refers to the image of an eagle seen in the transverse section of the root 3 In spite of this the opinion has been forwarded that the name pertains to the shape of the mature fronds appearing akin to an eagle s wing 4 However medieval scholars including Erasmus thought the pattern of the fibres seen in a transverse section of the stipe resembled a double headed eagle or oak tree Taxonomy EditIt was traditionally treated as the sole species in the genus Pteridium brackens however authorities have split and recognised up to 11 species in the genus It was placed in the genus Pteridium by Friedrich Adalbert Maximilian Kuhn in 1879 5 Genetic analysis of Pteridium from 100 different locations worldwide has revealed two distinct species and despite the common name bracken being shared the southern species is Pteridium esculentum Though the southern P esculentum shows little genetic diversity among physically isolated locations P aquilinum has distinct groups at the continental scale However evidence of long distance gene flow was found in samples taken from Hawaii that presented elements of both North American and Asian subspecies of P aquilinum 6 Description EditCommon bracken is a herbaceous perennial plant deciduous in winter The large roughly triangular fronds are produced singly arising upwards from an underground rhizome and grow to 0 3 1 m 1 3 ft tall the main stem or stipe is up to 1 cm 0 4 in diameter at the base It dies back to ground level in autumn 7 The rhizome grows up to 3 5 m 11 5 ft deep about 5 cm 2 in in diameter and up to 15 m 49 ft long Because it regrows in the spring from an underground rhizome P aquilinum tends to be found in dense colonies on genetically identical fronds In the spring as the plant enters its growing cycle fiddleheads are first sent up from the rhizome The density and area covered by a single rhizome maximizes that rhizome s chance of biological success when sending up new growth The new growth presents as vertical stalks coiled and covered in silver gray hairs that can be several feet in height before unfurling into fronds 8 Amphicribral vascular bundle of a common bracken rhizome Reproduction EditSporangia are formed in sori on the underside of the frond 9 They are arranged in narrow brown bands and form spores over July August and September 10 Habitat EditBracken grows in pastures deciduous and coniferous woodlands and hillsides It prefers acidic soils 10 An adaptable plant bracken readily colonises disturbed areas It can even be aggressive in countries where it is native such as England where it has invaded heather Calluna vulgaris L Hull stands on the North Yorkshire moors 11 In Ireland bracken is found in open woodland and sandy pastures 9 Distribution EditBracken is native to Europe Eastern Asia and North America 10 but now has an almost cosmopolitan distribution 12 In the Americas it is found throughout the continental United States and the Canadian provinces of Ontario Quebec and Newfoundland Its range s northern border extends to southern Alaska while its southern reaches the northern portions of Mexico as well as the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean 10 Weedy in acidic upland pastures of northwestern Europe 12 Uses EditFood Edit Commercially packaged warabimochi bracken jelly in JapanDespite its established toxicity P aquilinum s global distribution it is the fifth most widely distributed common weed species in the world means that it has a long history of being consumed in many parts of the world 13 The toxicity and wide distribution has led to variation in cultural attitudes towards the consumption of the plant In the United Kingdom where P aquilinum is extremely successful the rhizome was once consumed during and after World War I 14 However the Royal Horticultural Society now explicitly advises against its consumption due to toxicity 15 Bracken is a widely eaten vegetable in Korea Japan Russian Far East and parts of China where they have historically been some of the most important wild vegetables consumed 16 Populations of these countries where bracken is traditionally consumed have been able to access bracken in new locations after immigrating due to P aquilinum s global ubiquity In Korea bracken is known as gosari It is soaked parboiled and stir fried and often eaten as a side dish namul 17 It is also a classic ingredient of bibimbap 18 In Japan bracken is known as warabi 蕨 ワラビ and a jelly like starch made from it is a key ingredient for the chilled dessert warabimochi As a type of sansai mountain vegetables young bracken shoots are steamed boiled or cooked in soups The shoots are also preserved in salt sake or miso 19 Bracken shoots have been used to produce beer in Siberia and among indigenous peoples of North America 19 The rhizome can be ground into flour to make bread In the Canary Islands the rhizome was historically used to make a porridge called gofio 19 Bracken leaves are used in the Mediterranean region to filter sheep s milk and to store freshly made ricotta cheese 19 Dried bracken gosari from Korea Seasoned stir fried bracken gosari namul from KoreaPharmacology Edit P aquilinum has been investigated for its anti inflammatory and antioxidative properties 20 Toxicity EditThe plant contains the carcinogenic compound ptaquiloside 21 Ptaquiloside is known to cause hemorrhagic diseases in ruminants tumors and hematological problems in non ruminants and is correlated with esophageal and gastric cancer in humans 13 22 High stomach cancer rates are found in Japan and North Wales where the young stems are used as a vegetable but it is unknown whether bracken plays any part or if the cancer can be attributed to another cause 23 Consumption of ptaquiloside contaminated milk is thought to contribute to human gastric cancer in the Andean states of Venezuela 24 The spores have also been implicated as carcinogens Consumption of contaminated water and meat may be dangerous as well 25 However ptaquiloside is water soluble and is reduced by soaking bracken in cool water 16 Korean and Japanese cooks have traditionally soaked the shoots in water and ash to detoxify the plant before eating 19 Ptaquiloside also degenerates at room temperature which explains why the rat studies were done with the toxin stored at 20 C 4 F 16 At boiling temperature the carcinogen denatures almost completely 16 Salt and baking soda also help with volatilizing the chemical 16 It has been suggested that selenium supplementation can prevent as well as reverse the immunotoxic effects induced by ptaquiloside from Pteridium aquilinum 26 References Edit NatureServe Explorer 2 0 Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern explorer natureserve org Retrieved 5 October 2020 Christenhusz M Bento Elias R Dyer R Ivanenko Y Rouhan G Rumsey F amp Vare H 2017 Pteridium aquilinum The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017 e T73691742A85427115 Downloaded on 01 July 2021 radix oblique dissecta refert aliquatenus aquilam imperialem Austin Daniel F 2004 Florida ethnobotany CRC Press p 551 ISBN 978 0 8493 2332 4 Retrieved 30 June 2010 Thomson John A 2004 Towards a taxonomic revision of Pteridium Dennstaedtiaceae Telopea 10 4 793 803 Wolf Paul G Rowe Carol A Kinosian Sylvia P Der Joshua P Lockhart Peter J Shepherd Lara D McLenachan Patricia A Thomson John A October 2019 Worldwide relationships in the fern genus Pteridium bracken based on nuclear genome markers American Journal of Botany 106 10 1365 1376 doi 10 1002 ajb2 1365 ISSN 0002 9122 PMC 6856829 PMID 31545874 Clapham A R Tutin T G and Warburg E F 1968 Excursion Flora of the British Isles Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 04656 4 SCDNR Species Bracken Fern www dnr sc gov Retrieved 2022 06 04 a b Parnell J and Curtis T 2012 Webb s An Irish Flora Cork University Press ISBN 978 1 85918 478 3 a b c d Common Weeds of the United States New York Dover January 1971 p 8 ISBN 0486205045 Whitehead S J Digby J 1997 The morphology of bracken Pteridium aquilinum L Kuhn in the North York Moors a comparison of the mature stand and the interface with heather Calluna vulgaris L Hull 1 The fronds Annals of Applied Biology 131 103 116 doi 10 1111 j 1744 7348 1997 tb05399 x a b Baker Herbert G 1974 The Evolution of Weeds Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics Annual Reviews 5 1 1 24 doi 10 1146 annurev es 05 110174 000245 ISSN 0066 4162 a b Vetter Janos 2009 03 03 A biological hazard of our age Bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum L Kuhn A Review Acta Veterinaria Hungarica 57 1 183 196 doi 10 1556 avet 57 2009 1 18 ISSN 1588 2705 PMID 19457786 Marrs R H Watt A S November 2006 Biological Flora of the British Isles Pteridium aquilinum L Kuhn Journal of Ecology 94 6 1272 1321 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2745 2006 01177 x ISSN 0022 0477 S2CID 85114338 Bracken RHS Gardening www rhs org uk Retrieved 2022 06 04 a b c d e Shaw Hank 30 June 2011 The Bracken Fern A Natural Born Killer The Atlantic Retrieved 19 April 2017 Mishan Ligaya 16 February 2017 At Cafe Lily the Korean Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus The New York Times Retrieved 19 April 2017 Fontella Amelia Cook 16 February 2017 I brake for fernbrake Isthmus Retrieved 19 April 2017 a b c d e Pieroni Andrea 2005 Prance Ghillean Nesbitt Mark eds The Cultural History of Plants Routledge p 35 ISBN 0415927463 Dion C Haug C Guan H Ripoll C Spiteller P Coussaert A Boulet E Schmidt D Wei J Zhou Y Lamottke K 2015 Evaluation of the anti inflammatory and antioxidative potential of four fern species from China intended for use as food supplements Natural Product Communications 10 4 597 603 doi 10 1177 1934578X1501000416 PMID 25973486 S2CID 8419285 Gomes Joana Magalhaes Ana Michel Valerie Amado Ines F Aranha Paulo Ovesen Rikke G Hansen Hans C B Gartner Fatima Reis Celso A Touati Eliette 2012 Pteridium aquilinum and Its Ptaquiloside Toxin Induce DNA Damage Response in Gastric Epithelial Cells a Link with Gastric Carcinogenesis Toxicological Sciences 126 1 60 71 doi 10 1093 toxsci kfr329 PMID 22143989 Hirono Iwao Ito Mitsuya Yagyu Shigeru Haga Masanobu Wakamatsu Kazumasa Kishikawa Teruaki Nishikawa Osamu Yamada Kiyoyuki Ojika Makoto Kigoshi Hideo 1993 Reproduction of Progressive Retinal Degeneration Bright Blindness in Sheep by Administration of Ptaquiloside Contained in Bracken Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 55 6 979 983 doi 10 1292 jvms 55 979 PMID 8117827 I A Evans B Widdop R S Jones G D Barber H Leach D L Jones amp R Mainwaring Burton 1971 The possible human hazard of the naturally occurring bracken carcinogen Biochem J 124 2 29P 30P doi 10 1042 bj1240029pa PMC 1177200 PMID 5158492 Alonso Amelot Miguel E Avendano Marisabel 2001 Possible association between gastric cancer and bracken fern in Venezuela An epidemiologic study International Journal of Cancer 91 2 252 259 doi 10 1002 1097 0215 200002 9999 9999 lt AID IJC1028 gt 3 0 CO 2 H PMID 11146454 Tourchi Roudsari Motahhareh 2014 Multiple effects of bracken fern under in vivo and in vitro conditions Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention 15 18 7505 7513 doi 10 7314 apjcp 2014 15 18 7505 ISSN 2476 762X PMID 25292020 Latorre A O Caniceiro B D Wysocki H L Haraguchi M Gardner D R Gorniak S L 2011 Selenium reverses Pteridium aquilinum induced immunotoxic effects Food and Chemical Toxicology 49 2 464 470 doi 10 1016 j fct 2010 11 026 PMID 21112370 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pteridium aquilinum Pteridium aquilinum Germplasm Resources Information Network Agricultural Research Service United States Department of Agriculture Flora Europaea Pteridium aquilinum Flora of North America Pteridium aquilinum Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pteridium aquilinum amp oldid 1164368819, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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