Dimensionless quantity

A dimensionless quantity (also known as a bare quantity, pure quantity as well as quantity of dimension one)^[1] is a quantity to which no physical dimension is assigned. Dimensionless quantities are widely used in many fields, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering, and economics. Dimensionless quantities are distinct from quantities that have associated dimensions, such as time (measured in seconds).

The corresponding unit of measurement is one (symbol 1),^[2][3] which is not explicitly shown. For any system of units, the number one is considered a base unit.^[4]Dimensionless units are special names that serve as units of measurement for expressing other dimensionless quantities. For example, in the SI, radians (rad) and steradians (sr) are dimensionless units for plane angles and solid angles, respectively.^[2] For example, optical extent is defined as having units of metres multiplied by steradians.^[5]

Some dimensionless quantities are called dimensionless numbers or characteristic numbers; they result from the product or quotient of other general quantities (e.g., characteristic lengths) and serve as parameters in equations and models. Characteristic numbers often carry the term "number" in their names (e.g., "Reynolds number") and may be denoted mathematically with a capitalized two-letter acronym (e.g., "Re" or "Re", italicized or not).^[6] Several such numbers are defined as part of the International System of Quantities (ISQ), as standardized in ISO 80000-11.^[7]

Dimensionless physical constants (e.g., fine-structure constant) and dimensionless material constants (e.g., refractive index) are dimensionless quantities having a fixed value for the whole universe or for a given material, respectively

History

See also: Dimensional analysis § History

Quantities having dimension one, dimensionless quantities, regularly occur in sciences, and are formally treated within the field of dimensional analysis. In the 19th century, French mathematician Joseph Fourier and Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell led significant developments in the modern concepts of dimension and unit. Later work by British physicists Osborne Reynolds and Lord Rayleigh contributed to the understanding of dimensionless numbers in physics. Building on Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis, Edgar Buckingham proved the π theorem (independently of French mathematician Joseph Bertrand's previous work) to formalize the nature of these quantities.^[8]

Numerous dimensionless numbers, mostly ratios, were coined in the early 1900s, particularly in the areas of fluid mechanics and heat transfer. Measuring logarithm of ratios as levels in the (derived) unit decibel (dB) finds widespread use nowadays.

There have been periodic proposals to "patch" the SI system to reduce confusion regarding physical dimensions. For example, a 2017 op-ed in Nature^[9] argued for formalizing the radian as a physical unit. The idea was rebutted^[10] on the grounds that such a change would raise inconsistencies for both established dimensionless groups, like the Strouhal number, and for mathematically distinct entities that happen to have the same units, like torque (a vector product) versus energy (a scalar product). In another instance in the early 2000s, the International Committee for Weights and Measures discussed naming the unit of 1 as the "uno", but the idea of just introducing a new SI name for 1 was dropped.^[11][12][13]

Buckingham π theorem

Main article: Buckingham π theorem

The Buckingham π theorem indicates that validity of the laws of physics does not depend on a specific unit system. A statement of this theorem is that any physical law can be expressed as an identity involving only dimensionless combinations (ratios or products) of the variables linked by the law (e. g., pressure and volume are linked by Boyle's Law – they are inversely proportional). If the dimensionless combinations' values changed with the systems of units, then the equation would not be an identity, and Buckingham's theorem would not hold.

Another consequence of the theorem is that the functional dependence between a certain number (say, n) of variables can be reduced by the number (say, k) of independent dimensions occurring in those variables to give a set of p = n − k independent, dimensionless quantities. For the purposes of the experimenter, different systems that share the same description by dimensionless quantity are equivalent.

Integers

Number of entities
Common symbols	N
SI unit	Unitless
Dimension	1

Integer numbers may be used to represent discrete dimensionless quantities. More specifically, counting numbers can be used to express countable quantities.^[14][15] The concept is formalized as quantity number of entities (symbol N) in ISO 80000-1.^[4] Examples include number of particles and population size. In mathematics, the "number of elements" in a set is termed cardinality. Countable nouns is a related linguistics concept. Counting numbers, such as number of bits, can be compounded with units of frequency (inverse second) to derive units of count rate, such as bits per second. Count data is a related concept in statistics. The concept may be generalized by allowing non-integer numbers to account for fractions of a full item, e.g., number of turns equal to one half.

Ratios, proportions, and angles

Dimensionless quantities are often obtained as ratios, the quotient resulting from the division of quantities of the same kind ― that are not dimensionless, but whose dimensions cancel out in the mathematical operation.^[4][16] Examples of quotients of dimension one include calculating slopes or some unit conversion factors. A more complex example of such a ratio is engineering strain, a measure of physical deformation defined as a change in length divided by the initial length. Another set of examples is mass fractions or mole fractions, often written using parts-per notation such as ppm (= 10⁻⁶), ppb (= 10⁻⁹), and ppt (= 10⁻¹²), or perhaps confusingly as ratios of two identical units (kg/kg or mol/mol). For example, alcohol by volume, which characterizes the concentration of ethanol in an alcoholic beverage, could be written as mL / 100 mL.

Other common proportions are percentages % (= 0.01),  ‰ (= 0.001). Some angle units such as turn, radian, and steradian are defined as ratios of quantities of the same kind. In statistics the coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean and is used to measure the dispersion in the data.

It has been argued that quantities defined as ratios Q = A/B having equal dimensions in numerator and denominator are actually only unitless quantities and still have physical dimension defined as dim Q = dim A × dim B⁻¹.^[17] For example, moisture content may be defined as a ratio of volumes (volumetric moisture, m³⋅m⁻³, dimension L³⋅L⁻³) or as a ratio of masses (gravimetric moisture, units kg⋅kg⁻¹, dimension M⋅M⁻¹); both would be unitless quantities, but of different dimension.

Dimensionless physical constants

Main article: Dimensionless physical constant

Certain universal dimensioned physical constants, such as the speed of light in vacuum, the universal gravitational constant, the Planck constant, the Coulomb constant, and the Boltzmann constant can be normalized to 1 if appropriate units for time, length, mass, charge, and temperature are chosen. The resulting system of units is known as the natural units, specifically regarding these five constants, Planck units. However, not all physical constants can be normalized in this fashion. For example, the values of the following constants are independent of the system of units, cannot be defined, and can only be determined experimentally:^[18]

• α ≈ 1/137, the fine-structure constant, which characterizes the magnitude of the electromagnetic interaction between electrons.
• β (or μ) ≈ 1836, the proton-to-electron mass ratio. This ratio is the rest mass of the proton divided by that of the electron. An analogous ratio can be defined for any elementary particle;
• α_s ≈ 1, a constant characterizing the strong nuclear force coupling strength;
• The ratio of the mass of any given elementary particle to the Planck mass, ${\textstyle {\sqrt {\hbar c/G}}}$ .

Dimensionless materials constants

Main article: Dimensionless material constant

Examples of dimensionless material constants include Poisson's ratio and relative atomic mass, refractive index.

Characteristic numbers

Further information: Dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics and Category:Dimensionless numbers of thermodynamics

Characteristic numbers are abundant in fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and other areas.

Other quantities produced by nondimensionalization

Physics often uses dimensionless quantities to simplify the characterization of systems with multiple interacting physical phenomena. These may be found by applying the Buckingham π theorem or otherwise may emerge from making partial differential equations unitless by the process of nondimensionalization. Engineering, economics, and other fields often extend these ideas in design and analysis of the relevant systems.

List

Main article: List of dimensionless quantities

Physics and engineering

• Fresnel number – wavenumber over distance
• Mach number – ratio of the speed of an object or flow relative to the speed of sound in the fluid.

Further information: Dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics

• Beta (plasma physics) – ratio of plasma pressure to magnetic pressure, used in magnetospheric physics as well as fusion plasma physics.
• Damköhler numbers (Da) – used in chemical engineering to relate the chemical reaction timescale (reaction rate) to the transport phenomena rate occurring in a system.
• Thiele modulus – describes the relationship between diffusion and reaction rate in porous catalyst pellets with no mass transfer limitations.
• Numerical aperture – characterizes the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light.
• Sherwood number – (also called the mass transfer Nusselt number) is a dimensionless number used in mass-transfer operation. It represents the ratio of the convective mass transfer to the rate of diffusive mass transport.
• Schmidt number – defined as the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) and mass diffusivity, and is used to characterize fluid flows in which there are simultaneous momentum and mass diffusion convection processes.
• Reynolds number is commonly used in fluid mechanics to characterize flow, incorporating both properties of the fluid and the flow. It is interpreted as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and can indicate flow regime as well as correlate to frictional heating in application to flow in pipes.^[19]
• Zukoski number, usually noted Q*, is the ratio of the heat release rate of a fire to the enthalpy of the gas flow rate circulating through the fire. Accidental and natural fires usually have a Q* of ~1. Flat spread fires such as forest fires have Q*<1. Fires originating from pressured vessels or pipes, with additional momentum caused by pressure, have Q*>>>1.^[20]

Chemistry

• Relative density – density relative to water
• Relative atomic mass, Standard atomic weight
• Equilibrium constant (which is sometimes dimensionless)

Other fields

• Cost of transport is the efficiency in moving from one place to another
• Elasticity is the measurement of the proportional change of an economic variable in response to a change in another

See also

• List of dimensionless quantities
• Arbitrary unit
• Dimensional analysis
• Normalization (statistics) and standardized moment, the analogous concepts in statistics
• Orders of magnitude (numbers)
• Similitude (model)

References

1. "1.8 (1.6) quantity of dimension one dimensionless quantity". International vocabulary of metrology — Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM). ISO. 2008. Retrieved 2011-03-22.
2. "SI Brochure: The International System of Units, 9th Edition". BIPM. ISBN 978-92-822-2272-0.
3. Mohr, Peter J.; Phillips, William Daniel (2015-06-01). "Dimensionless units in the SI". Metrologia. 52.
4. "ISO 80000-1:2022(en) Quantities and units — Part 1: General". iso.org. Retrieved 2023-07-23.
5. "17-21-048: optical extent". CIE S 017:2020 ILV: International Lighting Vocabulary, 2nd edition. International Commission on Illumination. Retrieved 2023-02-20.
6. "ISO 80000-1:2022 Quantities and units — Part 1: General". iso.org. Retrieved 2023-08-31.
7. "ISO 80000-11:2019 Quantities and units — Part 11: Characteristic numbers". iso.org. Retrieved 2023-08-31.
8. Buckingham, Edgar (1914). "On physically similar systems; illustrations of the use of dimensional equations". Physical Review. 4 (4): 345–376. Bibcode:1914PhRv....4..345B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.4.345. hdl:10338.dmlcz/101743.
9. "Lost dimension: A flaw in the SI system leaves physicists grappling with ambiguous units - SI units need reform to avoid confusion" (PDF). This Week: Editorials. Nature. 548 (7666): 135. 2017-08-10. Bibcode:2017Natur.548R.135.. doi:10.1038/548135b. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 28796224. S2CID 4444368. (PDF) from the original on 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2022-12-21. (1 page)
10. Wendl, Michael Christopher (September 2017). "Don't tamper with SI-unit consistency". Nature. 549 (7671): 160. doi:10.1038/549160d. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 28905893. S2CID 52806576.
11. (PDF). 17–18 April 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-11-30. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
12. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-11-30. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
13. Dybkær, René (2004). "An ontology on property for physical, chemical, and biological systems". APMIS Suppl. (117): 1–210. PMID 15588029.
14. Rothstein, Susan (2017). Semantics for Counting and Measuring. Key Topics in Semantics and Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-1-107-00127-5. Retrieved 2021-11-30.
15. Berch, Daniel B.; Geary, David Cyril; Koepke, Kathleen Mann (2015). Development of Mathematical Cognition: Neural Substrates and Genetic Influences. Elsevier Science. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-12-801909-2. Retrieved 2021-11-30.
16. "7.3 Dimensionless groups" (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2023-11-03.
17. Johansson, Ingvar (2010). "Metrological thinking needs the notions of parametric quantities, units and dimensions". Metrologia. 47 (3): 219–230. Bibcode:2010Metro..47..219J. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/47/3/012. ISSN 0026-1394. S2CID 122242959.
18. Baez, John Carlos (2011-04-22). "How Many Fundamental Constants Are There?". Retrieved 2015-10-07.
19. Huba, Joseph D. (2007). "NRL Plasma Formulary: Dimensionless Numbers of Fluid Mechanics". Naval Research Laboratory. pp. 23–25. Retrieved 2015-10-07.
20. Zukoski, Edward E. (1986). "Fluid Dynamic Aspects of Room Fires" (PDF). Fire Safety Science. Retrieved 2022-06-13.

Further reading

• Flater, David (October 2017) [2017-05-20, 2017-03-23, 2016-11-22]. Written at National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA. "Redressing grievances with the treatment of dimensionless quantities in SI". Measurement. London, UK: Elsevier Ltd. 109: 105–110. Bibcode:2017Meas..109..105F. doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2017.05.043. eISSN 1873-412X. ISSN 0263-2241. PMC 7727271. PMID 33311828. NIHMS1633436. (15 pages)

External links

•   Media related to Dimensionless numbers at Wikimedia Commons