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Allium

August 18, 2023

Allium is a genus of monocotyledonous flowering plants with hundreds of species, including the cultivated onion, garlic, scallion, shallot, leek, and chives. The generic name Allium is the Latin word for garlic,[4][5] and the type species for the genus is Allium sativum which means "cultivated garlic".[6]

Allium
Allium sativum[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Amaryllidaceae
Subfamily: Allioideae
Tribe: Allieae
Genus: Allium
L.
Type species
Allium sativum
Evolutionary lines

§ Evolutionary lines and subgenera

Synonyms[3]
Synonymy
  • Cepa Mill.
  • Moly Mill.
  • Porrum Mill.
  • Saturnia Maratti
  • Moenchia Medik. 1790, illegitimate homonym not Ehrh. 1783 nor Roth 1788 nor Wender. ex Steud. 1841
  • Ascalonicum P.Renault
  • Schoenoprasum Kunth
  • Ophioscorodon Wallr.
  • Geboscon Raf.
  • Codonoprasum Rchb.
  • Molium (G.Don) Haw.
  • Nectaroscordum Lindl.
  • Aglitheis Raf.
  • Endotis Raf.
  • Getuonis Raf.
  • Gynodon Raf.
  • Kalabotis Raf.
  • Kepa Tourn. ex Raf.
  • Kromon Raf.
  • Loncostemon Raf.
  • Maligia Raf.
  • PanstenumRaf.
  • Plexistena Raf.
  • Stelmesus Raf.
  • Stemodoxis Raf.
  • Praskoinon Raf.
  • Trigonea Parl.
  • Caloscordum Herb.
  • Berenice Salisb. 1866, illegitimate homonym not Tul. 1857
  • Briseis Salisb.
  • Butomissa Salisb.
  • Calliprena Salisb.
  • Camarilla Salisb.
  • Canidia Salisb.
  • Hexonychia Salisb.
  • Hylogeton Salisb.
  • Iulus Salisb.
  • Molyza Salisb.
  • Phyllodolon Salisb.
  • Raphione Salisb.
  • Schoenissa Salisb.
  • Xylorhiza Salisb. 1866, illegitimate homonym not Nutt. 1840
  • Anguinum Fourr.
  • Rhizirideum Fourr.
  • Scorodon Fourr.
  • Milula Prain
  • Validallium Small
Allium flavum (yellow) and Allium carinatum (purple)

Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Allium in 1753. Some sources refer to Greek ἀλέω (aleo, to avoid) by reason of the smell of garlic.[7] Various Allium have been cultivated from the earliest times, and about a dozen species are economically important as crops, or garden vegetables, and an increasing number of species are important as ornamental plants.[7][8]

The decision to include a species in the genus Allium is taxonomically difficult, and species boundaries are unclear. Estimates of the number of species are as low as 260,[9] and as high as 979.[10]

Allium species occur in temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere, except for a few species occurring in Chile (such as A. juncifolium), Brazil (A. sellovianum), and tropical Africa (A. spathaceum). They vary in height between 5 cm and 150 cm. The flowers form an umbel at the top of a leafless stalk. The bulbs vary in size between species, from small (around 2–3 mm in diameter) to rather large (8–10 cm). Some species (such as Welsh onion A. fistulosum and leeks (A. ampeloprasum)) develop thickened leaf-bases rather than forming bulbs as such.

Plants of the genus Allium produce chemical compounds, mostly derived from cysteine sulfoxides, that give them a characteristic onion or garlic taste and odor.[7] Many are used as food plants, though not all members of the genus are equally flavorful. In most cases, both bulb and leaves are edible. The characteristic Allium flavor depends on the sulfate content of the soil the plant grows in.[7] In the rare occurrence of sulfur-free growth conditions, all Allium species completely lose their usual pungency.

In the APG III classification system, Allium is placed in the family Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Allioideae (formerly the family Alliaceae).[11] In some of the older classification systems, Allium was placed in Liliaceae.[7][8][12][13][14] Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown this circumscription of Liliaceae is not monophyletic.

Allium is one of about fifty-seven genera of flowering plants with more than 500 species.[15] It is by far the largest genus in the Amaryllidaceae, and also in the Alliaceae in classification systems in which that family is recognized as separate.[9]

Description

 
Capsule of Allium oreophilum.

The genus Allium (alliums) is characterised by herbaceous geophyte perennials with true bulbs, some of which are borne on rhizomes, and an onion or garlic odor and flavor.[16]

The bulbs are solitary or clustered and tunicate and the plants are perennialized by the bulbs reforming annually from the base of the old bulbs, or are produced on the ends of rhizomes or, in a few species, at the ends of stolons.[17] A small number of species have tuberous roots. The bulbs' outer coats are commonly brown or grey, with a smooth texture, and are fibrous, or with cellular reticulation. The inner coats of the bulbs are membranous.

Many alliums have basal leaves that commonly wither away from the tips downward before or while the plants flower, but some species have persistent foliage. Plants produce from one to 12 leaves, most species having linear, channeled or flat leaf blades. The leaf blades are straight or variously coiled, but some species have broad leaves, including A. victorialis and A. tricoccum. The leaves are sessile, and very rarely narrowed into a petiole.

The flowers, which are produced on scapes are erect or in some species pendent, having six petal-like tepals produced in two whorls. The flowers have one style and six epipetalous stamens; the anthers and pollen can vary in color depending on the species. The ovaries are superior, and three-lobed with three locules.

The fruits are capsules that open longitudinally along the capsule wall between the partitions of the locule.[17][18] The seeds are black, and have a rounded shape.

The terete or flattened flowering scapes are normally persistent. The inflorescences are umbels, in which the outside flowers bloom first and flowering progresses to the inside. Some species produce bulbils within the umbels, and in some species, such as Allium paradoxum, the bulbils replace some or all the flowers. The umbels are subtended by noticeable spathe bracts, which are commonly fused and normally have around three veins.

Some bulbous alliums increase by forming little bulbs or "offsets" around the old one, as well as by seed. Several species can form many bulbils in the flowerhead; in the so-called "tree onion" or Egyptian onion (A. × proliferum) the bulbils are few, but large enough to be pickled.

Many of the species of Allium have been used as food items throughout their ranges. There are several unrelated species that are somewhat similar in appearance to Alliums but are poisonous (e.g. in North America, death camas, Toxicoscordion venenosum), but none of these has the distinctive scent of onions or garlic.[19][20]

Taxonomy

Main article: Taxonomy of Allium

With over 850 species[21] Allium is the sole genus in the Allieae, one of four tribes of subfamily Allioideae (Amaryllidaceae). New species continue to be described[21] and Allium is one of the largest monocotyledonous genera,[22] but the precise taxonomy of Allium is poorly understood,[22][21] with incorrect descriptions being widespread. The difficulties arise from the fact that the genus displays considerable polymorphism and has adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Furthermore, traditional classifications had been based on homoplasious characteristics (the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages). However, the genus has been shown to be monophyletic, containing three major clades, although some proposed subgenera are not.[22] Some progress is being made using molecular phylogenetic methods, and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, including the 5.8S rDNA and the two spacers ITS1 and ITS2, is one of the more commonly used markers in the study of the differentiation of the Allium species.[21]

Allium includes a number of taxonomic groupings previously considered separate genera (Caloscordum Herb., Milula Prain and Nectaroscordum Lindl.) Allium spicatum had been treated by many authors as Milula spicata, the only species in the monospecific genus Milula. In 2000, it was shown to be embedded in Allium.[23]

Phylogeny

Amaryllidaceae: Subfamily Allioideae

Tribe Allieae (monogeneric, Allium)

History

When Linnaeus[1] formerly described the genus Allium in his Species Plantarum (1753), there were thirty species with this name. He placed Allium in a grouping he referred to as Hexandria monogynia (i.e. six stamens and one pistil)[24] containing 51 genera in all.[25]

Subdivision

Linnaeus originally grouped his 30 species into three alliances, e.g. Foliis caulinis planis. Since then, many attempts have been made to divide the growing number of recognised species into infrageneric subgroupings, initially as sections, and then as subgenera further divided into sections. For a brief history, see Li et al. (2010)[22] The modern era of phylogenetic analysis dates to 1996.[26] In 2006 Friesen, Fritsch, and Blattner[27] described a new classification with 15 subgenera, 56 sections, and about 780 species based on the nuclear ribosomal gene internal transcribed spacers. Some of the subgenera correspond to the once separate genera (Caloscordum, Milula, Nectaroscordum) included in the Gilliesieae.[22][28] The terminology has varied with some authors subdividing subgenera into Sections and others Alliances. The term Alliance has also been used for subgroupings within species, e.g. Allium nigrum, and for subsections.[29]

Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have shown the 2006 classification is a considerable improvement over previous classifications, but some of its subgenera and sections are probably not monophyletic. Meanwhile, the number of new species continued to increase, reaching 800 by 2009, and the pace of discovery has not decreased. Detailed studies have focused on a number of subgenera, including Amerallium. Amerallium is strongly supported as monophyletic.[30] Subgenus Melanocrommyum has also been the subject of considerable study (see below), while work on subgenus Allium has focussed on section Allium, including Allium ampeloprasum, although sampling was not sufficient to test the monophyly of the section.[31]

The major evolutionary lineages or lines correspond to the three major clades. Line one (the oldest) with three subgenera is predominantly bulbous, the second, with five subgenera and the third with seven subgenera contain both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa.[22]

Evolutionary lines and subgenera

See also: List of Allium species

The three evolutionary lineages and 15 subgenera represent the classification scheme of Friesen et al. (2006)[27] and Li (2010).[22] (number of sections/number of species)

Cladogram of evolutionary lines in Allium[27]
Allium

First evolutionary line

Second evolutionary line

Third evolutionary line

First evolutionary line

Although this lineage consists of three subgenera, nearly all the species are attributed to subgenus Amerallium, the third largest subgenus of Allium. The lineage is considered to represent the most ancient line within Allium, and to be the only lineage that is purely bulbous, the other two having both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa. Within the lineage Amerallium is a sister group to the other two subgenera (Microscordum+Nectaroscordum).[22]

Second evolutionary line

Nearly all the species in this lineage of five subgenera are accounted for by subgenus Melanocrommyum, which is most closely associated with subgenera Vvedenskya and Porphyroprason, phylogenetically. These three genera are late-branching whereas the remaining two subgenera, Caloscordum and Anguinum, are early branching.[22]

Third evolutionary line

The third evolutionary line contains the greatest number of sections (seven), and also the largest subgenus of the genus Allium: subgenus Allium, which includes the type species of the genus, Allium sativum. This subgenus also contains the majority of the species in its lineage. Within the lineage, the phylogeny is complex. Two small subgenera, Butomissa and Cyathophora form a sister clade to the remaining five subgenera, with Butomissa as the first branching group. Amongst the remaining five subgenera, Rhizirideum forms a medium-sized subgenus that is the sister to the other four, larger, subgenera. This line may not be monophyletic.[22]

Proposed infrageneric groups

Names from[32]

  • Allium sect. Acanthoprason Wendelbo
  • Allium subsect. Acuminatae Ownbey ex Traub
  • Allium sect. Amerallium Traub
  • Allium sect. Anguinum G. Don
  • Allium sect. Brevispatha Vals.
  • Allium sect. Briseis Stearn
  • Allium sect. Bromatorrhiza Ekberg
  • Allium sect. Caloscordum Baker
  • Allium subsect. Campanulatae Ownbey ex Traub
  • Allium sect. Caulorhizideum Traub
  • Allium subsect. Cepa Stearn
  • Allium subsect. Cernuae Rchb.
  • Allium sect. Codonoprasum Ekberg
  • Allium sect. Falcatifolia N. Friesen
  • Allium subsect. Falcifoliae Ownbey ex Traub
  • Allium sect. Halpostemon Boiss.
  • Allium sect. Haneltia F.O. Khass.
  • Allium sect. Lophioprason Traub.
  • Allium subg. Melanocrommyon (Webb & Berthel.) Rouy
  • Allium subsect. Mexicana Traub
  • Allium sect. Molium G. Don ex W.D.J. Koch
  • Allium sect. Multicaulea F.O. Khass. & Yengal.
  • Allium sect. Oreiprason F. Herm.
  • Allium sect. Petroprason F. Herm.
  • Allium subg. Polyprason Radic
  • Allium sect. Porrum G. Don
  • Allium sect. Rhiziridium G. Don ex W.D.J. Koch
  • Allium sect. Rhophetoprason Traub
  • Allium subsect. Sanbornae Ownbey ex Traub
  • Allium sect. Schoenoprasum Dumort.
  • Allium sect. Scorodon
  • Allium sect. Unicaulea F.O. Khass.

Distribution and habitat

 
Wild Allium in Behbahan, Iran

The majority of Allium species are native to the Northern Hemisphere, being spread throughout the holarctic region, from dry subtropics to the boreal zone,[22] predominantly in Asia. Of the latter, 138 species occur in China, about a sixth of all Allium species, representing five subgenera.[22] A few species are native to Africa and Central and South America.[17] A single known exception, Allium dregeanum occurs in the Southern Hemisphere (South Africa). There are two centres of diversity, a major one from the Mediterranean Basin to Central Asia and Pakistan, while a minor one is found in western North America.[22] The genus is especially diverse in the eastern Mediterranean.[33]

Ecology

Species grow in various conditions from dry, well-drained mineral-based soils to moist, organic soils; most grow in sunny locations, but a number also grow in forests (e.g., A. ursinum),[7] or even in swamps or water.[citation needed]

Various Allium species are used as food plants by the larvae of the leek moth and onion fly[7] as well as some Lepidoptera including cabbage moth, common swift moth (recorded on garlic), garden dart moth, large yellow underwing moth, nutmeg moth, setaceous Hebrew character moth, turnip moth and Schinia rosea, a moth that feeds exclusively on Allium species.[citation needed]

Genetics

The genus Allium has very large variation between species in their genome size that is not accompanied by changes in ploidy level.[34] This remarkable variation was noted in the discussion of the evolution of junk DNA and resulted in the Onion Test, a "reality check for anyone who thinks they have come up with a universal function for junk DNA".[35] Genome sizes vary between 7.5 Gb in A. schoenoprasum and 30.9 Gb in A. ursinum, both of which are diploid.[34]

Cultivation

 
Selection of cultivated alliums displayed at the BBC Gardeners' World Live show

Many Allium species have been harvested through human history, but only about a dozen are still economically important today as crops or garden vegetables.[7][36]

Ornamental

Many Allium species and hybrids are cultivated as ornamentals.[37] These include A. cristophii and A. giganteum, which are used as border plants for their ornamental flowers, and their "architectural" qualities.[8][38] Several hybrids have been bred, or selected, with rich purple flowers. A. hollandicum 'Purple Sensation' is one of the most popular and has been given an Award of Garden Merit (H4).[39] These ornamental onions produce spherical umbels on single stalks in spring and summer, in a wide variety of sizes and colours, ranging from white (Allium 'Mont Blanc'), blue (A. caeruleum), to yellow (A. flavum) and purple (A. giganteum). By contrast, other species (such as invasive A. triquetrum and A. ursinum) can become troublesome garden weeds.[38][40]

The following cultivars, of uncertain or mixed parentage, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

Toxicity

Dogs and cats are very susceptible to poisoning after the consumption of certain species.[7][48] Even cattle have suffered onion toxicosis.[49] Vegetables of the Allium genus can cause digestive disorders for human beings.[50]

Uses

The genus includes many economically important species. These include onions (A. cepa), French shallots (A. oschaninii), leeks (A. ampeloprasum), garlic (A. sativum), and herbs such as scallions (various Allium species) and chives (A. schoenoprasum). Some have been used as traditional medicines.[22]

This genus also includes species that are abundantly gathered from the wild such as wild garlic (Allium ursinum) and ramps (Allium tricoccum).

References

  1. ^ a b Linnaeus 1753, Allium I pp. 294–301
  2. ^ . Archived from the original on 2011-02-17. Retrieved 2015-04-07.
  3. ^ Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
  4. ^ Quattrocchi 1999, vol. 1 p. 91.
  5. ^ Gledhill, David (2008). "The Names of Plants". Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521866453 (hardback), ISBN 9780521685535 (paperback). pp 43
  6. ^ Allium In: Index Nominum Genericorum. In: Regnum Vegetabile (see § External links below).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Eric Block (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9.
  8. ^ a b c Dilys Davies (1992). Alliums: The Ornamental Onions. Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-241-7.
  9. ^ a b Knud Rahn. 1998. "Alliaceae" pages 70-78. In: Klaus Kubitzki (editor). The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants volume III. Springer-Verlag: Berlin;Heidelberg, Germany. ISBN 978-3-540-64060-8
  10. ^
  11. ^ Chase, M.W.; Reveal, J.L. & Fay, M.F. (2009). "A subfamilial classification for the expanded asparagalean families Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 132–136. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00999.x.
  12. ^ James L. Brewster, "Onions and Other Alliums" (Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 2008)
  13. ^ Haim D. Rabinowitch, Leslie Currah, "Allium Crop Sciences: Recent Advances" (Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 2002)
  14. ^ Penny Woodward, "Garlic and Friends: The History, Growth and Use of Edible Alliums" (South Melbourne: Hyland House, 1996)
  15. ^ Frodin, David G. (2004). "History and concepts of big plant genera". Taxon. 53 (3): 753–776. doi:10.2307/4135449. JSTOR 4135449.
  16. ^ Wheeler et al 2013.
  17. ^ a b c "Allium in Flora of China @". Efloras.org. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  18. ^ "Allium in Flora of North America @". Efloras.org. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  19. ^ Peterson, R.P. 1982. A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants: Eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
  20. ^ Gibbons, E. 1962. Stalking the wild asparagus. David McKay, New York.
  21. ^ a b c d Deniz et al 2015.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Li et al. 2010.
  23. ^ Friesen et al 2000.
  24. ^ Linnaeus Sexual System 2015.
  25. ^ Linnaeus 1753, Hexandria monogynia I pp. 285–332.
  26. ^ von Berg et al 1996.
  27. ^ a b c Friesen, Fritsch & Blattner 2006.
  28. ^ Sykorova 2006.
  29. ^ Fritsch et al 2010.
  30. ^ Nguyen et al 2008.
  31. ^ Hirschegger et al 2010.
  32. ^ "Tropicos".
  33. ^ Tzanoudakis & Trigas 2015.
  34. ^ a b Ricroch, A.; Yockteng, R.; Brown, S C; Nadot, S (2005). "Evolution of genome size across some cultivated Allium species". Genome. 48 (3): 511–520. doi:10.1139/g05-017. ISSN 0831-2796. PMID 16121247. S2CID 14787301.
  35. ^ Freeling, Michael; Xu, Jie; Woodhouse, Margaret; Lisch, Damon (2015). "A Solution to the C-Value Paradox and the Function of Junk DNA: The Genome Balance Hypothesis". Molecular Plant. 8 (6): 899–910. doi:10.1016/j.molp.2015.02.009. PMID 25743198.
  36. ^ Simonetti, Gualtiero (1990). Stanley Schuler (ed.). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Herbs and Spices. Simon & Schuster, Inc. ISBN 978-0-671-73489-3.
  37. ^ Anthony Huxley, Mark Griffiths, and Margot Levy (1992). The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening. The Macmillan Press, Limited: London. The Stockton Press: New York. ISBN 978-0-333-47494-5 (set).
  38. ^ a b Brickell, Christopher (Editor-in-chief), The Royal Horticultural Society A–Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants, p. 95, Dorling Kindersley, London, 1996, ISBN 0-7513-0303-8
  39. ^ RHS Plant Finder 2009–2010, p. 68, Dorling Kindersley, London, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4053-4176-9
  40. ^ Lloyd, Christopher & Rice, Graham, (1991). Garden Flowers From Seed, p. 45, Viking, ISBN 0-670-82455-0
  41. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Allium 'Ambassador'". Royal Horticultural Society. 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  42. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Allium 'Beau Regard'". Royal Horticultural Society. 1995. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  43. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Allium 'Gladiator'". Royal Horticultural Society. 1995. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  44. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Allium 'Globemaster'". Royal Horticultural Society. 1995. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  45. ^ "Allium rosenorum 'Michael H. Hoog'". RHS. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
  46. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Allium 'Round 'n' Purple'". Royal Horticultural Society. 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  47. ^ "Allium 'Universe'". RHS. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
  48. ^ Cope, R.B. (August 2005). "Toxicology Brief: Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats" (PDF). Veterinary Medicine. Edwardsville, Kansas. 100 (8): 562–566. eISSN 1939-1919. ISSN 8750-7943. [Peer-reviewed.]
  49. ^ Rae, Helen A. (January 1999). "Onion toxicosis in a herd of beef cows". Canadian Veterinary Journal. 40 (1): 55–57. Retrieved March 17, 2023. While humans appear to be relatively resistant to onion toxicity, there is some concern about the susceptibility of certain ethnic groups that have a genetic deficiency of G6PD. / Onion toxicity depends on factors other than variation in species susceptibility. Onions contain varying amounts of disulfide and SMCO toxins, depending on the species of onion, time of year, and growing conditions. Storing onions in large piles also provides a suitable environment for contamination of the crop with other toxins, such as mycotoxins, which could contribute to the disease process.
  50. ^ Singh, Zoomi (October 12, 2022). "Potential Side Effects of Chives". Chives: Nutritional Value, Health Benefits and Potential Side Effects of Chives. Singapore: HealthifyMe. Retrieved March 17, 2023.

Bibliography

Books

  • Block, Eric (2009). Garlic and other alliums: the lore and the science. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9.
  • Brewster, J. L. (2008). Onions and Other Alliums. CABI Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84593-399-9.
  • Davies, D. (1992). Alliums: The Ornamental Onions. Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-241-7.
  • Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Stockholm: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
  • Rabinowitch, H. D.; Currah, L. (2002). Allium Crop Sciences: Recent Advances. CABI Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85199-510-6.
  • Quattrocchi, Umberto (1999). CRC world dictionary of plant names: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-2673-8.
  • Woodward, P. (1996). Garlic and Friends: The History, Growth and Use of Edible Alliums. Hyland House. ISBN 978-1-86447-009-3.

Chapters

Articles

  • Banfi, Enrico; Galasso, Gabriele; Soldano, Adriano (1 September 2011). "Notes on systematics and taxonomy for the Italian vascular flora. 2". Natural History Sciences (Milan). 152 (2): 85–106. doi:10.4081/nhs.2011.85.
  • von Berg, Gerlinde Linne; Samoylov, Alexander; Klaas, Manfred; Hanelt, Peter (September 1996). "Chloroplast DNA restriction analysis and the infrageneric grouping of Allium (Alliaceae)". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 200 (3–4): 253–261. doi:10.1007/bf00984939. S2CID 12751231.
  • Choi, Hyeok Jae; Giussani, Liliana M.; Jang, Chang Gee; Oh, Byoung Un; Cota-Sánchez, J. Hugo (June 2012). "Systematics of disjunct northeastern Asian and northern North American Allium (Amaryllidaceae)". Botany. 90 (6): 491–508. doi:10.1139/b2012-031.
  • Deniz, İsmail Gökhan; Genç, İlker; Sarı, Duygu (9 June 2015). "Morphological and molecular data reveal a new species of Allium (Amaryllidaceae) from SW Anatolia, Turkey". Phytotaxa. 212 (4): 283–292. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.212.4.4.
  • Dubouzet, J. G.; Shinoda, K.; Murata, N. (17 December 1997). "Phylogeny of Allium L. subgenus Rhizirideum (G. Don ex Koch) Wendelbo according to dot blot hybridization with randomly amplified DNA probes". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 95 (8): 1223–1228. doi:10.1007/s001220050685. S2CID 33083704.
  • Fragman-Sapir, Ori; Fritsch, Reinhard M. (2011). "New species of Allium sect. Melanocrommyum from the eastern Mediterranean" (PDF). Herbertia. 65: 31–50.
  • Friesen, N.; Fritsch, R.; Bachmann, K. (1997). "Hybrid origin of some ornamentals of Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum verified with GISH and RAPD". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 95 (8): 1229–1238. doi:10.1007/s001220050686. S2CID 21554910.
  • Friesen, Nikolai; Fritsch, Reinhard M.; Pollner, Sven; Blattner, Frank R. (2000). "Molecular and Morphological Evidence for an Origin of the Aberrant Genus Milula within Himalayan Species of Allium (Alliacae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 17 (2): 209–218. doi:10.1006/mpev.2000.0844. PMID 11083935.
  • Friesen, N; Fritsch, RM; Blattner, Frank R (2006). "Phylogeny and new intrageneric classification of Allium (Alliaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS sequences". Aliso. 22: 372–395. doi:10.5642/aliso.20062201.31. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  • Fritsch, RM; Gurushidze, M; Jedelská, J; Keusgen, M (2006). "More than a pretty face - ornamental "drumstick onions" of Allium subg. Melanocrommyum are also potential medicinal plants". Herbertia. 60: 26–59.
  • Fritsch, RM; Blattner, FR; Gurushidze, M (2010). "New classification of Allium L. subg. Melanocrommyum (Webb & Berthel) Rouy (Alliaceae) based on molecular and morphological characters". Phyton. 49: 145–220. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  • Gurushidze, Maia; Fuchs, Jörg; Blattner, Frank R. (1 March 2012). "The Evolution of Genome Size Variation in Drumstick Onions (Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum)". Systematic Botany. 37 (1): 96–104. doi:10.1600/036364412X616675. S2CID 85838253.
  • Hirschegger, Pablo; Jaške, Jernej; Trontelj, Peter; Bohanec, Borut (2010). "Origins of Allium ampeloprasum horticultural groups and a molecular phylogeny of the section Allium (Allium; Alliaceae)"". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 54 (2): 488–497. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.030. PMID 19733249.
  • Huang, De-Qing; Yang, Jing-Tian; Zhou, Chun-Jing; Zhou, Song-Dong; He, Xing-Jin (21 December 2013). "Phylogenetic reappraisal of Allium subgenus Cyathophora (Amaryllidaceae) and related taxa, with a proposal of two new sections". Journal of Plant Research. 127 (2): 275–286. doi:10.1007/s10265-013-0617-8. PMID 24362461. S2CID 15531719.
  • İpek, Meryem; İpek, Ahmet; SIMON, Philipp W. (2014). "Testing the utility of matK and ITS DNA regions for discrimination of Allium species". Turkish Journal of Botany. 38: 203–212. doi:10.3906/bot-1308-46.
  • Li, R. J.; Shang, Z. Y.; Cui, T. C.; Xu, J. M. (1996). "Studies on karyotypes and phylogenetic relationship of Allium sect. Caloscordum (Liliaceae) from China". Acta Phytotax. Sin. 34: 288–295. [In Chinese.]
  • Li, Q.-Q.; Zhou, S.-D.; He, X.-J.; Yu, Y.; Zhang, Y.-C.; Wei, X.-Q. (21 October 2010). "Phylogeny and biogeography of Allium (Amaryllidaceae: Allieae) based on nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and chloroplast rps16 sequences, focusing on the inclusion of species endemic to China". Annals of Botany. 106 (5): 709–733. doi:10.1093/aob/mcq177. PMC 2958792. PMID 20966186.
  • Nguyen, Nhu H.; Driscoll, Heather E.; Specht, Chelsea D. (2008). "A molecular phylogeny of the wild onions (Allium; Alliaceae) with a focus on the western North American center of diversity". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47 (3): 1157–1172. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2007.12.006. PMID 18226928.
  • A. Samoylov, N. Friesen, S. Pollner, P. Hanelt. Use of chloroplast DNA polymorphisms for the phylogenetic study of Allium subgenus Amerallium and subgenus Bromatorrhiza (Alliaceae) II. Feddes Repertorium Volume 110 Issue 1–2, Pages 103–109, 1999
  • Seregin, Alexey P.; Anačkov, Goran; Friesen, Nikolai (May 2015). "Molecular and morphological revision of the Allium saxatile group (Amaryllidaceae): geographical isolation as the driving force of underestimated speciation". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 178 (1): 67–101. doi:10.1111/boj.12269.
  • Sykorova, E.; Fajkus, J.; Meznikova, M.; Lim, K. Y.; Neplechova, K.; Blattner, F. R.; Chase, M. W.; Leitch, A. R. (1 June 2006). "Minisatellite telomeres occur in the family Alliaceae but are lost in Allium". American Journal of Botany. 93 (6): 814–823. doi:10.3732/ajb.93.6.814. PMID 21642143.
  • Tzanoudakis, Dimitris; Trigas, Panayiotis (12 March 2015). "Allium occultum, a new species of A. sect. Codonoprasum (Amaryllidaceae) from Skiros Island (W Aegean, Greece)". Phytotaxa. 202 (2): 135. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.202.2.5.
  • Wheeler, E. J.; Mashayekhi, S.; McNeal, D. W.; Columbus, J. T.; Pires, J. C. (26 March 2013). "Molecular systematics of Allium subgenus Amerallium (Amaryllidaceae) in North America". American Journal of Botany. 100 (4): 701–711. doi:10.3732/ajb.1200641. PMID 23535771.
  • Zubaida Yousaf; Zabta Khan Shinwari; Rizwana ALEEM Qureshi; Mir Ajab Khan; Syed Shahinshah Gilani (2004). "Can complexity of the genus Allium L., be resolved through some numerical techniques?" (PDF). Pak. J. Bot. 36 (3): 487–501. Retrieved 28 January 2015.

Websites

External links

  •   Media related to Allium at Wikimedia Commons
  • At:Index Nominum Genericorum At:References At:NMNH Department of Botany
  • Bloomsta.com Florist Community
  • Reinhard M. Fritsch. Checklist of ornamental Allium species and cultivars currently offered in the trade. 2015

August 18, 2023
allium, genus, monocotyledonous, flowering, plants, with, hundreds, species, including, cultivated, onion, garlic, scallion, shallot, leek, chives, generic, name, latin, word, garlic, type, species, genus, sativum, which, means, cultivated, garlic, sativum, sc. Allium is a genus of monocotyledonous flowering plants with hundreds of species including the cultivated onion garlic scallion shallot leek and chives The generic name Allium is the Latin word for garlic 4 5 and the type species for the genus is Allium sativum which means cultivated garlic 6 AlliumAllium sativum 2 Scientific classificationKingdom PlantaeClade TracheophytesClade AngiospermsClade MonocotsOrder AsparagalesFamily AmaryllidaceaeSubfamily AllioideaeTribe AllieaeGenus AlliumL Type speciesAllium sativumL 1 Evolutionary lines Evolutionary lines and subgeneraSynonyms 3 Synonymy Cepa Mill Moly Mill Porrum Mill Saturnia MarattiMoenchia Medik 1790 illegitimate homonym not Ehrh 1783 nor Roth 1788 nor Wender ex Steud 1841Ascalonicum P RenaultSchoenoprasum KunthOphioscorodon Wallr Geboscon Raf Codonoprasum Rchb Molium G Don Haw Nectaroscordum Lindl Aglitheis Raf Endotis Raf Getuonis Raf Gynodon Raf Kalabotis Raf Kepa Tourn ex Raf Kromon Raf Loncostemon Raf Maligia Raf PanstenumRaf Plexistena Raf Stelmesus Raf Stemodoxis Raf Praskoinon Raf Trigonea Parl Caloscordum Herb Berenice Salisb 1866 illegitimate homonym not Tul 1857Briseis Salisb Butomissa Salisb Calliprena Salisb Camarilla Salisb Canidia Salisb Hexonychia Salisb Hylogeton Salisb Iulus Salisb Molyza Salisb Phyllodolon Salisb Raphione Salisb Schoenissa Salisb Xylorhiza Salisb 1866 illegitimate homonym not Nutt 1840Anguinum Fourr Rhizirideum Fourr Scorodon Fourr Milula PrainValidallium SmallAllium flavum yellow and Allium carinatum purple Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Allium in 1753 Some sources refer to Greek ἀlew aleo to avoid by reason of the smell of garlic 7 Various Allium have been cultivated from the earliest times and about a dozen species are economically important as crops or garden vegetables and an increasing number of species are important as ornamental plants 7 8 The decision to include a species in the genus Allium is taxonomically difficult and species boundaries are unclear Estimates of the number of species are as low as 260 9 and as high as 979 10 Allium species occur in temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere except for a few species occurring in Chile such as A juncifolium Brazil A sellovianum and tropical Africa A spathaceum They vary in height between 5 cm and 150 cm The flowers form an umbel at the top of a leafless stalk The bulbs vary in size between species from small around 2 3 mm in diameter to rather large 8 10 cm Some species such as Welsh onion A fistulosum and leeks A ampeloprasum develop thickened leaf bases rather than forming bulbs as such Plants of the genus Allium produce chemical compounds mostly derived from cysteine sulfoxides that give them a characteristic onion or garlic taste and odor 7 Many are used as food plants though not all members of the genus are equally flavorful In most cases both bulb and leaves are edible The characteristic Allium flavor depends on the sulfate content of the soil the plant grows in 7 In the rare occurrence of sulfur free growth conditions all Allium species completely lose their usual pungency In the APG III classification system Allium is placed in the family Amaryllidaceae subfamily Allioideae formerly the family Alliaceae 11 In some of the older classification systems Allium was placed in Liliaceae 7 8 12 13 14 Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown this circumscription of Liliaceae is not monophyletic Allium is one of about fifty seven genera of flowering plants with more than 500 species 15 It is by far the largest genus in the Amaryllidaceae and also in the Alliaceae in classification systems in which that family is recognized as separate 9 Contents 1 Description 2 Taxonomy 2 1 Phylogeny 2 2 History 2 3 Subdivision 2 4 Evolutionary lines and subgenera 2 4 1 First evolutionary line 2 4 2 Second evolutionary line 2 4 3 Third evolutionary line 2 4 4 Proposed infrageneric groups 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Ecology 5 Genetics 6 Cultivation 6 1 Ornamental 7 Toxicity 8 Uses 9 References 10 Bibliography 10 1 Books 10 2 Chapters 10 3 Articles 10 4 Websites 11 External linksDescription Edit Capsule of Allium oreophilum The genus Allium alliums is characterised by herbaceous geophyte perennials with true bulbs some of which are borne on rhizomes and an onion or garlic odor and flavor 16 The bulbs are solitary or clustered and tunicate and the plants are perennialized by the bulbs reforming annually from the base of the old bulbs or are produced on the ends of rhizomes or in a few species at the ends of stolons 17 A small number of species have tuberous roots The bulbs outer coats are commonly brown or grey with a smooth texture and are fibrous or with cellular reticulation The inner coats of the bulbs are membranous Many alliums have basal leaves that commonly wither away from the tips downward before or while the plants flower but some species have persistent foliage Plants produce from one to 12 leaves most species having linear channeled or flat leaf blades The leaf blades are straight or variously coiled but some species have broad leaves including A victorialis and A tricoccum The leaves are sessile and very rarely narrowed into a petiole The flowers which are produced on scapes are erect or in some species pendent having six petal like tepals produced in two whorls The flowers have one style and six epipetalous stamens the anthers and pollen can vary in color depending on the species The ovaries are superior and three lobed with three locules The fruits are capsules that open longitudinally along the capsule wall between the partitions of the locule 17 18 The seeds are black and have a rounded shape The terete or flattened flowering scapes are normally persistent The inflorescences are umbels in which the outside flowers bloom first and flowering progresses to the inside Some species produce bulbils within the umbels and in some species such as Allium paradoxum the bulbils replace some or all the flowers The umbels are subtended by noticeable spathe bracts which are commonly fused and normally have around three veins Some bulbous alliums increase by forming little bulbs or offsets around the old one as well as by seed Several species can form many bulbils in the flowerhead in the so called tree onion or Egyptian onion A proliferum the bulbils are few but large enough to be pickled Many of the species of Allium have been used as food items throughout their ranges There are several unrelated species that are somewhat similar in appearance to Alliums but are poisonous e g in North America death camas Toxicoscordion venenosum but none of these has the distinctive scent of onions or garlic 19 20 Taxonomy EditMain article Taxonomy of Allium With over 850 species 21 Allium is the sole genus in the Allieae one of four tribes of subfamily Allioideae Amaryllidaceae New species continue to be described 21 and Allium is one of the largest monocotyledonous genera 22 but the precise taxonomy of Allium is poorly understood 22 21 with incorrect descriptions being widespread The difficulties arise from the fact that the genus displays considerable polymorphism and has adapted to a wide variety of habitats Furthermore traditional classifications had been based on homoplasious characteristics the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages However the genus has been shown to be monophyletic containing three major clades although some proposed subgenera are not 22 Some progress is being made using molecular phylogenetic methods and the internal transcribed spacer ITS region including the 5 8S rDNA and the two spacers ITS1 and ITS2 is one of the more commonly used markers in the study of the differentiation of the Allium species 21 Allium includes a number of taxonomic groupings previously considered separate genera Caloscordum Herb Milula Prain and Nectaroscordum Lindl Allium spicatum had been treated by many authors as Milula spicata the only species in the monospecific genus Milula In 2000 it was shown to be embedded in Allium 23 Phylogeny Edit Amaryllidaceae Subfamily Allioideae Tribe Allieae monogeneric Allium Tribe TulbaghieaeTribes Gilliesieae LeucocoryneaeHistory Edit When Linnaeus 1 formerly described the genus Allium in his Species Plantarum 1753 there were thirty species with this name He placed Allium in a grouping he referred to as Hexandria monogynia i e six stamens and one pistil 24 containing 51 genera in all 25 Subdivision Edit Linnaeus originally grouped his 30 species into three alliances e g Foliis caulinis planis Since then many attempts have been made to divide the growing number of recognised species into infrageneric subgroupings initially as sections and then as subgenera further divided into sections For a brief history see Li et al 2010 22 The modern era of phylogenetic analysis dates to 1996 26 In 2006 Friesen Fritsch and Blattner 27 described a new classification with 15 subgenera 56 sections and about 780 species based on the nuclear ribosomal gene internal transcribed spacers Some of the subgenera correspond to the once separate genera Caloscordum Milula Nectaroscordum included in the Gilliesieae 22 28 The terminology has varied with some authors subdividing subgenera into Sections and others Alliances The term Alliance has also been used for subgroupings within species e g Allium nigrum and for subsections 29 Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have shown the 2006 classification is a considerable improvement over previous classifications but some of its subgenera and sections are probably not monophyletic Meanwhile the number of new species continued to increase reaching 800 by 2009 and the pace of discovery has not decreased Detailed studies have focused on a number of subgenera including Amerallium Amerallium is strongly supported as monophyletic 30 Subgenus Melanocrommyum has also been the subject of considerable study see below while work on subgenus Allium has focussed on section Allium including Allium ampeloprasum although sampling was not sufficient to test the monophyly of the section 31 The major evolutionary lineages or lines correspond to the three major clades Line one the oldest with three subgenera is predominantly bulbous the second with five subgenera and the third with seven subgenera contain both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa 22 Evolutionary lines and subgenera Edit See also List of Allium species The three evolutionary lineages and 15 subgenera represent the classification scheme of Friesen et al 2006 27 and Li 2010 22 number of sections number of species Cladogram of evolutionary lines in Allium 27 Allium First evolutionary lineSecond evolutionary lineThird evolutionary lineFirst evolutionary line Nectaroscordum Lindl Asch et Graebn Type Allium siculum 1 3 Mediterranean bells Sicilian honey garlic Microscordum Maxim N Friesen Type Allium monanthum 1 1 Amerallium Traub Type Allium canadense 12 135 Second evolutionary line Caloscordum Herb R M Fritsch Type Allium neriniflorum 1 3 Anguinum G Don ex Koch N Friesen Type Allium victorialis 1 12 Porphyroprason Ekberg R M Fritsch Type Allium oreophilum 1 1 Vvedenskya Kamelin R M Fritsch Type Allium kujukense 1 1 Melanocrommyum Webb et Berthel Rouy Type Allium nigrum 20 160 Third evolutionary line Butomissa Salisb N Friesen Type Allium ramosum 2 4 fragrant garlic Cyathophora R M Fritsch Type Allium cyathophorum 3 5 Rhizirideum G Don ex Koch Wendelbo s s Type Allium senescens 5 37 Allium L Type Allium sativum 15 300 garlic Reticulatobulbosa Kamelin N Friesen Type Allium lineare 5 80 Polyprason Radic Type Allium moschatum 4 50 Cepa Mill Radic Type Allium cepa 5 30 onion garden onion bulb onion common onionFirst evolutionary line Edit Although this lineage consists of three subgenera nearly all the species are attributed to subgenus Amerallium the third largest subgenus of Allium The lineage is considered to represent the most ancient line within Allium and to be the only lineage that is purely bulbous the other two having both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa Within the lineage Amerallium is a sister group to the other two subgenera Microscordum Nectaroscordum 22 Second evolutionary line Edit Nearly all the species in this lineage of five subgenera are accounted for by subgenus Melanocrommyum which is most closely associated with subgenera Vvedenskya and Porphyroprason phylogenetically These three genera are late branching whereas the remaining two subgenera Caloscordum and Anguinum are early branching 22 Third evolutionary line Edit The third evolutionary line contains the greatest number of sections seven and also the largest subgenus of the genus Allium subgenus Allium which includes the type species of the genus Allium sativum This subgenus also contains the majority of the species in its lineage Within the lineage the phylogeny is complex Two small subgenera Butomissa and Cyathophora form a sister clade to the remaining five subgenera with Butomissa as the first branching group Amongst the remaining five subgenera Rhizirideum forms a medium sized subgenus that is the sister to the other four larger subgenera This line may not be monophyletic 22 Proposed infrageneric groups Edit Names from 32 Allium sect Acanthoprason Wendelbo Allium subsect Acuminatae Ownbey ex Traub Allium sect Amerallium Traub Allium sect Anguinum G Don Allium sect Brevispatha Vals Allium sect Briseis Stearn Allium sect Bromatorrhiza Ekberg Allium sect Caloscordum Baker Allium subsect Campanulatae Ownbey ex Traub Allium sect Caulorhizideum Traub Allium subsect Cepa Stearn Allium subsect Cernuae Rchb Allium sect Codonoprasum Ekberg Allium sect Falcatifolia N Friesen Allium subsect Falcifoliae Ownbey ex Traub Allium sect Halpostemon Boiss Allium sect Haneltia F O Khass Allium sect Lophioprason Traub Allium subg Melanocrommyon Webb amp Berthel Rouy Allium subsect Mexicana Traub Allium sect Molium G Don ex W D J Koch Allium sect Multicaulea F O Khass amp Yengal Allium sect Oreiprason F Herm Allium sect Petroprason F Herm Allium subg Polyprason Radic Allium sect Porrum G Don Allium sect Rhiziridium G Don ex W D J Koch Allium sect Rhophetoprason Traub Allium subsect Sanbornae Ownbey ex Traub Allium sect Schoenoprasum Dumort Allium sect Scorodon Allium sect Unicaulea F O Khass Distribution and habitat Edit Wild Allium in Behbahan IranThe majority of Allium species are native to the Northern Hemisphere being spread throughout the holarctic region from dry subtropics to the boreal zone 22 predominantly in Asia Of the latter 138 species occur in China about a sixth of all Allium species representing five subgenera 22 A few species are native to Africa and Central and South America 17 A single known exception Allium dregeanum occurs in the Southern Hemisphere South Africa There are two centres of diversity a major one from the Mediterranean Basin to Central Asia and Pakistan while a minor one is found in western North America 22 The genus is especially diverse in the eastern Mediterranean 33 Ecology EditSpecies grow in various conditions from dry well drained mineral based soils to moist organic soils most grow in sunny locations but a number also grow in forests e g A ursinum 7 or even in swamps or water citation needed Various Allium species are used as food plants by the larvae of the leek moth and onion fly 7 as well as some Lepidoptera including cabbage moth common swift moth recorded on garlic garden dart moth large yellow underwing moth nutmeg moth setaceous Hebrew character moth turnip moth and Schinia rosea a moth that feeds exclusively on Allium species citation needed Genetics EditThe genus Allium has very large variation between species in their genome size that is not accompanied by changes in ploidy level 34 This remarkable variation was noted in the discussion of the evolution of junk DNA and resulted in the Onion Test a reality check for anyone who thinks they have come up with a universal function for junk DNA 35 Genome sizes vary between 7 5 Gb in A schoenoprasum and 30 9 Gb in A ursinum both of which are diploid 34 Cultivation Edit Selection of cultivated alliums displayed at the BBC Gardeners World Live showMany Allium species have been harvested through human history but only about a dozen are still economically important today as crops or garden vegetables 7 36 Ornamental Edit Many Allium species and hybrids are cultivated as ornamentals 37 These include A cristophii and A giganteum which are used as border plants for their ornamental flowers and their architectural qualities 8 38 Several hybrids have been bred or selected with rich purple flowers A hollandicum Purple Sensation is one of the most popular and has been given an Award of Garden Merit H4 39 These ornamental onions produce spherical umbels on single stalks in spring and summer in a wide variety of sizes and colours ranging from white Allium Mont Blanc blue A caeruleum to yellow A flavum and purple A giganteum By contrast other species such as invasive A triquetrum and A ursinum can become troublesome garden weeds 38 40 The following cultivars of uncertain or mixed parentage have gained the Royal Horticultural Society s Award of Garden Merit Ambassador 41 Beau Regard 42 Gladiator 43 Globemaster 44 Michael H Hoog A rosenorum 45 Round n Purple 46 Universe 47 Toxicity EditDogs and cats are very susceptible to poisoning after the consumption of certain species 7 48 Even cattle have suffered onion toxicosis 49 Vegetables of the Allium genus can cause digestive disorders for human beings 50 Uses EditThe genus includes many economically important species These include onions A cepa French shallots A oschaninii leeks A ampeloprasum garlic A sativum and herbs such as scallions various Allium species and chives A schoenoprasum Some have been used as traditional medicines 22 This genus also includes species that are abundantly gathered from the wild such as wild garlic Allium ursinum and ramps Allium tricoccum References Edit a b Linnaeus 1753 Allium I pp 294 301 1793 illustration from William Woodville Medical botany London James Phillips 1793 Vol 3 Plate 168 Allium sativum Garlic Hand coloured engraving Archived from the original on 2011 02 17 Retrieved 2015 04 07 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families Quattrocchi 1999 vol 1 p 91 Gledhill David 2008 The Names of Plants Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521866453 hardback ISBN 9780521685535 paperback pp 43 Allium In Index Nominum Genericorum In Regnum Vegetabile see External links below a b c d e f g h i Eric Block 2010 Garlic and Other Alliums The Lore and the Science Royal Society of Chemistry ISBN 978 0 85404 190 9 a b c Dilys Davies 1992 Alliums The Ornamental Onions Timber Press ISBN 978 0 88192 241 7 a b Knud Rahn 1998 Alliaceae pages 70 78 In Klaus Kubitzki editor The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants volume III Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg Germany ISBN 978 3 540 64060 8 The Plant List for genus Allium Chase M W Reveal J L amp Fay M F 2009 A subfamilial classification for the expanded asparagalean families Amaryllidaceae Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 161 2 132 136 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8339 2009 00999 x James L Brewster Onions and Other Alliums Wallingford CABI Publishing 2008 Haim D Rabinowitch Leslie Currah Allium Crop Sciences Recent Advances Wallingford CABI Publishing 2002 Penny Woodward Garlic and Friends The History Growth and Use of Edible Alliums South Melbourne Hyland House 1996 Frodin David G 2004 History and concepts of big plant genera Taxon 53 3 753 776 doi 10 2307 4135449 JSTOR 4135449 Wheeler et al 2013 a b c Allium in Flora of China Efloras org Retrieved 2012 12 11 Allium in Flora of North America Efloras org Retrieved 2012 12 11 Peterson R P 1982 A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants Eastern and central North America Houghton Mifflin Boston Gibbons E 1962 Stalking the wild asparagus David McKay New York a b c d Deniz et al 2015 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Li et al 2010 Friesen et al 2000 Linnaeus Sexual System 2015 Linnaeus 1753 Hexandria monogynia I pp 285 332 von Berg et al 1996 a b c Friesen Fritsch amp Blattner 2006 Sykorova 2006 Fritsch et al 2010 Nguyen et al 2008 Hirschegger et al 2010 Tropicos Tzanoudakis amp Trigas 2015 a b Ricroch A Yockteng R Brown S C Nadot S 2005 Evolution of genome size across some cultivated Allium species Genome 48 3 511 520 doi 10 1139 g05 017 ISSN 0831 2796 PMID 16121247 S2CID 14787301 Freeling Michael Xu Jie Woodhouse Margaret Lisch Damon 2015 A Solution to the C Value Paradox and the Function of Junk DNA The Genome Balance Hypothesis Molecular Plant 8 6 899 910 doi 10 1016 j molp 2015 02 009 PMID 25743198 Simonetti Gualtiero 1990 Stanley Schuler ed Simon amp Schuster s Guide to Herbs and Spices Simon amp Schuster Inc ISBN 978 0 671 73489 3 Anthony Huxley Mark Griffiths and Margot Levy 1992 The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening The Macmillan Press Limited London The Stockton Press New York ISBN 978 0 333 47494 5 set a b Brickell Christopher Editor in chief The Royal Horticultural Society A Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants p 95 Dorling Kindersley London 1996 ISBN 0 7513 0303 8 RHS Plant Finder 2009 2010 p 68 Dorling Kindersley London 2009 ISBN 978 1 4053 4176 9 Lloyd Christopher amp Rice Graham 1991 Garden Flowers From Seed p 45 Viking ISBN 0 670 82455 0 RHS Plantfinder Allium Ambassador Royal Horticultural Society 2016 Retrieved 5 January 2018 RHS Plantfinder Allium Beau Regard Royal Horticultural Society 1995 Retrieved 5 January 2018 RHS Plantfinder Allium Gladiator Royal Horticultural Society 1995 Retrieved 5 January 2018 RHS Plantfinder Allium Globemaster Royal Horticultural Society 1995 Retrieved 5 January 2018 Allium rosenorum Michael H Hoog RHS Retrieved 27 February 2020 RHS Plantfinder Allium Round n Purple Royal Horticultural Society 2016 Retrieved 5 January 2018 Allium Universe RHS Retrieved 27 February 2020 Cope R B August 2005 Toxicology Brief Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats PDF Veterinary Medicine Edwardsville Kansas 100 8 562 566 eISSN 1939 1919 ISSN 8750 7943 Peer reviewed Rae Helen A January 1999 Onion toxicosis in a herd of beef cows Canadian Veterinary Journal 40 1 55 57 Retrieved March 17 2023 While humans appear to be relatively resistant to onion toxicity there is some concern about the susceptibility of certain ethnic groups that have a genetic deficiency of G6PD Onion toxicity depends on factors other than variation in species susceptibility Onions contain varying amounts of disulfide and SMCO toxins depending on the species of onion time of year and growing conditions Storing onions in large piles also provides a suitable environment for contamination of the crop with other toxins such as mycotoxins which could contribute to the disease process Singh Zoomi October 12 2022 Potential Side Effects of Chives Chives Nutritional Value Health Benefits and Potential Side Effects of Chives Singapore HealthifyMe Retrieved March 17 2023 Bibliography EditBooks Edit Block Eric 2009 Garlic and other alliums the lore and the science Cambridge Royal Society of Chemistry ISBN 978 0 85404 190 9 Brewster J L 2008 Onions and Other Alliums CABI Publishing ISBN 978 1 84593 399 9 Davies D 1992 Alliums The Ornamental Onions Timber Press ISBN 978 0 88192 241 7 Linnaeus C 1753 Species Plantarum exhibentes plantas rite cognitas ad genera relatas cum differentiis specificis nominibus trivialibus synonymis selectis locis natalibus secundum systema sexuale digestas Stockholm Impensis Laurentii Salvii Retrieved 27 September 2016 Rabinowitch H D Currah L 2002 Allium Crop Sciences Recent Advances CABI Publishing ISBN 978 0 85199 510 6 Quattrocchi Umberto 1999 CRC world dictionary of plant names common names scientific names eponyms synonyms and etymology Boca Raton FL CRC Press ISBN 978 0 8493 2673 8 Woodward P 1996 Garlic and Friends The History Growth and Use of Edible Alliums Hyland House ISBN 978 1 86447 009 3 Chapters Edit Fritsch RM Friesen N Evolution domestication and taxonomy pp 5 30 in Rabinowitch amp Currah 2002 Articles Edit Banfi Enrico Galasso Gabriele Soldano Adriano 1 September 2011 Notes on systematics and taxonomy for the Italian vascular flora 2 Natural History Sciences Milan 152 2 85 106 doi 10 4081 nhs 2011 85 von Berg Gerlinde Linne Samoylov Alexander Klaas Manfred Hanelt Peter September 1996 Chloroplast DNA restriction analysis and the infrageneric grouping of Allium Alliaceae Plant Systematics and Evolution 200 3 4 253 261 doi 10 1007 bf00984939 S2CID 12751231 Choi Hyeok Jae Giussani Liliana M Jang Chang Gee Oh Byoung Un Cota Sanchez J Hugo June 2012 Systematics of disjunct northeastern Asian and northern North American Allium Amaryllidaceae Botany 90 6 491 508 doi 10 1139 b2012 031 Deniz Ismail Gokhan Genc Ilker Sari Duygu 9 June 2015 Morphological and molecular data reveal a new species of Allium Amaryllidaceae from SW Anatolia Turkey Phytotaxa 212 4 283 292 doi 10 11646 phytotaxa 212 4 4 Dubouzet J G Shinoda K Murata N 17 December 1997 Phylogeny of Allium L subgenus Rhizirideum G Don ex Koch Wendelbo according to dot blot hybridization with randomly amplified DNA probes Theoretical and Applied Genetics 95 8 1223 1228 doi 10 1007 s001220050685 S2CID 33083704 Fragman Sapir Ori Fritsch Reinhard M 2011 New species of Allium sect Melanocrommyum from the eastern Mediterranean PDF Herbertia 65 31 50 Friesen N Fritsch R Bachmann K 1997 Hybrid origin of some ornamentals of Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum verified with GISH and RAPD Theoretical and Applied Genetics 95 8 1229 1238 doi 10 1007 s001220050686 S2CID 21554910 Friesen Nikolai Fritsch Reinhard M Pollner Sven Blattner Frank R 2000 Molecular and Morphological Evidence for an Origin of the Aberrant Genus Milula within Himalayan Species of Allium Alliacae Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 17 2 209 218 doi 10 1006 mpev 2000 0844 PMID 11083935 Friesen N Fritsch RM Blattner Frank R 2006 Phylogeny and new intrageneric classification of Allium Alliaceae based on nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS sequences Aliso 22 372 395 doi 10 5642 aliso 20062201 31 Retrieved 13 October 2015 Fritsch RM Gurushidze M Jedelska J Keusgen M 2006 More than a pretty face ornamental drumstick onions of Allium subg Melanocrommyum are also potential medicinal plants Herbertia 60 26 59 Fritsch RM Blattner FR Gurushidze M 2010 New classification of Allium L subg Melanocrommyum Webb amp Berthel Rouy Alliaceae based on molecular and morphological characters Phyton 49 145 220 Retrieved 13 October 2015 Gurushidze Maia Fuchs Jorg Blattner Frank R 1 March 2012 The Evolution of Genome Size Variation in Drumstick Onions Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum Systematic Botany 37 1 96 104 doi 10 1600 036364412X616675 S2CID 85838253 Hirschegger Pablo Jaske Jernej Trontelj Peter Bohanec Borut 2010 Origins of Allium ampeloprasum horticultural groups and a molecular phylogeny of the section Allium Allium Alliaceae Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 54 2 488 497 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2009 08 030 PMID 19733249 Huang De Qing Yang Jing Tian Zhou Chun Jing Zhou Song Dong He Xing Jin 21 December 2013 Phylogenetic reappraisal of Allium subgenus Cyathophora Amaryllidaceae and related taxa with a proposal of two new sections Journal of Plant Research 127 2 275 286 doi 10 1007 s10265 013 0617 8 PMID 24362461 S2CID 15531719 Ipek Meryem Ipek Ahmet SIMON Philipp W 2014 Testing the utility of matK and ITS DNA regions for discrimination of Allium species Turkish Journal of Botany 38 203 212 doi 10 3906 bot 1308 46 Li R J Shang Z Y Cui T C Xu J M 1996 Studies on karyotypes and phylogenetic relationship of Allium sect Caloscordum Liliaceae from China Acta Phytotax Sin 34 288 295 In Chinese Li Q Q Zhou S D He X J Yu Y Zhang Y C Wei X Q 21 October 2010 Phylogeny and biogeography of Allium Amaryllidaceae Allieae based on nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and chloroplast rps16 sequences focusing on the inclusion of species endemic to China Annals of Botany 106 5 709 733 doi 10 1093 aob mcq177 PMC 2958792 PMID 20966186 Nguyen Nhu H Driscoll Heather E Specht Chelsea D 2008 A molecular phylogeny of the wild onions Allium Alliaceae with a focus on the western North American center of diversity Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 47 3 1157 1172 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2007 12 006 PMID 18226928 A Samoylov N Friesen S Pollner P Hanelt Use of chloroplast DNA polymorphisms for the phylogenetic study of Allium subgenus Amerallium and subgenus Bromatorrhiza Alliaceae II Feddes Repertorium Volume 110 Issue 1 2 Pages 103 109 1999 Seregin Alexey P Anackov Goran Friesen Nikolai May 2015 Molecular and morphological revision of the Allium saxatile group Amaryllidaceae geographical isolation as the driving force of underestimated speciation Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 178 1 67 101 doi 10 1111 boj 12269 Sykorova E Fajkus J Meznikova M Lim K Y Neplechova K Blattner F R Chase M W Leitch A R 1 June 2006 Minisatellite telomeres occur in the family Alliaceae but are lost in Allium American Journal of Botany 93 6 814 823 doi 10 3732 ajb 93 6 814 PMID 21642143 Tzanoudakis Dimitris Trigas Panayiotis 12 March 2015 Allium occultum a new species of A sect Codonoprasum Amaryllidaceae from Skiros Island W Aegean Greece Phytotaxa 202 2 135 doi 10 11646 phytotaxa 202 2 5 Wheeler E J Mashayekhi S McNeal D W Columbus J T Pires J C 26 March 2013 Molecular systematics of Allium subgenus Amerallium Amaryllidaceae in North America American Journal of Botany 100 4 701 711 doi 10 3732 ajb 1200641 PMID 23535771 Zubaida Yousaf Zabta Khan Shinwari Rizwana ALEEM Qureshi Mir Ajab Khan Syed Shahinshah Gilani 2004 Can complexity of the genus Allium L be resolved through some numerical techniques PDF Pak J Bot 36 3 487 501 Retrieved 28 January 2015 Websites Edit Linnaeus Sexual System CronkLab Biodiversity Research Centre University of British Columbia Retrieved 26 January 2015 Allium World Checklist of Selected Plant Families Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Retrieved 9 January 2017 DutchGrown Alliums Pacific Bulb Society Allium Pacific Bulb Society Rhizomatous AlliumsExternal links Edit Media related to Allium at Wikimedia Commons Allium At Index Nominum Genericorum At References At NMNH Department of Botany Bloomsta com Florist Community Reinhard M Fritsch Checklist of ornamental Allium species and cultivars currently offered in the trade 2015 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Allium amp oldid 1159619605, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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